One of the biggest challenges for multilingual societies lies in ensuring equitable

social prospects for all inhabitants. This equitable approach to social structures is
complicated by the relationship between language, literacy and education, and
opportunities for social, citizenship and economic advancement. Access or a lack of
access to a dominant language often creates hierarchies in societies, and minority,
rural, and disadvantaged groups are often excluded from the full benefits of a
prosperous society because they are not able to fully participate in their community.
Language differences come then to carry the weight of ethnic and cultural
differences, but those with limited access to the dominant language can also be
burdened with socio-economic disadvantages. Language is a factor in conflict in
several key ways. Some of these are overt and evident, while others are
camouflaged. This is because language is both an expression of identity, as well as
a tool to access cultural, symbolic, political and material resources. Academic
language is the source of childrens advances in literacy and education (Tochon
2014), while specialized language enables adults to enter trades, occupational or
professional fields. Language is also the means through which narratives of nation
building are produced, so it plays a critical role in providing people with access to
citizenship and political engagement and participation. Another key role for
language is in the dissemination and perpetuation of culture and religion. As
language and language-related decisions can be used to include or exclude people,
they are key determinants in marginalization, but, also in social cohesion and
breaking down societal barriers. Existing language related tensions can then be
exacerbated further by failing to discuss problems openly and respectfully, leading
to further feelings of marginalization and cultural minimization.

Refusal to acknowledge differences in language and cultural identity of minority

populations, and more extremely, efforts to suppress or deny them, can provoke
social minority alienation, interethnic suspicion, hostility and tension. Sustained
over time, these erosions of social cohesion can damage social relations and
produce conflict and even violence. There is an emerging consensus globally that
recognition of cultural diversity and language rights for the component parts of a
country serve to enhance identification with the wider national community (see,
e.g., Banks 2006; Kymlicka and Pattern 2003).

The term social cohesion is used with a range of different meanings, but three
elements are common, if not universal. According to recent discussion of this field,
the OECD (2011, p. 17) identifies these common elements as social inclusion, social
capital and social mobility and argues that: A cohesive society works towards the
well-being of all its members, fights exclusion and marginalization, creates a sense
of belonging, promotes trust, and offers its members the opportunity of upward
mobility. Social cohesion in multi-ethnic, multi-lingual and multi-faith societies
poses special problems in addition to economic ones, though poverty and
marginalization always affect health, income and other kinds of social cohesion.
Specifically focused on this dimension of social cohesion is its conceptualization by
the Canadian Federal government. Social cohesion is defined as the willingness of
members of a society to cooperate with each other in order to survive and prosper.
Willingness to cooperate means they freely choose to form partnerships and have a
reasonable chance of realizing goals, because others are willing to cooperate and
share the fruits of their endeavours equitably (Stanley 2003, p. 5).