Sediments and Sedimentary Rocks Notes 9/08/2016

Sedimentary rocks form from:

1. Consolidation of loose sediment.
2. By chemical or biochemical precipitation
Clastic: Def. - Broken Of

Burial and Compaction

- Weight packs grains and fluids move out, which reduces the porosity and
permeability of a rock.
- Porosity: measure of pore space of a rock.
- Permeability: ability for a liquid for permeate a rock.

Cementation/Anthogenesis
- Precipitates form in pores.
- Two most common cements are quartz and calcite.

Precipitation
- Directly out of water, most common halite or gypsum.

Recrystallization
- Some grains dissolve though solutioning and reprecipitation of minerals.

Sediment Types
- 1. Clastic: Weathered Partials: Solid
- 2. Chemical Precipitates: Ions in solution
- 3. Organics: Living materials such as: crushed shells, crushed or uncrushed
corals, plankton, and plants: Bioprecipitates.
- CaCo3 (calcareous) + SIO2 (siliceous) = most common minerals for skeletal
structures of shells, coral, etc.

Sorting, Angularity, and Maturity

- The longer a sediment is being moved though water, the rounder it is.

What Controls Settling Velocities? (Stokes Law)

- Grain size, larger grains drop first
- Grain shape, course minerals drop first
- Denser minerals sink faster
- The diferent dinking rates create the diferent colors, sizes, and composition
of the sedimentary layers.

Clastic Rocks:
Grain sizes and shape:
Maturity increases down the list
- Breccia (angular)
- Conglomerate (rounded)
- Arkose (feldspar)
- Sandstone (quartz)
- Siltstone
- Shale (clays)
Nonclastics:
- Limestone: CaCO3
- Chert: SiO2
- Salt: NaCl
- Gypsum: CaSO4 2H20
- Coal (organic debris)

Foraminifera Calcareous Tests

- Coccoliths and Forams indicators of WARM WATER.
- Radiolarians and Diatoms indicators of COLD WATER.

Fossiliferous Limestone
- Ammonites, Pelecypods, Oysters, and Microfossils

Sedimentary Structures
- When sediments get deposited, certain patterns develop that are useful for
us to discover things like ancient shorelines/rivers.
- Bedding
- Cross-beds
- Ripples
- Mudcracks
- Burrows
- Bioturbation: Biological activity Mixes Up sediment.
- Skolithos: Simple Straight Tubes
- Ophiomorpha: Burrow with pelleted walls

Coprolite: fossilized feces.

Stratigraphic UP Indicators
- Cross-bedding
- Ripple marks
- Mudcracks
- Raindrops

Migrating Rivers/Point Bar: Create Fining-Upward Package.

Source Rock: Darker Shales good for oil.

Best Rock for Reservoirs: Sandstone

Kerogen= a solid, waxy hydrocarbon

NOTES 9/20/16
Metamorphic Rocks

Metamorphism and Metamorphic Rocks

- Metamorphism: Change of form and composition of rock due to Pressure
and Temperature.
- New minerals and textures formed.
 - Metamorphic Rock: rock recrystallizes in solid state.

Metamorphic Processes
- Temperature: New minerals stable at new temps.
- Pressure: Either directed stress or uniform stress.
- Fluids: aid the exchange of ions in the Solid State.
- Mineral sizes increase OR decrease.
- Minerals reoriented + recrystallized = new textures (foliation +
lineation).
-
Types of Metamorphism
1. Regional: Widespread Temperature + Pressure increases at depth due to
geothermal gradient + tectonic forces.
2. Contact: Intrusion of magma against colder (Country) Rocks. [Thermal]
baked zone chill margin.
3. Dynamic: Due to folding + Faulting
4. Impact: Sudden Impact, Meteorite Impact.

Metamorphism
- Grade: Intensity of
- Prograde: Increase in temp
- Retrograde: Decrease in temp
- Parent Rock: Original Rock (protolith)

Head on collisions have high pressure, but temperature is low.

Creates Glaucophane: A blue amphibole

Rieckes Principal:
- As Pressure increases, solubility increases.

Slope Stability Factors

- The Main Force is Gravity.
- Composition plus Structure
- Amount of water that is in the rock, groundwater, and pore spaces. Water
adds weight.
- Angle of Slope. Steeper = More unstable.
- Presence or Absence of Vegetation.

Triggering Mechanisms
- Overload a slope with extra weight. (Building Homes on a slope)
- Undercutting a slope (Cutting out a section of a hill to build a building)
- Vibration
- Add water (mudslides due to bursts of heavy rain)
- Roles of Water
- Adds weight
- Weathers Physical and Chemical
- Acts as lubricant and buoyant
- Water is BAD!!!
- Fires and deforestation increases erosion by exposing looser soils
Mass Movement Types
- Falls (fissured rock succumbs to gravity)
- Flows (rock flow, debris flow, mud flow)
- Slides (rock slide)
- Slumps (common in Ellis County area and near Ellsworth)
- Creep (costs us the most money to fix because it happens everywhere)
- Solifluction (creeping in the permafrost region. Caused by melting of
permafrost once a year.)
- Subsidence (Related Subcategory)
- Hydrocompaction
- Fluid removal
- Solutioning (Solid Materials Totally Dissolved)
- Mining (salt, coal, anything)
- Organic Shrinkage (wetlands)

Liquifaction
- Wet sands or clays turn to liquid when shaken.

Mitigation
- Fixing
- Rock Bolts
- Wire Nets
- Shotcrete
- Terracing
- Gambiona
- Rockshed
- Tunnels
- Retaining Walls

River System Parts

- Alluvium: Channel and floodplain deposits of gravel, sand, and clay.

Three Loads
- Transportation of the load by a stream
- Solution: material dissolved in the water
- Saltation: Bouncing
- Suspension: Lifting and carrying
- Traction: Pushing, rolling, or sliding load along the bottom of the channel

Rivers ERODE
1. Hydraulic
2. Scouring
3. Solution

Stream Gradient: Vertical drop over horizontal distance

Stream Types
1. Braided Streams: Sediment greater than amount stream can carry. Steeper
gradient + coarser grains.
 - Wide channel, narrow floodplain
- Features: Sand and gravel bars
- Glacial, desert, and mountain regions
2. Meandering Streams: Sediment in equilibrium
- Gentle gradients, fine-grains
- Wide floodplain, narrow channel
- Lateral migration: Erosion on outside plus deposition on inside.
- Fining-upward package: Mud rock, often red with calcareous nodules
deposited by vertical floodplain.

Discharge: width times depth times velocity

- Volume passing given point over given time [m3/s
- Stream gauges USGS

Flooding:
- Past
- Flooding Frequency
- Mitigation

How to reduce runoff?

- Retention ponds: 27th street in Hays
- Contour plowing; terracing
- Strip planting: mulching

Flood Mitigation
- Levees: FHSU Big Creek
- Channelization: Build Cutofs
- Flood walls and gates
- Establish flood zone laws
- Rick assessment GIS and Remote sensing
- Displaces problem downstream

Alluvial Fans: Land-locked deltas

Delta Types: All deltas produce Coarsening-upward packages

- Fluvially: (river dominated)
- Wave
- Tide (can move water upstream)

Ground Water Part 1

Where Can We Get More Water?

- Rivers, Lakes, and Swamps
- Groundwater
- Recycling (union ice machine waste water)
- Desalination ($20 Million per Unit)
- Icebergs (future source?
- Remote Sensing

Meteoric Water: water closest to surface in the groundwater.

Connate Water: Trapped underground for a long time.
Hydrogeology: The study of Groundwater
Groundwater: Largest source of economically available fresh water for humans!
Biggest Uses: Irrigation (40%) Thermoelectric (40%)

Groundwater Terms
- Zone of aeriation: Zone of soil and rock filled mostly with air.
- Zone of saturation: Zone filled with water
- Water table: area in between
- Porosity [P]: Total pore space. Percent of pore space = Capacity to store
water.
- Permeability: [p]: Fluid speed though poor space = Capacity to transmit fluid.
- Gravel = medium to high Porosity, high Permeability.
- Sand = high Porosity, low Permeability.
- Clay = high Porosity, low Permeability.
- Aquifer: Material with High Porosity and Permeability.
- Aquitard: Material retards Flow Medium Porosity and Permeability.
- Aquiclude: Material excludes flow Low Porosity and Permeability.

Infiltration Rates Controlled By

- Rate and Type of Precipitation.

Movement Rates
- Slow: 10 Centimeters per day
- Very Slow: 100 Centimeters per day

Artesian Well and springs

- A well in which the water rises ABOVE the Aquifer.
- There can be NONFLOWING artesian wells.

Water Quality
- Ok to have in water: Na, Ca, Cl, SO4, HCO3, Fe
- Not ok to have in water: Pb, Se, Cr, As, Hg
- E. coli (Bacteria)
- Giardia lamblia (parasite like at Spanish Peaks Scout Ranch)
- Cryptosporium
- (potentially) Terrorism
- Sand best for cleaning plumes, especially sewage and bacteria. (I.e
Sandstone can help purify sewage)
- Leachate
- Caveat Emptor: Let the buyer beware.

LNAPL: Light
DNAPL: Dense
Perc: Dense
BTEX: gasoline, chemical byproducts

Hays Water Sources

- Smoky Hill River South of Hays 60%
 - Big Creek 40%
- Dakota Sandstone - 5% max
- Air Strippers (costly)
- Arkansas River (Edwards county. Costly and Kansas Water Transfer Act)
- Smoky Hill River (south of Russell)
- Lake Wilson or Kanapolis (costly)
- Cedar Bluf Reservoir (costly and drama)
- Litigation

You will find a mound of recharge under a landfill

Basic Water Doctrines

Riparian: landowner has 1st rights, state controls most, more QUALITY problems than
quantity in Easter United States
Rior Approprapriation: Holder need not be riparian, may have no rights. Its the First
Person to USE or DIVERT

Pleistocene Epoch
- 30% of Earth glaciated
- Today 10%

Glacier Types
- Alpine: In mountains, jagged landforms, U-shaped valleys.
- Continental: Covers large areas and Smooths the land. Transports sediment.

Ice is always moving downhill.

Glacial Surges
- Ice surged and hit land bridge and marine mammals were caught in
freshwater until water level raised high enough to breach glacier.
- Jokulhlaup: Glacial outburst flood

Glacial Erosion
- Abrasion: Grooves, striations + Polish

Hanging Valleys and Waterfalls

Glacial deposits terms

- Drift: Till
- Moraines: ridges of till
- Erratics: Ice rafted

Long Island is a moraine Ronkonkoma Moraine

Only extreme Northeast Kansas was glaciated (Johnson, Shawnee, Douglas,
Wyandotte, etc.)

Pluvial Lakes = Rain Lakes (Lake Lahontan Lake Bonneville Death Valley etc.)

Causes of Ice Ages

- Earths Orbit (astronomy) Milankovitch.
 - Changes in the atmosphere.
- Changing in position of the continents.
- Changes in circulation of sea water.
- Sliding of Antarctic Ice Sheet.
- NO SINGE ONE EXPLAIN ALL ICE AGES

Eccentricity of Orbit 100,000 years cycle

Earth enters dust zone every 100,000 years.
Axis Tilt (obliquity) to Orbit 41,000 years.
The Wobble 26,000 years

Melting of Glaciers
- Demographics
- Agriculture
- Forests
- Fisheries
- Water Supplies
- Energy Production
- Transportation and Shipping Routes
- Weather

Mapping the Seafloor

- Echo sounding profiles
- Seismic
- Side-scan sonar: gathers more data faster
- Manned and unmanned submersibles (robotic)
- Jason 3 Satellite commissioned by NOAA: Super High Resolution Map: How
plates move.
- Subduction: Plate Dives Down
- Obduction: Plate forced up

Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute: ALVIN-WHOIs Mini-Sub

Active Smokers: Chemosynthetic Communities
Hydrotherman Vents
Hydrocarbon Vents
Hydrocarbon Seeps
Hypersaline Seeps
Subduction Zone Seeps

Marine Sediment Types

Terrigenous: From the land
Biochemical: Shells marine organisms
Manganese Nodules

Methane Hydrates
- Is release a cause for recent warming? Past Warming?
- Drilling Danger

Bob Ballard: Researcher who is famous for finding the titanic

Earthquakes
- Fault: Rocks Rupture
- Earthquake: Vibration
- Seismology: Study Of Quakes
- Seismometer: Instrument that measures quake vibration
- Epicenter: Spot on earth in center of radius

Seismoscopes
- Chinese built ancient and faulty machines to measure earth quakes

2 Body Wave Forms

- P-waves (Compressional, primary) Vibrates parallel to direction of movement
of wave front.

BPD: Bottom Pressure Recorders Very Expensive Measures Pressure and sends
data to Satelites.

Quake Dangers:
- Ground Movement (Fire: Burn Sufocate)
- Tsunamis
- Landslides
- Liquefaction
- Floods (dam failure)

Prediction
- Tiltmeters
- Creepmeters
- Animal Behavior
- Dilatancy
- Study old faults
- GPS
- Remote sensing SRI

Outer part of the earth

- Older terms are Crust and Mantle
- MoHo: Boundary between crust and mantle.

Crust: Granitic (felsic) and basaltic (mafic). Basaltic associated with ocean crust.
Mantle: Ultramafic
Outer Core: Liquid Iron
Inner Core: Solid Iron

Earths Internal Heat

- Original heat of formation
- Conduction
- Convection
- Radioactive Decay (gives of heat)

Seismic Tomography
- Color-coded zones of diferent heaths (red hot, blue cold, etc.)
Measurement
- Declination: Horizontal angle between magnetic North and True (grid) North
- Inclination: Angle made with the horizontal (tilt -67 degrees North in Hays)

Paleomagnetism
- Earths Magnetic Field is a DIAPOLE (Has a positive and negative pole)
- Iron afected by magnetic field. When magnetite cools below Currie
Temperature in magnetic field, Iron aligns to that magnetic field.

Paleomagnetism and Reversals

- Record of field at time rock formed
- Show Polarity Changes in the data
- Used to study past plate motions

Spinner Magnetometer: used to measure

Geomagnetic Time Scale

- Magnetic character of rocks of KNOWN AGE
- Magnetostatigraphy

Dinosaur in Thomanic found in Utah in the San Rafael Swell on Little Cedar Mountain

Coprolites: Fossil Feces

Gastroliths: Gizzard Stones

Palentology
- Study of past life based on fossilized plants and animals (greater than
10,000) years
- Fossil: Remains of traces of prehistoric life
- Preserved in Sedements Rocks Used For Relative Age and Environment of
desposition.

Two Dating Modes

- Relative Dating
- Radiometric Dating

Relative Time
- Sedimentary and Volcani-clastic rocks
- Nicolaus Steno (1669) Principles

Uniformitarianism
- The present is the key to the past.

Actualism: Natural laws do not change however, rates and intensity of

processes vary.

Index Fossils (biostratigraphy)

- Short-Lived (came into existence and died in a relatively short period)
Fossil Succession (fauna and Flora)
- Assemblages fallow (succeed) on another though time in a regular and
determinable order.

Unconformities
- Buried Surfaces of Past Erosion of Non-Deposition
- Types: Disconformity, Angular Disconformity and Non Disconformity

Angular: Buildup of rocks, three layers, crumple three layers, fold together, erode all
of the top, rocks tilted at diferent angles.

Continents
- Made by ACCRETION and deformed by plate motion
- OLDER than oceanic lithosphere
- Lithosphere floats on a viscous asthenosphere (isostasy).

Deformation of continental crust

- Orogeny: Mountain building event (deformation, metamorphism, magmatism,
uplift, and erosion)

Continental Crust
- Granitic-andesitic: 30-70 km thick
- Complex structures: 4 Billion Years Old

Major Zones:
1. Shields
2. Craton
3. Fold Belts

Mountain Belts
- Narrow zones of folded rocks and associated magmatism
- Mainly at convergent boundaries
- Anticline and Synclines age of in core area
- Anticlines bulge upwards, synclines downwards

North American Mountain Types

- Folded: Appalachians and Rockies
- Fault Block: Basin and Range
- Upwarped: Adirondacks
- Volcanic: Cascades

Sideways movement is a Strike-slip fault

Normal Fault the hanging wall moves down

Microplates: Displaces exotic terranes

Remember Wrangellia

Example Orgenies
- Taconic Orogeny Taconia
- First event of Appalachian Mountains
- Late Ordovician period