TITLE: DESIGN OF A 275 T/DAY CEMENT PROCESSING PLANT USING PULVERISED

COAL ASH

BY: MHLANGA COMFORT .K.

REG NUMBER: H1214225D

SUPERVISER: MR CHITAMBWE

THIS CAPSTONE PROGRESS REPORT WAS SUBMITTED TO HARARE INSTITUTE OF

TECHNOLOGY IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
(HONOURS) DEGREE IN CHEMICAL AND PROCESS SYSTEM ENGINEERING

2015

MHLANGA COMFORT HIT 400 Page 1

 TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER FIVE PROCES DESIGN ............................................................................................. 6

5.1 Block flow diagram ............................................................................................................... 6

5.2 Process description ................................................................................................................ 7

5.3 Material balance .................................................................................................................... 9

5.3.1 Fundamentals of mass balance ....................................................................................... 9

5.3.2 Mass Balance over grinder ............................................................................................. 9

5.3.3 Mass balance over a dryer ............................................................................................ 10

5.3.4 Mass balance over the kiln ........................................................................................... 11

11

5.3.5 Mass Balance over ball mill ......................................................................................... 12

5.4 Energy balance .................................................................................................................... 13

5.4.1 Balance across the grinding section ............................................................................. 13

5.4.2 Balance across the dryer .............................................................................................. 14

5.4.3 Heat balance across the preheater ................................................................................ 15

5.4.4 Heat balance over the kiln ............................................................................................ 18

5.4.6 Energy required for grinding clinker ........................................................................... 20

5.5 Process flow chart ............................................................................................................... 21

5.6: Piping and instrumentation diagram .................................................................................. 22

CHAPTER SIX: Equipment design .............................................................................................. 23

6.1 Rotary kiln........................................................................................................................... 23

6.2 Design Considerations ........................................................................................................ 23

6.3 Refractory lining material ................................................................................................... 23

6.4 Tyres.................................................................................................................................... 24

6.5 Drive gear ............................................................................................................................ 24

MHLANGA COMFORT HIT 400 Page 2

 6.6 Internal heat exchangers...................................................................................................... 25

6.6.1 Kiln slope ..................................................................................................................... 25

6.6.2 Kiln Diameter ............................................................................................................... 25

6.6.3 Kiln speed .................................................................................................................... 25

6.6.4 Kiln length.................................................................................................................... 25

6.6.5 Heat loads ..................................................................................................................... 26

6.6.6 Heat loss per unit area in the furnace ........................................................................... 26

6.7 Mechanical design of a rotary kiln ...................................................................................... 27

6.7.1 Kiln shell material ........................................................................................................ 27

6.7.2 Thickness of the kiln shell ........................................................................................... 27

6.7.3 Thermal expansion of the kiln shell ............................................................................. 27

6.7.4 Stress Analysis ............................................................................................................. 28

6.8 BALL MILL DESIGN ........................................................................................................ 31

6.8.1 Mill shell size: .............................................................................................................. 31

6.8.2 Basic considerations:.................................................................................................... 31

6.8.3 Mill shell thickness ...................................................................................................... 31

6.8.4 Material of construction ............................................................................................... 32

6.8.5 Mill bearings ................................................................................................................ 32

6.8.6 Loss of efficiency by generating heat in mill feed ....................................................... 33

6.8.7 Loss by radiation through mill shell ............................................................................ 33

6.8.8 Losses by heating the mill vent air............................................................................... 34

6.8.9 Ball mill centrifugal force ............................................................................................ 34

6.8.10 Critical mill speed ...................................................................................................... 35

6.9: References .............................................................................................................................. 39

MHLANGA COMFORT HIT 400 Page 3

 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: Block flow diagram ......................................................................................................... 6

Figure 2: Mass balance around the grinder ..................................................................................... 9
Figure 3: Mass balance over a dryer ............................................................................................. 10
Figure 4: Mass balance over the kiln ............................................................................................ 11
Figure 5: Mass balance over the ball mill ..................................................................................... 12
Figure 6: Heat balance around a dryer .......................................................................................... 14
Figure 7: Heat balance around a preheater .................................................................................... 15
Figure 8: Heat balance over a kiln ................................................................................................ 18
Figure 9: Process flow diagram .................................................................................................... 21
Figure 10: Piping and Instrumentation diagram ........................................................................... 23
Figure 11: Refractory lining of the rotary kiln in 3D .................................................................... 24
Figure 12: 3D drawing of a rotary kiln ......................................................................................... 30
Figure 13: 3D drawing of a ball mill............................................................................................. 37
Figure 14: Shell with steel metal balls .......................................................................................... 38

MHLANGA COMFORT HIT 400 Page 4

 LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Overall mass balance per day ......................................................................................... 12

Table 2: Composition of the kiln exit gas ..................................................................................... 16
Table 3: Design parameters of rotary kiln .................................................................................... 28
Table 4: Shell thickness ................................................................................................................ 31
Table 5: Decision matrix ............................................................................................................... 33
Table 6: Ball mil design parameters ............................................................................................. 36

MHLANGA COMFORT HIT 400 Page 5

CHAPTER FIVE PROCES DESIGN

Introduction

This chapter uses results obtained from experimental data and design assumption are then made.
The process flow diagram (PFD), block flow diagram (BFD) are thus made .Major pieces of
equipment are clearly shown in the BFD, PFD and P &ID. The material and heat balance of the
whole process was made.

5.1 Block flow diagram

Figure 1: Block flow diagram

MHLANGA COMFORT HIT 400 Page 6

5.2 Process description

Portland cement is manufactured in the following process steps:

STEP 1: Raw material collection

Clay is quarried and brought to the cement manufacturing plant. It contains silica (SiO2), alumina
(Al2O3) and ferrous oxide (Fe2O3). Pulverized coal ash from thermal power plants that contains
calcium oxide (CaO) is also brought to the cement works. These are the raw materials of Portland
cement manufacture.

STEP 2: Raw material preparation

Raw materials are mixed with definite proportions to obtain the raw mix. The raw materials are
changed to powder form in the presence of water. The raw materials are placed in a rotary steel
cylinder with hardened steel balls which crush the raw materials to form liquid mixture slurry.
Then the slurry is passed through vibrating screens to obtain fine particles to increase the efficiency
of the reaction. The slurry is passed into storage tanks where correct proportions are done
(blending).
STEP 3: Preheating

The slurry is passed into a dyer at 130 degrees to remove the moisture. The dried raw mix is fed
into a preheater from top by air pressure. The hot gas from the kiln enters the preheater from the
bottom. The powdered raw mix slides down through cyclones and comes in contact with hot air
which travels from top to bottom. The temperature of the hot gas when it enters the preheater is
about 900 degrees and exit at 315 degrees.

STEP 4: Clinkering

The heated raw mix is fed into a rotary kiln at 70 degrees. At this stage the raw materials reacts at
high temperatures of about 1400 degrees to form tri calcium silicate, dia calcium silicate, tri
calcium aluminate and tetra calcium alumino-ferrate. The hot clinker from the kiln discharge is
cooled very quickly in air with the help of efficient grate coolers. The temperature of clinker is
brought to 80C from 1400C. The reactions in the kiln are as follows:

MHLANGA COMFORT HIT 400 Page 7

100C dehydration zone (free water evaporates).

150-350C loosely bound water is lost from clay.

350-650C decomposition of clay (SiO2& Al2O3)

900C-1100C liquid formation and formation of initial compounds

1100 C-1400C clinkering zone.
Chemical reactions that takes place are:
1. Calcium oxide reacts with silicon dioxide to form tri calcium silicate and di
calcium silicate.
3CaO(s) + SiO2 (s) Ca3SiO5(l) (alite)
2CaO(s) +SiO2 (s) Ca2SiO5(s) (belite)
2. Calcium oxide reacts with aluminum oxide to form tri calcium aluminate.
3CaO(s) + Al2O3 (s) Ca3Al2O6(l)
3. Calcium oxide reacts with aluminum oxide and iron oxide to form tri calcium
aluminoferrite.
4CaO(s) + Al2O3 (s) +Fe2O3 Ca4Al2Fe2O10(l)

1400C-80C cooling zone (clinker leaves the kiln and falls into a cooler)

STEP 5: Cement grinding

Four percent of gypsum is added to the clinker and is pre crushed in a roller press and subsequently
fed into ball mill for fine grinding to give a grey pure Portland cement powder and is stored in a
multi compartment silo. This avoids intermixing of products.

STEP 6: Storing of cement

The final product is homogenized and stored in cement silos and dispatched from there to either a
packing station (for bagged cement) or to a silo truck

STEP 7: Packing of Portland cement

Portland cement is packed in HDPE bags having capacity of 50 Kgs and electronically controlled
and high efficiency rotary packers are used for packing.

MHLANGA COMFORT HIT 400 Page 8

STEP 8: Transportation of Portland cement

It is transferred to various locations as per the market requirement and stored in go down or
distribution points. This is distributed through trucks and by rail from the plant.

5.3 Material balance

Material balances are the basis of process design. A material balance taken over the complete
process was used to determine the quantities of raw materials required and products produced.
Balances over individual process units set the process stream flows and compositions. The plant
is intended to run in a continuous production cycle. The running of the plant will consists of three
eight hour shift to ensure that it runs 24 hours without need to stop.

5.3.1 Fundamentals of mass balance

The general conservation equation for the process system can be written as:
Material out = Material in + Generation - Consumption Accumulation
Accumulation =0 (steady state)
Generation =0 (no chemical reaction)
Therefore: Material out = Material in

5.3.2 Mass Balance over grinder

Basis: 1000 T/day of feed

WATER (M3)

80%PULVERISED 30%
COAL ASH (M1)

GRINDER SLURRY (M4)

20% CLAY (M2)

M2
Figure 2: Mass balance around the grinder

Total mass balance

M1+M2+M3 = M4

MHLANGA COMFORT HIT 400 Page 9

MI = 0.801000 T/day

MI = 800 T/day

M2 = 0.2010000 T/day

M2 = 200 T/day

M3 = 0.31000 T/day

M3 = 300T/day

Therefore M4 = M1+M2+M3

M4 = (800+200+300) T/day

M4 = 1300 T/day

5.3.3 Mass balance over a dryer

Assumptions

1. No accumulation

2. 98% efficiency

WATER (M5)

M2
SLURRY (M4)
DRYER DRIED RAW MEAL
M2 (M6)

M2

Figure 3: Mass balance over a dryer

Mass of water evaporated (M5) = 98% of M3

M5 = 0.98300 T/day

M5 = 294T/day

MHLANGA COMFORT HIT 400 Page 10

Total mass balance

M6 = M4-M5

M6 = (1300-294) T/day

M6 = 1006 T/day

5.3.4 Mass balance over the kiln

EMISSIONS
(M8)
DRIED RAW MEAL 1330.67T/day
(M6)

M2 KILN
CLINKER (M9)

FUEL (M10)
AIR (M7)
38.665T/day
550 T/day

Figure 4: Mass balance over the kiln

Emissions comprises of carbon dioxide, Sulphur dioxide, nitrogen, oxygen, water and kiln dust.

Amount of carbon dioxide produced = 176.25 T/day

Amount of Sulphur dioxide produced = 1.375 T/day

Amount of water produced = 26T/day

Amount of nitrogen gas produced = 566.75 T/day

Amount of oxygen produced = 550.75 T/day

Amount of dust produced = 9.5436 T/day

Therefore total amount emitted (M8) = 1264.67 T/day

Total mass balance

MHLANGA COMFORT HIT 400 Page 11

M7+M6+M10 = M9+M8

M9 = (1006+550+38.665-1330.67) T/day

M9 = 263.995 T/day

5.3.5 Mass Balance over ball mill

BALL MILL
CLINKER (M9) CEMENT (M12)

GYPSUM (M11)

4%

Figure 5: Mass balance over the ball mill

Amount of gypsum added (M11) = 0.04 M9

M11 = 0.04263.995 T/day

M11 = 10.560 T/day

Total mass balance

M11+M9 = M12

M12 = (10.560+263.995) T/day

M12 = 274.555 T/day

5.3.6 Overall mass balance per day

Table 1: Overall mass balance per day

Pulverised coal ash 800 Tons

MHLANGA COMFORT HIT 400 Page 12

 clay 200 Tons

water 300 Tons

fuel 39 Tons

air 550 Tons

gypsum 11 Tons

clinker 264 Tons

cement 275 Tons

5.4 Energy balance

Energy balances were carried out to determine the heating, cooling, and power requirements. The
balances were also carried out, to determine the suitable equipment for a highly effective
production, pattern of energy usage, and suggest areas for conservation and savings.

Assumptions for any open system

1) Work done is zero ( no moving parts)

2) Potential energy is zero
3) Kinetic energy is zero

Therefore, = + + reduces to:

5.4.1 Balance across the grinding section

Average size reduction of 50mm diameter coal ash to 20mm uses effective energy of 4kW now
for reduction of size from 20mm to 15mm:

Assuming that Rittingers law applies:

E = Kpfc [ (1/L2) (1/L1) ]

MHLANGA COMFORT HIT 400 Page 13

Thus 4 = Kpfc [ (1/20) (1/50) ]

Kpfc = 4/ [(1/20) (1/50)]

Kpfc = 133.33

E = 266.67 [(1/15) (1/20)]

E = 2.22 KW

5.4.2 Balance across the dryer

Pertinent information:

Cp(dried material) = 0.88Kj/kg0c

Cp(dry air) = 1.00 Kj/kg K

Cp(water) = 4180 J/kg0c

Water vapor (Qw)
Ambient temperature = 30

DRYER
Slurry (QS) 130 degrees Dried material (Qd)

Figure 6: Heat balance around a dryer

HEAT IN:

Heat in the Slurry (QS)

2

=
1
30

=
0

QS = 15.05kg/s0.88Kj/kg c (30-0) 0c
0

QS = 397.32 Kw

MHLANGA COMFORT HIT 400 Page 14

HEAT OUT:

a) Heat out with dried material

2

=
1

130

=
30

Qd = 11.64kg/s0.88Kj/kg0c (130-30) 0c

Qd = 1024.32Kw

b) Heat out with evaporated water

130

=
25

Qw = 3.4 kg/s4180J/kg0c (130-25) 0c

Qw = 1492.26 Kw

5.4.3 Heat balance across the preheater

Dried material (Qd) Exit gas (Qo)

130 degrees 315 degrees

PREHEATER

900 degrees

Inlet gas (Qi) Raw meal (Qm)

900 degrees

Figure 7: Heat balance around a preheater

MHLANGA COMFORT HIT 400 Page 15

HEAT IN:

Heat in with inlet gas (Qi)

=
1

Calculating Cp of the gas

Table 2: Composition of the kiln exit gas

Gas Volume fraction Weight fraction Weight %

oxygen 0.052 0.074 5.05

Carbon dioxide 0.2845 0.559 38.2

Carbon monoxide 0.0001 0.000125 0.0085

Nitrogen 0.0658 0.822 56.18

Water vapor 0.0055 0.00044 0.0003

Total 100 1.463 100

Therefore Cp is the sum of specific heat of individual gas.

5.05 38.2
Cp = (0.2184 + 30 427 106 ) + (0.196 + 118 427 106 ) 43 427
100 100
56.18
10^ 6) + (0.244 + 22 427 10^ 6)
100

= . /

=
1

MHLANGA COMFORT HIT 400 Page 16

 900

=
0

Qi = 15.40Kg/s 0.391Kca/kg0c (900-0)

Qi = 5419.26Kw

HEAT OUT:

a) Heat out with exit gas

=
1

315

=
0

Qo = 15.40Kg/s 0.391Kca/kg0c (315-0)

Qo = 1896.74Kw

b) Sensible heat of the kiln feed

Qm = m Cp (T-Tr)

Qm = 11.64kg/s0.88Kj/kg0c (900-130) 0c

Qm = 7881.26Kw

MHLANGA COMFORT HIT 400 Page 17

5.4.4 Heat balance over the kiln

Exhaust air (Qe)

Exit gas (Qeg) Dust (Qd)
275 degrees

Kiln
Raw meal (Qm) Clinker (Qc)
1400 degrees

Fuel (Qf) Cooling air (Qa)

40 degrees

Figure 8: Heat balance over a kiln

HEAT IN

a) Heat of clinker formation

Calculating heat of reaction from heats of formations

3CaO(s) + SiO2 (s) Ca3SiO5(l) (alite)

=
= (Ca3SiO5(l))-(SiO2 (s) )-3(CaO(s))
Hrxn = (2929.20 910.86 3(635.5))kJmol1
= .

2CaO(s) +SiO2 (s) Ca2SiO5(s) (belite)

= (Ca2SiO5(l))-(SiO2 (s) )-2(CaO(s))
Hrxn = (2307.5 910.86 2(635.5))kJmol1
= .
MHLANGA COMFORT HIT 400 Page 18
3CaO(s) + Al2O3 (s) Ca3Al2O6(l)
= (Ca3Al2O6(l))-3(CaO (s)- (Al2O3 (s) )
Hrxn = (3588.60 + 1669.8 3(635.5))kJmol1
= .

4CaO(s) + Al2O3 (s) +Fe2O3 Ca4Al2Fe2O10(l)

= (Ca4Al2Fe2O10(l)) -(Al2O3 (s) ) -4(CaO(s) (2O3(s))
Hrxn = (5092.89 + 1669.8 4(635.5) + 822.2)kJmol1
= .

b) Sensible heat of the fuel

Qf = 0.1258 (0.262 + (0.009 60)) (60 30)

Qf = 1.08 Kcal/kg clinker

c) Heat in cooling air

Qa = maCpa (Ta-Tr)

Qa = 6.64kg/s1.00 Kj/kg K (30-0) 0c

Qa = 199.20Kw

HEAT OUT

a) Heat loss in dust

=
1

315

=
30

MHLANGA COMFORT HIT 400 Page 19

Qd = 0.1 (0.186 + 0.000054 315) (315 30)

Qd = 5.78 Kcal/kg clinker

b) Heat loss in clinker exit cooler

=
1

Qe = 1.0 (0.186 + (0.000054 80)) (80 30)

Qe = 9.516 Kcal/kg clinker

c) Heat loss in cooler exhaust air

=
1

Qc = 1.13 1.293 (0.237 + (0.000023 215)) (215 30)

Qc = 65.53 Kcal/kg clinker

5.4.6 Energy required for grinding clinker

Average size reduction of 20mm diameter clinker to 10mm uses effective energy of 6kW now for
reduction of size from 10mm to 5mm:

Assuming that Rittingers law applies:

E = Kpfc [ (1/L2) (1/L1) ]

Thus 6 = Kpfc [ (1/10) (1/20) ]

Kpfc = 6/ [(1/10) (1/20)]

Kpfc = 120

E = 120 [(1/5) (1/10)]

E = 12 KW
MHLANGA COMFORT HIT 400 Page 20
5.5 Process flow chart

Figure 9: Process flow diagram

MHLANGA COMFORT HIT 400 Page 21

5.6: Piping and instrumentation diagram

The process will be controlled by a series of valves and sensors fitted onto the crucial parts of the
plant that need regulation. Flow, temperature and pressure are controlled in the process. The
diagram below shows the outline of the PID design embedded into the process flow outline.

V3 PRC
TRC T
E1
LC Hot gas P
TRC
Water
T
P1
E5
E7
E6
V1 FRC

FRC TRC T

E4
clay F1
Oversize Clinker

slurry E3
V2 E8 TRC
P2 F2

E2 Gypsum T
oversize
Pulverised
Coal ash

fines E9
KEY Pressure control Loop
E11
Flow control Loop E12 E10

Temperature control Loop FRC

EQUIPMENT EQUIPMENT NAME

NUMBER ABBREVIATION NAME
TRC TEMPERATURE RECORDING AND CONTROLLING air
E1 WATER TANK FRC FLOW RECORDING AND CONTROLLING
E2 GRINDER PRC PRESSURE RECORDING AND CONTROLLING
E3 VIBRATING SCREENS T TEMPERATURE SENSOR
E4 BLENDER P PRESSURE SENSOR
E5 DYER F FLOW METER DONE BY COMFORT K MHLANGA

E6 PREHEATER L LEVEL METER

SUPERVISOR Mr CHITAMBWE
E7 KILN LC LEVEL CONTROLLER

E8 GYPSUM STORAGE SILO PUMPS AND VALVES NAME DRAWING PIPE AND INSTRUMENTATION
E9 COOLER P1 WATER PUMP
P2 SLURY PUMP CAPSTONE DESIGN HIT 400
E10 BALL MILL
V1 DIAPHRAGM VALVE FOR WATER
E11 STATIC SEPARATOR V2 DIAPHRAGM VALVE FOR SLURRY DATE 25 FEBRUARY
E12 CEMENT SILO V3 RELIEF VALVES

MHLANGA COMFORT HIT 400 Page 22

Figure 10: Piping and Instrumentation diagram

CHAPTER SIX: Equipment design

This chapter presents a detailed equipment design of the rotary kiln and the ball mill. This chapter
is essential to realize the sizes and other specifications of the process equipment before their
physical construction.

6.1 Rotary kiln

It is a cylindrical vessel inclined slightly to the horizontal which is rotated slowly about its axis.
The material to be processed is fed into the upper end and may undergo a certain amount of mixing.
Hot gases pass along the kiln in opposite direction to the process material (counter current). Hot
gases are generated by a flame inside the kiln.
6.2 Design Considerations

The design considerations of a rotary kiln are:

1. Kiln slope
2. Kiln length
3. Kiln diameter
4. Heat load
5. Residence time
6. Volume loading
7. Material of construction
8. Refractory lining material.
6.3 Refractory lining material

Refractory bricks called andalusite based fire bricks are used in lining to insulate the steel shell
from the high temperatures inside the rotary kiln, and to protect it from the corrosive properties of
the process material. The refractory selected depends upon the temperature inside the kiln and the
chemical nature of the material being processed. The thickness of the lining is 200 mm.

MHLANGA COMFORT HIT 400 Page 23

Figure 11: Refractory lining of the rotary kiln in 3D

6.4 Tyres

Tyres called riding rings which consist of a single annular steel casting are attached loosely to the
kiln shell.

6.5 Drive gear

The rotary kiln is turned by means of a single Girth Gear surrounding a cooler part of the kiln tube.
The gear is connected through a gear train to a variable-speed electric motor and it has a high
starting torque in order to start the kiln with a large eccentric load.

MHLANGA COMFORT HIT 400 Page 24

6.6 Internal heat exchangers

The rotary kiln is often furnished with internal heat exchangers to encourage heat exchange
between the gas and the feed.

6.6.1 Kiln slope

To promote longitudinal travel of the solid the rotary kiln is mounted on a slope of 4%.
Slope = tan (Kiln slope)
Kiln slope = arc tan (slope)
Kiln slope = arc tan (o.04)
Kiln slope = 2.29 degrees

6.6.2 Kiln Diameter

The following rotary kiln slopes were found in cement plant operation handbook.
5% slope for kilns with diameters up to 2.8m
4% slope for kilns with diameter from 3-3.4m
3%slope for kilns with diameter above 3.4m
Therefore kiln slope of 4% the diameter of the kiln is taken to be:
Kiln diameter = 3.2m.
6.6.3 Kiln speed

Using the equation of filing level

3.2
% of filling level = 3

Assuming 16% filing level,

3.2275
Kiln speed = 3.23 2.2916

Kiln speed = 0.6 rpm

6.6.4 Kiln length

Using the formula

MHLANGA COMFORT HIT 400 Page 25

 t = 1.77 L
pdN
where,
t Residence time (mins)
L- Length of kiln (m)
p- Slope of kiln (degrees)
d- Diameter (m)
N-revolutions per minute
-angle of repose (degrees)
Therefore length is given by

L = 1.77

Taking t = 35, p=9, d=3.2, n= 0.6

L = 35 x 9 x 3.2x0.6
1.77 x 6

L= 56.01 m
6.6.5 Heat loads

Heat required in raising the feed to 14000C

Q = m Cp T
Q = 11.64kg/s x 0.88 kJ/kgoC x (1400-25)0C
Q = 14084 KJ

6.6.6 Heat loss per unit area in the furnace

N.B furnace is made up of 0.20m of firebrick and 0.10 m insulating brick.

Q = T1 T2
x1 / k1A
Where; Q = heat loss
T1and T2 = inside and outside temperatures
1200200
Q = 0.2 0.1
+
1.4 1.40.21

MHLANGA COMFORT HIT 400 Page 26

 Q = 72.58 W/m2
6.7 Mechanical design of a rotary kiln

Mechanical design of a rotary kiln is very important to consider as it shows analysis of the stresses
that act on the rotary kiln.

6.7.1 Kiln shell material

This is made from rolled mild steel plate welded to form a cylinder .Mild steel is used because of
its good thermal conductivity, resistant corrosion and can withstand high stresses.
6.7.2 Thickness of the kiln shell

Operating pressure = 1 atm

Operating temperature = 350 degrees
Diameter of the kiln = 3.2 meters
Design pressure at 5% above operating temperature
105
Design pressure = 1.013 105 N/m2
100

Design pressure = 1.064105 N/m2

Therefore the design stress for mild steel at is 841 MPa
design pressurediameter
Minimum thickness = 2(design stress)design pressure

1.064105 3.2
Thickness = 2(841106 )1.064105

Thickness = 200mm
6.7.3 Thermal expansion of the kiln shell

A = l
Where;
A-Thermal expansion of the kiln shell
linear expansion index for steel (0.000012mm/m)
l- Length (m)
T- Change in temperature

A = 0.000012(1000-25) 3.2 1000mm

A = 37.44 mm

MHLANGA COMFORT HIT 400 Page 27

6.7.4 Stress Analysis

The stresses that act on the rotary kiln are axial and compressive stresses

pDi
Axial stress = 4(tC) where;

p- Density of mild steel

Di inner diameter

t- Thickness

C- Corrosion allowance

Assuming a corrosion allowance of 3mm,

37582.8
Axial stress = 4(0.20.003)

Axial stress = 518.2 N/m2

Longitudinal stress due to pressure

PDi
= 4t

Where,

P- Design pressure

Di inner diameter

t- Thickness

2.8 1.064 105

=
4 0.2

Longitudinal stress due to pressure = 3.72 Pa

Table 3: Design parameters of rotary kiln

MHLANGA COMFORT HIT 400 Page 28

Kiln length 56.01m

Kiln diameter 3.02m

Kiln slope 4%

Kiln speed 0.6 rpm

Design pressure 1.064105 N/m2

Operating pressure 1 atm

Operating temperature 1000 -1400 degrees

Shell thickness 200mm

Heat load 14 084 KJ

Clinker production output 264tons/day

Kiln feed 1006 tons/day

Fuel requirements 39 tons/day

Material of lining Refractory brick lining

Material of construction Mild steel

MHLANGA COMFORT HIT 400 Page 29

Figure 12: 3D drawing of a rotary kiln

MHLANGA COMFORT HIT 400 Page 30

6.8 BALL MILL DESIGN

6.8.1 Mill shell size:

Mill should have minimal weight, this results out of predetermined length to diameter ratio of the
mill. This is facilitated by the ratio D (diameter)/L (length)

For two compartment mill (one partition), ratio = 3

6.8.2 Basic considerations:

Holding the mill length constant, while increasing diameter has

Higher power efficiency

Less floor space per unit capacity
Fewer submicron particles in the mill product
More oversize tramp particles
Lower steel wear rates per ton of product
Holding the mill diameter constant, the greater mill diameter provides;

Lower capital costs per installed horsepower

Fewer oversize tramp particles
More micron fines in mill product
Lower power efficiency
Opportunity for partitioning the mill cylinder

6.8.3 Mill shell thickness

It ranges from between (1/100) and (1/75) of the mil diameter depending upon the diameter and
length of the mill tube. The following shell thicknesses are being used.

Table 4: Shell thickness

Mill-tube diameter Shell thickness

MHLANGA COMFORT HIT 400 Page 31

 Up to 1.6m 18mm

1.6-2.0 20mm

2.0-2.2 25.5mm

2.2-2.4 28mm

2.5-3.5 38mm

3.5-4.25 52mm

4.25-4.50 58mm

5 63.5mm

6.4 85/75mm

Therefore taking Shell thickness of 38mm,

Mill-tube diameter = 3m

6.8.4 Material of construction

Steel sheets, Grade MRSt 37-2, fine grained structural steel which is easy to weld and it is resistant
to crack formation and fatigue.

6.8.5 Mill bearings

Sliding bearings

The resistance generated by friction in the roller bearing is the same as during the normal mill run,
this causes a significant reduction in breakaway torque. When sizing the bearing bushes it should
be considered that the bearing pressure should not exceed the following limits, for white metal
bearing metal (15-20kg/cm2) and for bronze (25-28kg/cm2)

Mill slide shoe bearing

MHLANGA COMFORT HIT 400 Page 32

Bearings used are mostly hydrodynamic bearings. Bearings with slide shoes or riding rings are
used for mills requiring a throughput of large volumes of hot gases thus avoiding a bottleneck for
the gas flow

Table 5: Decision matrix

Percentage rating Mill slide shoe Sliding bearing

bearing

ease of installation 30 25 30

Lowering effect on 25 25 20
mechanical stress

Effect on mill-tube 25 20 23
thickness

Cost of installation 20 10 15

TOTAL MARK 100 80 88

Therefore the decision reached is the use of sliding bearing.

6.8.6 Loss of efficiency by generating heat in mill feed

4590.185(9515)
Heat loss = 860

Heat loss = 197.2 kWh

6.8.7 Loss by radiation through mill shell

863 200
Heat loss by radiation = 860

Heat loss = 20kWh

MHLANGA COMFORT HIT 400 Page 33

6.8.8 Losses by heating the mill vent air

114590.35(4015)
Heat loss by heating mill vent air = 860

Heat loss = 36 .38kWh

6.8.9 Ball mill centrifugal force

The efficiency of a ball mill is proportional to the specific gravity of the grinding media. The
efficiency of a ball mill would increase correspondingly when using grinding media heavier than
steel. Grinding with tungsten carbide balls results in proportionately higher mill efficiencies,
however such grinding media are too expensive.

For centrifugal force;

F = mw 2 r

Where

m- Mass of rotating body

- Angular velocity

R-Radius of rotation

Taking, m = 0.5kg, = 3 revs per second (6), r =1.5m,

F = 0.5 (3)2 1.5

F =66.62 kg/ms2

But =

F
M = g

66.62
M = g = .
9.81

Therefore the ball has an effective weight of 1kg

MHLANGA COMFORT HIT 400 Page 34
6.8.10 Critical mill speed

The critical speed of a tube is the speed of rotation at which the centrifugal power neutralizes the
force of gravity which influences the grinding balls and at this situation the grinding balls do not
fall therefore they will not perform grinding work.

F = m2r = (F2r/g)

And the resulting force of gravity

P = F.sin

To maintain the ball on the mill wall it is necessary to satisfy the requirement that

FP

(F/g) 2r g

If =90, that is when the ball is at the location directly above meridian, it follows that

2 r g

If in this equation we insert the value for , that is

= (2n/60), it follows that

(2n/60)2 r g

From this the resulting critical speed is

N = (602g/42r) = 76.6/D

However this is the value of the critical mill speed at which the grinding balls do not perform any
useful work. Then practical mill speed is

N = 32/ D

This further reduces to Taggarts formula:

N= (23 28) / D

MHLANGA COMFORT HIT 400 Page 35

N = (23 -28) / 3

N = 1.732m/s

Table 6: Ball mil design parameters

Mill size 2.2m x 9m

Mill throughput 11 459kg/h

Mill surface 63m2

Mill energy requirement 600HP

Clinker entering temperature 150C

Cement leaving temperature 950C

Average specific heat of cement 0.774kJ/kg.0C

Temperature of mill shell 400C

Radiation of mill shell 837.16kJ/m2

Temperature of ambient air 150C

Mill vent air per 1kg of cement 0.32m3

Temperature of mill vent air 450C

Avg. spec. heat of air 1.305kJ/m3.0C

Mass of ball 1kg

Mill critical speed 1.732m/s

MHLANGA COMFORT HIT 400 Page 36

Figure 13: 3D drawing of a ball mill

MHLANGA COMFORT HIT 400 Page 37

Figure 14: Shell with steel metal balls

MHLANGA COMFORT HIT 400 Page 38

6.9: References

1. Lawrence C (2000), The production of low energy cements, 4th edition, Arnold, London.
2. Sampson D, (2011), Gypsum: Properties, Production and Applications, 2nd edition, Nova
Science Publishers.
3. Isao Hashimoto and Tatsuya (2003), Development of Fluidized Bed Advanced Cement
Kiln Process, 2nd edition, Japan.
4. Bogue and Robert Herman (2007), The Chemistry of Portland Cement, 2 nd edition;
Reinhold Publishing Corporation.
5. Lea F (2009); The Chemistry of Cement and Concrete, 3rd edition; Edward Arnold
Publishers Ltd.
6. Helmuth R and Meyers L, (1997), Pulverized coal ash in Cement and Concrete, 3rd
edition, Academic Press.
7. Alsop P and J. Post (1995), The Cement Plant Operations Handbook, 1st edition,
Tradeship Publications Ltd., UK.
8. Greer, W. L., Johnson, M. D. and Trusty Jr., C.B., (1992), Portland Cement in Air
Pollution Engineering Manual, 2nd edition, Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York.
9. Lechtenberg D, (2008), Waste management in cement industry, 3rd edition, Jnkping,
Sweden.
10. Deborah A, (2009), A life cycle assessment of Portland cement manufacturing comparing
the traditional process with alternative technologies, Volume 6, pp 668-679, Berlin,
Germany.
11. Glausen C, (1998), Cement materials in industrial minerals and rocks, 3rd edition, pp
203-213, Aime, New york.
12. Boyle P, (2005), Multi pollutant Control Technologies for Coal-Fired Power Plants,
Volume 3, Washington DC.
13. Caine, J., Bayless, D., and Reynolds, J., (2003), SO3 Mist and Mercury Control at a Coal-
Fired Power Plant, Air Quality IV Conference, Arlington.

14. H.F.W. Taylor 1990; Cement Chemistry, Second Edition.

15. G.C. Bye ; 1992 Portland Cement: Composition, Production And Properties.

MHLANGA COMFORT HIT 400 Page 39

 16. S. N. Ghosh; 2000 Cement and concrete science and technology.

17. Jeffrey W. Bullard; December 2011 Mechanisms of cement hydration.

18. J. Cheung , A. Jeknavorian , L. Roberts , D. Silva; December 2011 Impact of admixtures

on the hydration kinetics of Portland cement.

19. Gwenn Le Saot January 2013 Hydration of Portland cement with additions of calcium
sulfoaluminates.

20. M. Lesti , C. Tiemeyer , J. Plank; March 2013 CO2 stability of Portland cement based well
cementing systems for use on carbon capture & storage (CCS) wells.

21. Caijun Shi ,A. Fernndez Jimnez , Angel Palomo; July 2011 New cements for the 21st
century: The pursuit of an alternative to Portland cement.

22. M.C.G. Juenger , F. Winnefeld , J.L. Provis , J.H. Ideker; December 2011 Advances in
alternative cementitious binders.

23. I.G. Richardson; February 2008 Influence of amount of recycled coarse aggregates and
production process on properties of recycled aggregate concrete

24. Florian Deschner , Frank Winnefeld , Barbara Lothenbach , Sebastian Seufert , Peter
Schwesig , Sebastian; October 2012 Hydration of Portland cement with high replacement
by siliceous fly ash.

25. David Torrns-Martn , Lucia Fernndez-Carrasco , Sagrario Martnez-Ramrez; May 2013

Hydration of calcium aluminates and calcium sulfoaluminate studied by Raman
Spectroscopy.

MHLANGA COMFORT HIT 400 Page 40