Au xl

MUSCULAR SYSTEM

Match the words with the definitions:

gastrocnemius; Achilles tendon; bursal talocrural joint; malleolus;

plantarflexion;
calcaneusl hyaline cartilage; greater trochanter; piriformis; greater
sciatic notch;
z1-gomatic bone; internal auditory meatusl pectoialis major;
ribs; deltoid muscle;
teres major; Iatissimus dorsi; suprascapular notch; foramen;
humerusl clavicle;
sternum; deltoid tuberosity; ilium; gruteus maximusl tibia; fibura;
liopsoas; coccyx;
cruciform ligaments (cruciate ligaments)

l)opening
2)is a long bone in the arm or forelimb that runs from the shoulder to
the elbow
3)provides a cushion between bones and tendons and/or muscles around joint
a
4)muscle that is in the back part of the lower leg and also called the
calf
5)rynovial hinge joint that connects the distal ends of the tibia and
fibula in the lower
limb *ith the proximal end of the talus bone in the foot
6)makes up a large portion of the shape and appearance of the
buttocks
IF thicl-r fan-shaped muscle. situated at the chest
t)*ankbone; shinbone
9!he muscle forming the rounded contour of the shoulder
l0)heel bone
I llLe r-enual ends of ribs: in the larynx, trachea, and bronchi; and
on the articular
sJrfaoe of bones
1?icalf Lnne
13) is tre flnovement rltich increases the approximate 90 degree
angle between the front
pat of&e ibor ad the shin
l4}arm"sc1e in tre glural regon of the lower limb
lll@ r=gule-plauurir
quadrilderal eminence and a part of the skeletal system
6e gasEocnemius (calf) and soleus muscles to the calcaneus
-!ftrac+ps
tleefrtte
lftbe Weqn rrr aad tegEst bone of the pelvis
itid hfuPEfiurs bone ofthe temporal bone of the skull that carries nerves from
iirsitufuqaimtos"rds the middle and inner ear
I9trhrranefurfrebonl'prominence on each side of the ankle
shwred im a foramen by the sacrospinous ligament
lIk&etboae. malarf6ag
]3hd iEGE lfieral part of the upper border of the scapula, just next to the base of
&m*tprocss
S$Fftlmgorrved bones which form the ribcage
S{Fdeofthe upper limb and one of six scapulohumeral muscles
SSFElrEEr- fla, dorso-lateral muscle on the trunk, posterior to the arm
Slnolhbme \
lSffreas$one
2t|freregion on the shaft of the humerus to which the deltoid muscle attaches
3g)dffid hip muscles or inner hip muscles
 30)tailbone
31)pairs of ligaments arranged like a letter X

iI. Complete the sentences in a suitable way:

l. ... is a space or shallow depression located at the back of the knee-joint.

2. . are the string-like tendons felt on either side of the back of the knee.
,.

3. . forms the lower and back part of the hip bone (os coxae).
..

4. ... are layers of flat broad tendons. They have a shiny, whitish-silvery color, and
are histologically similar to tendons
5. ... an adjective that means of or pertaining to the abdominal segment of the torso,
between ihe diaphragm and the sacrum or lower spine
6. ... the largest and the most superficial (outermost) of the three flat muscles of the
lateral anterior abdomen.
7 ,. . . is the superior border of the wing of ilium and the superolateral margin of the

greater pelvis.
8. ... is a paired muscle running vertically on each side of the anterior wall of the
human abdomen
9. . . . is formed by the aponeuroses of the Obliqui and Transversus. It contains the
Rectus abdominis and Pyramidalis muscles.
10. ... is the midline carlilaginous joint (secondary cartilaginous) uniting the superior
rami of the left and right pubic bones. It is located anterior to the urinary bladder
and superior to the external genitalia
1 L . . . is a layer of dense irregular connective tissue which surrounds the cartilage of

developing bone. It consists of two separate layers: an outer fibrcus layer anC
inner chondrogenic layer.
12. .. . is a hyaline cartilage plate in the metaphysis at each end of a long bone.
13. ... is the wider portion of a long bone adjacent to the epiphyseal plate.It is this
part cf the bone that grows during childhood; as it grows, it ossifies near the
diaphysis and the epiphyses.
14. ... a state in which muscles are floppy, lacking their normal elasticity.
15. ... is the wasting away of a normaliy developed organ or tissue due to
degeneration of cells. In the case of muscle tissue, the individual muscle fibers
decrease in size due to a progressive loss of myofibrils
16. .. . is prolonged painful involuntary. contraction of skeletal muscle.
17 . ... is inflammation of fibrous connective tissues in muscles. It often affects the
muscles of the trunk and back.
18. ... is inflammation of muscle fibers
19. ... represents a sustained involunrarl'rnuscriar contraction (which may occur
either as part ofa generaiized disorder sucl a: s:as:ic paralysis, or as a local
response to an othenvise unconnected pai:^ui co:iiiion. i
20. ... represents muscular h1-pertonicitl'{i.e. a: :i;:e-e i:-:ie srate of readiness of
muscle fibers to contract: an increase in pa::t:- c::-:1:-:: ','. ;:h an increased
resistance to stretch. \loderate cases shou'ir-ci'=:-;:-: ::;---:-:: ::eat effort and a
lack of normal coo:cinaiion. rrhi:e sii::: c.-.:. s:-:'.,. a]-:::=:::=: ::-,:r ements that
are coordinated.
 ---t:=:.-. :;-l-: :- --'' 3:Si:etChing'
- la -: ''" -:,--:= -:
=:.-s:.e. resulting in pain and swelling of
the

i- '::::.: :.::osis. or ischemic bone necrosis is a

: -=:-..:,::1, .: Dermanent loss of blood supply to the
-.:.: '3r'ne
: :-: : -:. tissue dies and the bone collapses'
"' ,..:: : l:-r e\pands due to abnormal development of
-- -:, -:,:. :: :iore. of the following:uneven growlh of
= _=-- --.,-.\

- : --:r:-: -- '.i:-;: one (or more) of the parathyroid glands

--: : --:-:',1--.1l-Jlrilone. $'hich can result in the loss of bone

: - - ::,: : --:::\\'omen.
- :: ::.: -.-::::r for an infection in abone. Infections can reach abone'r''
::; : :: :-:- -:: ;our bioodstream or spreading from nearby tissue' Infectiois
;: * . :.. . - =. bone itself if trauma exposes your boneto germs' Bone
: :-:- :. :-=-:--'li1' affect the long bones ofyour body, such as your leg'0"::s
jr : -:::: a-- :-rne. as well as youf spine and pelvis'
to fractures and det-o::::-:-
: ::. ' i-.-i,= :,: bones in children potentially leading
t: i :-- ---: :3 most frequent childhood diseases in many developing coun::lc.
-- . ::-:::--:lant cause is a vitamin D deficiency
Osteogenesis imperttc:a: Bursitis: Avascular necrosis; Fibrous dysplasia: Osie:=:----,
Osteoporosis: Ricke',s: Primarl'h1'perparathyroidism; Paget's disease; Rheuma:.--:
Arthritis ; O steoml'e1 iti s

CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM

I Match the terms of the left with the right definition on the right:

1. Angioiogy a)disease ofan aorta

2. Aortopathy b)stone within a vein
3. Endoarterectomy c)X-ray picture of a vein
4. Venogram d)removing fatty deposits on an artery
5. Phlebolith e)study of blood vessels and lymphatics

6. Cardialgia f)movements of the heart

7. Cardiograph g)the heart muscle
8. CardiomyophathY h)disease ofthe heart
9. Myocardium i)pain in the heart
10. Cardiomotility j)instrument for recording heart beat

11. Valvotomy k)surgical correction by cutting part of a

heart valve
12. Vasculitis l)incision into a valve
i3. CardiovalvulotomY m)hardening of blood vessels
14. Angiogram n)inflammation of blood vessels
l5.Angiosclerosis o)X-ray picture of blood vessels

16. Dextrocardia p)surgical repair of heart valve

17. PhonocardiograPhY r) inflammation inside heart (lining)
18. Endocarditis s)recording heart sounds
19. Pericardium t)condition of right heart
20. Valvoplasty u)membrane sac around the heart

II Match the technical term on the left with the definition on the right:

Heart phlebo-
Aorta thrombo-
Vein aorto-
Blood cloot cardio-
Blood haem(at)-

III Give the medical term of the following conditions:

1. paralysis of the heart

2. abnormal softening of the bones
3. congenital condition in which some teeth are missing
4. abnormal condition where the heart is located towards the right side of the chest
5. surgical removal of the uterus
6. surgical creation of an opening through the abdominal wall into the stomach
near the pylorus
1 painful sensations in the tongue
8. blood poisoning caused by bacterial toxic substances in the blood
9. the presence of stones (calculi) in the kidney
10. inflammation involving both the brain and the spinal cord
11. persistent watery mucus discharge from the nose
12. beneath the skin
13. surgical repair of the jaw
14. surgical puncture to remove fluid from the chest cavity
15. pertaining to the neck and the arms
16. drooping of an upper eyelid

IV. Give the adjective of the following:

Neurosis; epilepsy; pleurae; larynx; ovary;brachim; meninges; lymph; nerve;
anastomosis ; dyspnea; pectus ; auris ; haemorrhagia; schizophren i a

V. Fill the gaps with the right word:

a). ...is the property of a system, either open or closed, that regulates its internal
environment and tends to maintain a stable, constant condition.
b). ...play a fundamental role in hemostasis and are a natural source of growth factors.
c). ... is a milky bodily fluid consisting of lymph and emulsified fats, or free fatty
acids, formed in the small intestine.
d)....is on the right side of the heart, between the right atrium and the right ventricle.
e). . . . is the large vein that carries de-oxygenated blood from the lower half of the body
into the right atrium of the heart.
0.... is a phase of the cardiac cycle where the myocardium is contracting in a
coordinated manner in response to an endogenous electrical stimulus, and pressure is
being generated within the chambers of the heart driving blood flow.
g)....is the impulse-generating (pacemaker) tissue located in the right atrium of the
heart, and thus the generator of sinus rhythm. It is a group of cells positioned on the
wall of the right atrium, near the entrahce of the superior vena cava.
h). . .. is a network of streams that both branch out and reconnect, such as blood vessels
or leaf veins.
i). . . . is the system of blood vessels that link the hypothalamus and the anterior
pituitary in the brain.
j) . . . . i, the proportion of blood volume that is occupied by red blood cells.
k).... is a young cell of the granulocytic series, occurring normally in bone marrow,
but not in circulating blood.
l). ...is the thickening and stiffening of heart muscle'
 m). There are three types of heart infections:. . . which affects the tissue
surrounding
the heart;'.. which affects the muscular middle layer of the walls of the heart;
...which affects the inner membrane that separates the chambers and valves oiyor.
heart.
n).... is a slower than normal heart rate (fewer than 60 times a minute).
o). . ' 'disease is also called mucocutaneous lymph node syndrome because
it also
affects lymph nodes, skin, and the mucous membranes inside the mouth,
nose and
throat.
p). ... is a type of abnormal heart rhythm -also known as an arhythmia.
r)..... can be found on the legs and face. They can cover either a small or
large area of
SKlN.
s)....are enlarged veins that can be flesh-colored, dark purple, or blue. They
often look
Iike cords, and appear twisted and bulging. They are swolien and raised above
the
surface of the skin.

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

I. Fill the gaps with the right word:

a).... is a passage of airway in the respiratory tract that conducts air into the lungs.
b). '.. are the first airway branches that no longer contain cartilage. They are braiches of
the bronchi.
c). . . . is an anatomical structure that has the form of a hollow cavity, found
in the lung.
d)' .. are air-filled spaces, communicating with the nasal cavity, within the
bones of the
skull and face.
e).... is the uppermost part of the pharynx. It extends from the base of the skull to the
upper surface ofthe soft palate; it differs from the oral and laryngeal parts
ofthe pharynx
in that its cavity always remains patent (open).
f).... opens anteriorly, through the isthmus faucium, into the mouth, while in its lateral
wall, between the two palatine arches, is the palatine tonsil.
g). The anterior border of the right lung is almost vertical, and projects
into the
costomediastinal sinus; that of the left lung presents, below, an angular notch, the...,
in
which the pericardium is exposed.
h). ... is a serous membrane which folds back upon itself to form a two-layered,
membrane structure. It has an outer layer (parietal) and an inner one (visceral).
i). . ' . is a flap of elastic cartilage tissue covered with a mucus membrane,
attached to the
root of the tongue. It projects obliquely upwards behind the tongue and the hyoid
bone,
pointing dorsally.
j).... is the conic projection from the posterior edge ofthe middle of the soft palate,
composed of connective tissue.
k).. .. are variations of a type of clefting congenital deformity caused by abnormal
facial
development during gestation.
l)...' is a sheet of internal muscle that extends across the bottom of the rib cage, separates
the thoracic cavity (heart, lungs & ribs) from the abdominal cavity and perfoins
an
important function in respiration.
m).... is a hole in the diaphragm through which the esophagus passes. It is located in the
right crus of the diaphragm.
n)-.... is the protrusion (or herniation) of the upper part of the stomach into the thorax
through a tear or weakness in the diaphragm.
o) , . . .1s the specialty that deals with diseases of the lungs and the respiratory tract. It is
called chest medicine and respiratory medicine in some countries and areas.
p). . .. is a muscle of the human body which runs from the chin to the tongue; is the major
muscle responsible for protruding (or sticking out) the tongue'
r). The action of the anterior and middle ...is to elevate the first rib and rotate the neck to
tire same side; the action of the posterior . . . is to elevate the second rib and tilt the neck to
the opposite side.
s). These nerves provide the only motor supply to the diaphragm as well as sensation to
the central tendon. In the thorax, each .,.supplies the mediastinal pleura and pericardium.
t), . ,.is a horseshoe-shaped bone situated in the anterior midline of the neck between the
chin and the thyroid cartilage. At rest, it lies at the level of the base of the mandible in the
front and the third cervical vertebra behind.

II. Match the terms of the left with the right definition on the right:

a). Oesophagoscope 1).incision into the oesoPhagus

b). OesophagectomY 2).instrument to view the oesophagus
c). Oesophagotomy 3).removal of the oesophagus
d). Oesophagitis 4).pain in the oesophagus
e). Oesophagalgia S).inflammation in the oesoPhagus

f). Phrenohepatic 6). pain in the pleura

g). Pleuritis (pleurisy) 7). incision in the chest
h). Pleurodynia 8). instrument for viewing the
pharynx
i). Pharyngoscope 9). relating to the diaPhragm
j). Thoracotomy 10). inflammation of the ribs and side

k). Bronchus 1l).fungi in bronchi

l). Bronchogenic 12).windpipe
m). Bronchoplegia 13).originating in bronchi
n). BronchoesophagostomY 14).paralysis of bronchi
and
o). Broncomycosis {S).opening between oesophagus
bronchi

p).Rhinoplasty L6). incision on the trachea

r). Tracheotomy 17).surgical repair of the nose
s). TracheostomY 18).discharge from nose
t). Pneumonosis L9).operation to maintain airways
u).Rhinorrhoea 20).disease of lungs
 m. Match the technical term on the left with the definition on the right:
Condition of pain -agogue
inside/within ortho-
Inducing/stimulating -dynia
Straight -peri-
Around endo-

IV. Give the disease that best fits the description:

L is a contagious, viral infectious disease of the upper respiratory system, caused
primarily by rhinoviruses and coronaviruses.
2. is a type of pneumonia associated with bacterial infection.
3. is a blockage of the main artery of the lung or one of its branches by a substance
that has travelled from elsewhere in the body through the bloodstream.
4. is a chronic inflammation of the bronchi (medium-size airways) in the lungs; s
defined clinically as a persistent cough that produces sputum (phlegm) and mucus.
5. is a long-term, progressive disease of the lung that primarily causes shortness of
breath.
6. is a predisposition to chronic inflammation of the lungs in which the airways
(bronchi) are reversibly narrowed.
7. shortness of breath), also called shortness of breath (SOB) or air hunger, is a
debilitating symptom that is the experience of unpleasant or uncomfortable
respiratory sensations,
8. also known as diffuse parenchymal lung disease (DPLD), refers to a group of lung
diseases affecting the interstitium (the tissue and space around the air sacs of the
lungs)
9. is a medical condition and potential emergency wherein air or gas is present in the
pleural cavity (chest).
10. is fluid accumulation in the lungs.
I f . is inflannnnation of the epiglottis - the flap that sits at the base of the tongue, which
keeps food from going into the trachea (windpipe).
12. is the most common congenital deformity of the anterior wall of the chest , in
which several ribs and the sternum grow abnormally.
13. is a term for suspension of external breathing.
14. is characterized by rapid breathing.
15. refers to an abnormally slow breathing rate.
16. is normal, good, unlaboured ventilation, sometimes known as quiet breathing or
resting respiration.
17. is shortness of breath (dyspnea) which occurs when lying flat, causing the person
to have to sleep propped up in bed or sitting in a chair.
18. the expectoration (coughing up) of blood or of blood-stained sputum from the
\ bronchi, larynx, trachea, or lungs.
19. is a condition characterized by flaccidity of the tracheal support cartilage which
leads to tracheal collapse especially when increased airflow is demanded.
20. inflammation of the two layers of the pleura.

NERVOUS SYSTEM
I. Fill the gaps with the right word:
1. Are almond-shaped groups of nuclei located deep within the medial temporal lobes
of the brain in complex vertebrates, including humans.
2. One of the most important functions of the it is to link the nervous system to the
endocrine system via the pituitary gland (hypophysis).
3. Is an endocrine gland about the size of a pea and weighing 0.5 g.
4. Is a structure located on the brain stem. It is superior to (up from) the medulla
oblongata, inferior to (down from) the midbrain, and rostral to (in front of; the
cerebellum.
5. Is one of the two components of the central nervous system and consists mostly of
myelinated axons.
6. Is a major component of the central nervous system, consisting of neuronal cell
bodies, neuropil (dendrites and both unmyelinated axons and myelinated axons),
glial cells (astroglia and oligodendrocytes) and capillaries.
7. Contains the cardiac, respiratory, vomiting and vasomotor centers and deals with
autonomic functions, such as breathing, heart rate and blood pressure.
8. Consist of three layers: the dura mater, the arachnoid mater, and the pia mater.
9. Comprises the tectum (or corpora quadrigemini), tegmentum, the ventricular
mesocoelia (or "iter"), and the cerebral peduncles, as well as several nuclei and
fasciculi.
10. Are a group of nuclei in the brains of vertebrates, situated at the base of the
forebrain and strongly connected with the cerebral cortex, thalamus and other
areas.
11. Is a clear bodily fluid that occupies the subarachnoid space and the ventricuiar
system around and inside the brain. In essence, the brain "floats" in it.
12. Extends through the jugular foramen, then passing into the carotid sheath behveen
the internal carotid artery and the internal jugular vein down below the head, to the
neck, chest and abdomen, where it contributes to the innervation of the viscera.
13. Is a structure that permits a neuron to pass an electrical or chemical signal to
another cell.
14. is the interval between the arachnoid membrane and pia mater.
15. Is the outermost part of the spinal canal.

il. Match the common name with the medical one:

aden bile
anglo ribs
arterio bladder,sac
arthro sugar
cardio skin
cephal intestine
cerebro drug
chem among the people
chole gland
colo red
III. FiII in the blankwith the appropriate suffix'
1. pain
2. inflammation
3. tumor
4. stoppage
5. urine
6. poisonous
7. fear
8. condition of
9. hardening
10. destruction
1i. sensation
12. breathing
13. pertaining to
14. enlarged
15. surgical rePair
16. softening
17. a disease
18. blood
i9. enzYme
20. vomit

the description:
IV.Give the name of the disorder that best fits
of the facial nerve causing weakness of the
1.A form ofNeuritis that involves paralysis
*ur.t.rofonesideofthefaceandaninabilitytoclosethe-eye'
2. A nonprogressive disorder of movement
reiulting from damage to the brain
before,during, or immediately after birth' middle age and
3. A progre.rir" A.g.r;il disease of the motor system occurring in
.uurirg muscle weakness and wasting'

10
4' A chronic disease of the nervous system that can affect young
and middle-aged adults.
The course of this illness usually involves recurrent relapses
followed by remissions, but
some patients experience a chronic progressive course.

5' A condition characterized by extreme disabling fatigue

that has lasted for at least six
months, is made worse by physical or mental exeition,-does
not resolve with bed rest, and
cannot be attributed to other disorders.

6. A severe burning or stabbing pain often following the course of a

nerve.

7. Inflammation of the nerves, which may be painful.

8. Tremor, rigidity and poverty of spontaneous movements.

9' Pain felt down the back and outer side of the thigh, leg, and
foot. The back is stiff and
painful. There may be numbness and weakness in ttre tei.

l0' Is a genetic nervous system disorder that causes tumors to grow around nerves.

ENDOCRII\E SYSTEM

I. Insert the right words into the gaps:

1' " ' is the set of metabolic pathways thationstruct molecules from
smaller units.
2' ' ' . is a roughly 24-hour cycle in the
biochemical, physiological or behavioural
processes of living entities.
3' '..are recurrent periods or cycles repeated throughout aZ4-hour circadian day
(used in sleep studies).
4. . ' . is the amount of energy expended while at rest in a
neutrally temperate
environment, in the post-absorptive state (meaning that the
di[estivl system is
inactive, which requires about twerve horrs of faJng in humins).
5. ' ' ' is a branch of medicine dealing with disorder
of the endocrine system and its
specific secretions called hormones.
6. " 'are glands that secrete their products (excluding hormones
and other chemical
messengers) into ducts (duct glands) which lead directly into
the external
environment.
7. .. 'are paired almond-shaped glands, one for each eye,
that secrete the aqueous
layer of the tear film.
8. . ' . are glands of the endocrine system that secrete
their products, hormones,
directly into the blood rather than through a duct.
9. This gland is found in the neck, inferioito
1b.low) the thyroid cartilage (also
known as the Adam's apple) and at approximately the same level
as the cricoid
cartilage.
10. ...are cells that release a hormone into the circulating
blood in response to a
neural stimulus.

I1
 I 1 . Situated along the perimeter of the adrenal gland, the . . . mediates the stress
response through the production of mineralocorticoids and glucocorticoids,
including aldosterone and cortisol respectively.
12. Is asmall endocrine gland in the vertebrate brain. It produces melatonin, a
hormone that affects the modulation of wake/sleep patterns and photoperiodic
(seasonal) functions.
Exocrine glands; ultradian rhythms; thyroid; anabolism; adrenal cortexl circadian
rhythm; endocrinology; pineal gland (also called the pineal body, epiphysis cerebri,
epiphysis or the "@9re");endocrine glands; basal metabolic rate; lacrimal
glands; neuroendocrine cells

II.Give the disorder that best fits the description:

L.Also called a bronchocele, is a swelling in the thyroid gland, which can lead to a
swelling of the neck or larynx (voice box).
2. Is the absence of a menstrual period in a woman of reproductive age.
3. Is the formal diagnosis used by psychologists and physicians to describe persons
who experience significant gender dysphoria (discontent with the biological sex they
were born with).
4. Is a medical term for decreased functional activity of the gonads
5. Term used to describe ambiguous genitalia and gonadal mosaicism in individuals
of gonochoristic species, especially human beings.
6. Is decreased function ofthe parathyroid glands, leading to decreased levels of
parathyroid hormone.
7. Is a syndrome that results when the pituitary gland produces excess groMh
hormone after epiphyseal plate closure at puberty.
8. Is a condition characterized by excessive thirst and excretion of large amounts of
severely diluted urine, with reduction of fluid intake having no effect on the latter.

m. Match the medical terms with the explanations:

A.
1.hypervolaemia a). bacteria in blood
2. hypoxaemia b). blood vessel inflammation
3. vasculitis c). blood poisoning
4. bacteraemia d).increase in blood volume
5. toxaemia e). blood oxygen deficiency
B
1. cholangitis a). muscle inflammation
2. osteomyelitis b). bile duct inflammation
3. encephalitis c). bone inflammation
4. myositis d). brain inflammation
5. rhinopharyngitis e). inflammation of the space behind the nose
C
1. laparoscopy a). visual examination of the stomach
2. proctoscope b). visual examination of cavities
3. gastroscopy c). instrument to view rectum
4. panendoscopy d). taking photos with endoscope

12
 5. photoendoscopy e). visual examination of abdominal cavity
D
1. enteritis a). opening into the intestine
2. enterolith b). disease of intestines
3. enteropathy c). intestinal stone
4. enterotomy d). inflammation of intestines
5. enterostomy e). incision into intestines

IV. Match technical medical with their nontechnical meanings or explanations.

l.Column A Column B
(a) angi/o 1. bile
(b) cyst/o 2. common bile duct
(c) cheil/o 3. bladder
(d) chol/o 4. lip
(e) choledoch/o 5. vessel
2. Column A: Column B Column
(a) gastroenterology t. Removal of the stomach
(b) gastroenteropathy z. Technique of viewing the intestines and
stomach
(c) gastroenteritis 3. Study of intestines and stomach
(d) gastroenteroscopy +. Inflammation of intestines and stomach
(e) gastrectomy s. Disease of intestines and stomach

13
 The Muscular Systerm
(MusculoskeleaE Systern)

Muscle Cell Types

There are three types of muscle tissue:
I . s:pgJetal (or voluntary/striated) muscle, the most abundant tissue in the human
b<-,dy, producing movement. Each skeletal-muscle fiber is roughly cylindrical,
contains many nuclei, and is crossed by alternating light and dark bands called
striations. Fibers bind together, via connective tissue, into bundles; and these
bundles, in turn, bind together to form muscles. Thus, skeletal nruscles are
composite structures composed of many muscle fibers, nerves, blood vessels,
and connective tissue. Skelet. ,nuscles are controlled by the somatic l'lervous
system (SNS).
2. smooth (or visceral) muscle, forming the muscle layers in the rvalls of the
digestive tract, bladder, various ducts, arteries and veins, and other internal
organs. Srnooth- muscle cells are elongated and thin, not striated. have only one
nucleus, and interlace to form sheets rather than bundles of muscles. Srnooth
r cle is controlled by the autonomic nervous system (ANS).
3. ardiac (or heart) muscle, a cross between the smooth and striated muscles,
comprising the heart tissue. Like smooth muscle, it is innervated by the
autonomic nervous system (ANS).

F.ach of more than 600 muscles is served by nerves which link the muscle to the brain
'rti
and spinal cord. :

Musculoskeletal System
The musculoskeletal system consists.lf the skeletal system -- bones arrd.ioints (union ci
two or more bones) -- and lhe skeletal muscle system (voluntary or striated muscles).
These trvo systems work together to provide basio functions that are essential to life.
including:

. Protection: protects the brain and internal organs

" Support: maintains upright posture
. Blood cell formation: hematopoiesis
. Mineral homeostasis
"n Storage: stores fat and minerals.
Leverage: A lever is a simple machine that rnagnifies speed of movement or
force. The levers are mainlythe lorrg bones of the body and the axes arethe.ioints
where the bones meet.

Tissues
There are 5 basic tissues comprising the musculoskeletal system:

1. [rones.
2. ligarnents (attachirrg boue to bone)
3. eartilage (protective gel-1ike subtance lining the joints and intenzertebral discs).
4. sl<cleta! museles. and
 5. tendons (attaching musele to bone)"

Muscl"s by Function
Each"r,uscle has its own special name. Muscles, however. are also described by tneir
function. Muscles that bend a liml, areJlexors; those which straighter-r a limb are
extensors (e.g. elbow flexors and elbow extensors.) Muscles which move a limb to
the side, away from the body, are abductors;those which move a limb sideways
tor,vard the body are adductors (e.g. hip abductors and hip adductors') Other
functional groLlps are eleyators, depressors, rotators, doriflexors, plonar flexors, and
palntar ;flexors.

Major Skeletal Muscles

The muscular body is divide into ten different areas where muscles can be found: facial.
neck, shoulder, arm, forearm, thorax, abdomen, hip, pelvis/thigh, Ieg'
Facial
ln the faci..i are one finds all the muscles which move"the face. OrbicLrlaris oculi are'.ne
which
two muscles that move the eye are. Frontalis and Temporalis are the trvo muscles
movethe forehead and sides of your head. Zygomaticus and Masseter are tl'ie tr'vo
muscles that work in conjunction to n,ove your jaw and upper lip area. Orbicularis
oris is
the muscle which moves Your liPs.
Neck
The leck area is almost entirely moved by the sternohyoid and Sternocleidomastoid.
These muscles allow the neck to move your head left and right. Thel' worl< with
the
platysma muscie to control how far you can move youl' head left and right. What allows
your head to move up and down is the trapezius. The trapezius is so Iarge that it extend
down tothe shoulder and thorax area. Thetrapezius is a good example of how some
muscles are named by their shape. The trapezius looks
just like a trapezoid'
Shoulder '['his group takes
A group of muscles all work together to move the u4role shoulder area.
major.
into account the trapezius. deltoid, infraspinatus. teres major, and the rhornboid
The Lhornboid major is called so because its shaped like the geometric shape of a

rhombus. Along with the help of the b,ill and socket joint-hyperlink in your shouder.
Arm
Most known amongst teenage weight iifters is the arm area. The famous bicep brachii
is
ball
the muscle that allows you to bring your forearm close to your body alrd forur
a huge
of muscle which catches a lot of attention amongst weight lifters. The tricep brachii and
brachialis arethetwo othermuscles located inthe arm region. Tl-rese muscles allow
a

./ person to do push-upsl
F orearna
A rnajori r of the musele in the forearm help control a part of the arm. Atllongst thesr- is
the Blrachiodialis major, palmaris longus, and Fiexor carpi radialis.'Ihe name
of the
flexor carpi radialis is a good example of how muscles are named by their function and
location. This prusele is named earpibecause of the bones tliat it helps rnove. the carples.
Also. the name of radialis is n-rade by the bone that its attaehed to, the radiurs.
Thorax
The thorz.,, is the set of muscles which carrying your head, arms, stonach, and any other
upper body areas. These muscles are the trapezius and iatissirnus dorsi. Usually, the
majority of the muscles of the thorax can be damaged easily is one does not stretch before
exercise, or lifts a heave load.
Abdomen
The abdorninal area consists of the muscles that allows you to bend down and move your
waist frorn side to side. The internal oblique and external oblique are the nnuscles that
move your body from left to right. The Transversus abdominus and Rectus abdominus,
along with the trapezius an latissimus dorsi allow you to bend down and grab objects.
Hip
Only two muscles make up the hip area. These are the gluteus medius and giuteus
maximus. Drobably the laziest muscles in the whole system the gluter-rs set of muscles are
used onl1 "o sit down on.
Pelvis/Thigh
An overlapping of muscles is what makes this area so firm. The pelvis area is usually
referred to as the upper part of the leg. Muscles like the pectineus and illiopsoas, which
help support the upper leg area are known as pelvic muscles. Thigh muscles are very rich
in capillaries and support the whole body. The upper thigh muscles are abductor longus,
Gracilis, Sartorius, and Tensor fasciae latea. The lower thigh rnuscles are rectus femoris,
vastus lateralis and rnedialis. Located in the back of your leg are the hamstrings.
Leg
Helping the thigh region support the body is the leg region. These muscles like the
Gaslrocnemius, soleus, porenius longus, and Tibialis anterior absorb the irnpacl wlren otle
walks ar.d "uns. They also give better coordination for moving. The thigh region trusi the
body fon ,ard while the leg region co.idinates where it should be thrr.rsted and where it
should stand.
-\;-:'
Disorders of Bones and Joints

Disorders of the skeleton often invoive surrounding tissues-ligaments,

tendons, and muscles, and may
be studied together as diseases of the musculoskeletal slstem. Tho medical
specialty that concentrates on
diseases of the skeletal and muscular systems is orthopeiics. Physical
therapists and occupational therapists
must also understand these systems" Most abnormalities of the bones and
Radioactive bone scans, CT, and MRI scans are used as well. Also indicative
loints appear tn simple x-rays.
or disorders are changls in blood
levels of calcium and alkaline phosphatase, an enzyme needed for calcification
of bone.

Infection
Osteomyelitis is an inflammation of bone (root oste/o) caused by pus-forming bacteria
-
through a wound or are carried by the blood. Often the blood-rich ends of the iong
that enter
bones are invaded, and the
infection then spreads to other regions, such as the bone miurow and even the joints"
The use of antibioties has
greatly reduced the threat of osteomyelitis.
Tuberculosis may spread to bone, especially the long bones of the arms and legs and the
bones of the
wrist and ankle. Tuberculosis of the spine is Pott's disease. infeoted vertebrae are weakened and
may collapse,
causing pain, deformity, and pressure on the spinal cord. Antibiotics ean be usecl to control
tuberculosir, u, iorrg
as the strains are not resistant to these drugs and the host is not weakened by other diseases.

Fractures
A fracture is a break in a bone. The effects of a fracture depend on the location and severity of the
break, the amount of associated injury, possible complicationr, ,r.L as infections, and success of tealing,
which may take months. In a closed or simple fracture, the skin is not broken. If the fracture is accompanied
by a wound in the skin it is described as an open fracture. Reduction of a fracture refers to realignment of
the
broken bone. If no surgery is required, the reduction is described as closed; an open reduction is one that
requires surgery to place the bone in proper position.

Metabolic Bone Diseases

Osteoporosis is a loss of bone mass that results in weakening of the bones" A decline in estrogen after
menopause makes women over 50 most susceptible to this disorder. Efforts to prevent osteoporosis include
adequate intake of calcium, engaging in weight-bearing exercise, and estrogen replacement therapy (ERT).
Osteoporosis may also be caused by nutritional deficiencies, disuse, as in paralysis or immobilization in u .*rt,
and excess steroids from lhe adrenal cortex.
In osteomalacia there is a softening of bone tissue due to lack of fonnation of calcium salts. possible
causes include deficiency of vitamin D, needed to absorb calcium an<i phosporus from the intestine, renal
disorders, liver disease, and certain intestinal disorders. When osteomalacia occurs in children, the disease is
called rickets" It is usually due to deficiency of vitamin D.
Paget's disease (osteitis deformans) is a disorder of aging in which bones become larger but weaker. It
usually involves the bones of the axial skeleton, causing pain, fractures, and hearing loss. With time there may
be neurologic signs, heart failure, and predisposition to cancer ofthe bones.

Neoplasms
Osteogenic sarcoma (osteosarcoma) most commonly occurs in the growing region of a bone, especially
around the knee. This is a highly malignant tumor that often requires amputation. It most commonly
metastasizes to the lungs.
Chondrosarcoma usually appears in midlife. As the name implies, this tumor arises in cartilage. It most
frequently metastasizes to the lungs and may require amputation.
In cases of malignant bone tumors, early surgical removal is important to prevent metastasis. Signs of
bone tumors are pain, easy fracture, and increases in serum calcium and alkaline phosphatase. Aside fiom
primary tumors, neopiasms at other sites often metastasize to bone, most commonly to the spine.

Arthritis
In general, arthritis means inflammation of a joint. The most common fonn is osteoarthritis or
degenerative joint disease (DJD). This is a gradual degeneration of articular (oint) cartilage due to wear-and*
tear. It usually appears at midlife and beyond zurd involves the weight-bearing joints and joints of the fingers"
X-rays show a narrowing of the joint cavity and thickening of the bone" The eartilage may erack and trreak
 ..,,i, causing inflammation in the joint and exposing the underlying bone. Osteoarthritis is treated with
;nalgesics to relieve pain, anti-inflammatory agents, such as c<lrticosteroids, and nonsteroidai anti-inflammatory
drugs (NSAIDs)"
Rheumatoid arthritis is a systemic inflammatory discase ,:f the.;oints that commonly appears in youriq
adult women. Its exact causes are unknown, but it may involvc immunologic reactions. A group of antibodies
called rheumatoid factor often appears in the blood, but is not aiways specific for rheumatoid arthritis, as it may
occur in other systemic diseases as well. There is an overgrowth of the synovial membrane that lines the joint
cavity. As this covers and destroys the joint cartilage, synovial fluid accumulates, eausing swelling of the joint.
There is degeneration of the underlying bone, eventually causing fusion of the bones, or ankvlosis" T'reatment
inciudes rest, physical therapy, analgesics, and anti-inflammatory drugs.
Gout is caused by an increased level of uric acid in the blood, salts of which are deposited in the joints.
It mostiy occurs in middle-aged men and almost always involves pain at the base of the great toe. The cause
may be a primary metabolic disturbance or a secondary effect of another disease, as of the kidneys" Gout is
treated with drugs to suppress for:mation of uric acid or to increase elimination of uric acid (uricosuric agent).

Disorders of the Spine

Ankylosing spondylitis is a disease of the spine that appears mainly in males. Joint cartiiage is
destroyed and eventually the disks between the vertebrae calcify and the bones fuse (ankylosis)" Changes begin
low in the spine and progress upward, limiting mobility'
In cases of a herniated disk, the central mass (nucleus pulposus) of the disk between two vertebrae
ruptures into the spinal canal. This commonly occurs in the lumbosacral or cervical regions of the spine as a
result of injury or healy lifting. The herniated or "slipped" disk puts pressure on the spinal cord or spinal
nerves, often causing pain along the sciatic nerve (sciatica). There may be spasms of the back muscles leading
to disability. Treatment is by bed rest and drugs to reduce pain, muscle spasms, and inflammation, followed by
an exercise program to strengthen muscles. In severe cases, it may be necessary to perform a diskectomy
(surgical removal of the disk) and fuse the vertebrae.

Medical terminology

L. Match the following terms to their proper definitions: a) orthopedics, b) gout, c) Pott's disease, d)
osteogenic sarcoma, e) fracture l) alkaline phosphatase, g) osteoarthritis, h) osteoporosis, i) ankylosis,
j)
nucle.irs pulposus, k) osteomalacia, l) arthritis, m) ankylosing spondylitis, n) herniated disk, o) Paget's
disease, p) anti-inflammatory agent, q) osteomyelitis, r) diskectomy, s) chondrosarcomae t) nonsteroidal
anti-inflammatory drug.

1. An enzyrne needed in the formation of bone.

Z. A chronie, progressive inflammatory disease involving the joints of the spine and surrounding sofl
tissue. Most oommon in young males. Also ealled rheumatoid spondylitis"
3" Immobility and fixation of a joint'
4. Drug that reduces inflamrnation.
5. Inflammation of a joint.
6. A malignant tumor of cartilage'
7 .progressive deterioration ofjoint cartilage with growth of new bone and soft tissue in and around th<
joint. tire most common form of arthritis. Results from wear-and tear, injury, or disease. Also eallec
degenerative joint disease'
B. Surgical removal of a herniated inter"'ertebral disk'
9. A break in a bone.
10. A form of acute arthritis, usually beginning in the knee or foot; caused
by deposit of urie aciel salts il
the joints.
I 1. protrusion of the centre (nucleus pulposus) of an intervertebral
disk into the splnal canal. Pressure ot
or "slipped" disk'
nerve roots causes pain" Usually n.",rir in the cervical or lumbar region" Ruptured
12. Drug that reduces inflammation, but is not a steroid. Examples
include aspirin and other inhibitors o
proslaglandins, which are naturally produced substances that promote inflammation"
i 3. The central portion of an intervertebral disk
ni and associated structures' Literallv
ii. The study and treatment of disorders of the skcleton, rnuscles,
"straight" (ortho) plus "child" (ped)'
15. A malignant bone tumor; osteosarcoma'
16. A sortelning and *.ut of the bones due to vitamin D deficiency or other disease
"niog infection, usually bacterial
17. Inflammation of bone and bone marrow caused by
common in white women past menopause"
ig. A condition characterized by reduction in bone density" Most
Causative factors include diet, activitY, and estrogen
levels'
of long
19. Skeletal disease of the elderly, aru"i"rired by-thiekening and softening of bones and bowing
"t
bones; osteitis deformans'
20. Inflammation of the vertebrae, usually caused by
tuberculosis

2. Match the terms in each of theses sets with their

definitions and write the appropriate letter (a-
e) to the left of each number.
1 " acetabulum
a. bones ofthe ankle
Z. axis b. bones of the wrist
- c" socket for the heaci of the femur
-- 3. phalanges d" second cervical vertebra
__ 4. carPals
e. bones ofthe fingers and toes
_ 5. tarsals

a. anterior hone of the Pelvis

__ 6. metacarPals
b" faeial bone
-- 7" patella c. kneecaP
8. pubis
-
--_ 9. zygomatic
d. bones ofthe hand
e. posterior skull bone
_ 10. occipital

1 1. osteoclast a. outgrowth of bone

periosteum b. deficiencY of bone tissue
-tZ.
13. exostosis c. cell that destroYs bone
14. osteoPenia
d. bone Projection at the elbow
e. fibrous membrane around bone
_ i5. olecranon
a" spinal taP
16. malleolus
tl. mYeloPoiesis b. disPlacement of a vertebra
c. bone Projection at the ankle
1 S.sPondYlolisthesis
-
d" immobilitY of a joint
-_ 19. ankYlosis e. formation of bone mamow
rachiocentesis
-20. of Part of a vertebra
a. removal
2i. meniscectomY
b. removal of knee cartilage
22.lordosis
e. partial dislocation
23. scoliosis
d" iidewaYs curvature of the sPine
24.laminectomY
e" curvature of the lumbar sPine
ZS.subluxation
-
Disorders of the Muscular SYstem

by disorders particularly in the nervous system an(

Muscle function may be affected .eisewhere, Any disorder of muscle
rrr" ."raiiior,, a"r"ritld ulio* affect tir""*"r."rar system diiectly'
tissue. muscie ir
connective
diagnosingro.rr.i. Jirorders include eleitrical studies of
as myopathy" Techniqu*r_io, -of
released in increased amounts from
is described damage'
una^r.rrr*"u.ruy .*y*".
action, erectromyography -cir
@Mq),
(creatine phosphokinase)'
;;;;i;t, mainly
* ;';.* of hereditary diseases invcrving
progressive, n.ninflammator
lduscular Dystrophy refers tissue- with gradual replaceme,t
b
of *,rs.ler. fh*r* i,
t'*u["*" una wasting
"i
'"191t and mentz
degeneratio'
*ry ;ir; be cardioffipathy (disease of cardiac muscle)
conneetive tissue and fat. There
impairment.
 "'r';'o
'
The most conunon fomr is Duchenne muscular dystrophy, a sex-linked
disease passed from mothilr.to
"on' This appears at age 3 to 4, and patients are incapaciiated 6y"ugr 10 to 15. Death
is commonly caused 5y
respiratory failure or infection.
Polymyositis is the inflammation of skeletar muscle leading to weakness, frequently associated
with
dysphagia (difficulty in swallow'ing) or cardiac problems. The cause is unkLclwn,
and may be related to viral
infection or to autoirnrnunity. often the disorder is associated with some other systemic
disease such as
rheumatoid arthritis or lupus erythematosus.
When the skin is involved, the condition is termed derrnatomyositis. In this ease, there is
erythema
(redness of the skin), dermatitis (inflammation of the skin), and a typical lilae-colored
rash, predominantly on
the face. In addition to enzyme studies and EMG, muscle biopsy is usea in diagnosis.
I\{yasthenia gravis is an acquired autoimmune disease in which antibodies interfere with muscle
stimulation at the neuromuscular junction. There is a progressive loss of mussle power, especially in
the
external eye muscles and other musoles of the face"

1" Match the terms in each of theses sets with their deflnitions and write the appropriate letter (a-e)
to the
left of each number.

_- L deltoid
_ 2. triceps branchii
-__ 3" pectoralismajor
*_ 4. latissimus dorsi
___ 5. gastrocnemius
a" Iarge muscle across the back below the trapezius
b. posterior mrmcle of the upper arm that extends the fnrearm
c. triangular muscie that covers the shoulder
d. main muscle of the calf
e. large muscle aeross the upper chest

_ 6. rectus abdominis a. muscle between the ribs

__ 7. gluteus maximus b. muscle that runs vertically at the center of the trunk
__ 8" sartorius e. main muscle of the buttocks
_ 9. semitendinosus d" posterior muscle of the thigh
"*- 10. intercostal e. long, straplike muscle that runs across the inner thigh

11. myokinesis a. faulty muscle tone

12" myotenositis b. muscle tumor
13. myogoblin c. oxygen-storing pigment in musele
14. dystonia d. inflammation of muscle and tendon
15. rhabdomyoma e. musele movement

_ 16" aponeurosis a. muscle spasm due to a metabolic imbalance

_17 " ataxia b. forcible tearing away of a part
_ 18. torticollis c. flat, sheetlike tendon
_)9. tetany d. lack of muscle eoordination
__-'2A. avulsion e. wryneek

2" tr'itl in the blanks:

1" The neurotransmitter released at the neurornuscular junction is

2" Any muscle that produces flexion at aioint is called a(n) ..".."."".
3" The quadriceps femoris muscle has ....""."........"......attaehrnent points (heads)"
4" T'he sheath of connective tissue that eovers a muscle is called
5" A band of connective tissue that attaches a rnuscle to a bone is a(n)
 Disorders of the Muscular System

Muscle function may be affected by disorders else'where, particularly in the nervous system and
connective tissue. The conditions described below affect the musctilar system directly. Any disorder of muscles
is described as myopathy.
Techniques for diagncsing muscle disorders include eleotrical studies of muscle in action,
electromyography (EMG), and serum assay of enz).rnes released in increased amounts from darnaged museles,
mainly CPK (creatine phosphokinase)

N{uscular Dystrophy
Muscular dystrophy refers to a group of hereditary diseases involving progressive, noninflammatory
degeneration of muscles. There is weakness and wasting of muscle tissue with gradual replacement by
connective tissue and fat. There may also be cardiomyopathy (disease of cardiac muscle) and mental
impairment.
The most common form is Duchenne muscular dystrophy, a sex-linked disease passed from mother to
son. This appears at age 3 to 4, and patients are incapacitated by age 10 to 15. Death is commonly caused by
respiratory failure or infection.

Polymyositis
Polymyositis is inflammation of skeletal muscle leading to weakness, frequently associated with
dysphagia (difficulty in swallowing) or cardiac problems. T'he cause is unknown, and may be related to viral
infection or to autoimmunity. Often the disorder is associated with some other systemic disease such as
rheumatoid arthritis or lupus erythematosus.
When the skin is involved, the condition is termed dermatomyositis. In this case, there is erythema
(redness of the skin), dermatitis (inflammation of the skin), and a typical lilac-colored rash, predominantly on
the face. in addition to enzyme studies and EMG, muscle biopsy is used in diagnosis.

Myasthenia Gravis
Myasthenia gravis is an acquired autoimmune disease in which antibodies interfere with muscle
stimulation at the neuromuscular junction. There is a progressive loss of muscle power, especially in the
extemal eye muscles and other muscles of the face.

l. Match the terms in each of theses sets with their definitions and write the apprripriate letter (a-e) to the
left of each number.

__ 1. deltoid a. large muscle across the back below the trapezius

__ 2. triceps branchii b. posterior muscle of the upper arm that extends the forearm
_- 3. pectoralis major c. triangular muscle that eovers the shoulder
_ 4. latissimus dorsi d. main muscle of the calf
_ 5, gastrocnemius e. large muscle across the upper chest

_ 6. rectus abdominis a. muscle between the ribs

_ 7. gluteus maximus b. muscle that runs vertically at the center of the trunk
__ 8. sartorius c. main muscle ofthe buttocks
_ 9. semitendinosus d. posterior muscle of the thigh
_ 10. intercostal e. long, straplike muscle that runs across the inner thigh

11. myokinesis a. faulty muscle tone

12. myotenositis b. muscle tumor
13. myogoblin c. oxygen-storing pigment in muscle
14. dystonia d. inflammation of muscle and tendon
15. rhabdomyoma e. muscle movement

16. aponeurosis a. muscle spasm due to a metabolic imbalance

17. ataxia b. forcible tearing away of a Part
18. torticollis c. flat, sheetlike tendon
 9. tetany d. lack of muscle coordination
20. avulsion e. wryneck

) Fill in the blanks:

1. The neurotransmitter released at the neuromuscurar junction is

2. Any muscle that produces flexion at a joint is called a(n) .."."."...
J. The quadriceps femoris muscle has .......................attachment points (heacs).
4. The sheath of connective tissue that eovers a muscle is called
5" A band of connective tissue that attaches a muscle to a bone is a(n)
 Circulatory System: The Circle of Blood

On average, the body has about 5 liters of blood continually traveling through it by way
of the circulatory system. The heart, the lungs, and the blood vessels work together to
form the circle part of the circulatory system. The body's circulatory system really has
three distinct parts: pulmonary circulation, coronary circulation, and systemic circulation.
Or, the lungs (pulmonary), the heart (coronary), and the rest of the system (systemic).
Each part must be working independently in order for them to all work together.

Systemic Circulation

Systemic circulation supplies nourishment to all of the tissue located throughout your
body, with the exception of the heart and lungs because they have their own systems.
Systemic circulation is a major part of the overall circulatory system.The blood vessels
(arteries, veins, and capillaries) are responsible for the delivery ofoxygen and nutrients to
the tissue. Oxygen-rich blood enters the blood vessels through the heart's main artery
called the aorta. The forceful contraction of the heart's left ventricle forces the blood into
the aorta which then branches into many smaller arteries which run throughout the body.
The inside layer of an artery is very smooth, allowing the blood to flow quickly. The
outside layer of an artery is very strong, allowing the blood to flow forcefully. The
oxygen-rich blood enters the capillaries where the oxygen and nutrients are released. The
waste products are collected and the waste-rich blood flows into the veins in order to
' circulate back to the heart where pulmonary circulation will allow the
exchange of gases
in the lungs.During systemic circulation, blood passes through the kidneys. This phase of
systemic circulation is known as renal circulation. During this phase, the kidneys filter
much of the waste from the blood. Blood also passes through the small intestine during
systemic circulation. This phase is known as portal circulation. During this phase, the
blood from the small intestine collects in the portal vein which passes through the liver.
The liver filters sugars from the blood, storing them for later.

Pulmonary Circulation

Pulmonary circulation is the movement of blood from the heart, to the lungs, and back to
the heart again. This is just one phase of the overall circulatory system.The veins bring
waste-rich blood back to the heart, entering the right atrium throughout two large veins
called vena cavae. The right atrium fills with the waste-rich blood and then contracts,
pushing the blood through a one-way valve into the right ventricle. The right ventricle
fills and then contracts, pushing the blood into the pulmonary artery which leads to the
lungs. In the lung capillaries, the exchange of carbon dioxide and oxygen takes place.
The fresh, oxygen-rich blood enters the pulmonary veins and then returns to the heart, re-
entering through the left atrium. The oxygen-rich blood then passes through a one-way
valve into the left ventricle where it will exit the heart through the main artery, called the
aorta. The left ventricle's contraction forces the blood into the aorta and the blood begins
its journey throughout the body.
 The one-way valves are important for preventing any backward
flow of blood. The
circulatory system is a network of one-way streets. if blood started
flowing the wrong
way, the blood gases (oxygen and carbon dioxide) might mix,
causing a biious threat to
your body.

Coronary Circulation

Coronary circulation refers to the movement of blood through the

tissues of the heart.
The circulation of blood through the heart is just one part of-the
overall circulatory
system

Heart

The human heart is about the size of a clenched fist. It contains four chambers:
two
atria and two ventricles. Oxygen-poor blood enters the right atrium through
a major
vein called the vena cava. The blood passes through the iicuspid valve
irito the
right ventricle. Next, the blood is pumped through the pulmonary artery to the
lungs for gas exchange. Oxygen-rich blood returns to the left atrium via ihe
pulmonary vein. The oxygen-rich blood flows through the bicuspid (mitral)
valve
into the left ventricle, from which it is pumped through a major uit.ry, the aorta.
Two valves called semilunar valves are found in the pulmonary artery and aorta.

'The ventricles contract about 70 times per minute,

which represents a person's pulse
rate. Blood pressure, in contrast, is the pressure exerted against the walls of the
arteries. Blood pressure is measured by noting the heightio which a column of
mercury can be pushed by the blood pressing against the arterial walls. A norrnal
blood pressure is a height of 120 miliimeterr oi-"r"ury during t (
"u.t "ont.u.tion
s2tstole), and a height of 80 millimeters of mercury during heart relaxation (
diastole). Normal blood pressure is usually expressed ur 2120 over g0.,,

Coronary arteries supply the heart muscle with blood. The heart is controlled by
nerves that originate on the right side in the upper region of the atrium at the
sinoatrial node. This node is called the pacemaker.Il generates nerve impulses that
spread to the atrioventricular node where the impulses are amplified and spread to
other regions ofthe heart by nerves called purkinje fibers.

Blood

Blood is the medium of transport in the body. The fluid portion of the blood, the
plasma, is a straw-colored liquid composed primarily of water. All the important
nutrients, the hormones, and the clotting proteins as well as the waste products are
 transported in the plasma. Red blood cells and white blood cells are also suspended
in the plasma. Plasma from which the clotting proteins have been removed is serrm.

Red blood cells

Red blood cells are erythrocytes. These are disk-shaped cells produced in the bone
marrow. Red blood cells have no nucleus, and their cytoplasm is filled with
hemoglobin.

Hemoglobin is a red-pigmented protein that binds loosely to oxygen atoms and

carbon dioxide molecules. It is the mechanism of transport of these substances.
(Much carbon dioxide is also transported as bicarbonate ions.) Hemoglobin also
binds to carbon monoxide. Unfortunately, this binding is irreversible, so it often
leads to carbon-monoxide poisoning.

A red blood cell circulates for about 120 days and is then destroyed in the spleen, an
organ located near the stomach and composed primarily of lymph node tissue. When
the red blood cell is destroyed, its iron component is preservedtor reuse in the liver.
The remainder of the hemoglobin converts to bilirubin. This amber substance is the
chief pigment in human bile, which is produced in the liver.

Red blood cells commonly have immune-stimulating polysaccharides called antigens

'on the surface of their cells. Individuals having the A antigen have
blood type A (as
well as anti-B antibodies); individuals having the B antigen have blood type B (as
well as anti-A antibodies); individuals having the A and B antigens have blood type
AB (but no anti-A or anti-B antibodies); and individuals having no antigens have
blood type O (as well as anti-A and anti-B antibodies).

White blood cells

White blood cells are referred to as leukocytes. They are generally larger than red
blood cells and have clearly defined nuglei. They are also produced in ih" bon"
marrow and have various functions in the body. Certain white blood cells called
Iymphocytes are essential components of the immune system. Other cells called
neutrophils and monocytes function primarily as phagocytes; that is, they attack
and engulf invading microorganisms. About 30 percent of the white blood cells are
lymphocytes, about 60 percent are neutrophils, and about 8 percent are monocytes.
The remaining white blood'cells are eosinophils and basophils. Their functions are
uncertain; however, basophils are believed to function in allergic responses.

Platelets

Platelets are small disk-shaped blood fragments produced in the bone marrow. They
lack nuclei and are much smaller than erythrocytes. Also known technically as
thrombocytes, they serve as the starting material for blood clotting. The platelets
adhere to damaged blood vessel walls, and thromboplastin is liberated from the
 injured tissue. Thromboplastin, in turn, activates other clotting
factors in the blood.
Along with calcium ions and other factors, thromboplastin converts
the blood protein
prothrombin into thrombin. Thrombin then catalyzei the conversion
of its blood
protein fibrinogen into a protein calledfibrir, *hi.h forms patchwork
a mesh at the
injury site. As blood cells are trapped in the mesh, a blood clot forms.

Lymphatic system

The lymphatic system is an extension of the circulatory system consisting

of a fluid
known as lymph, capillaries called lymphatic vessels, ani structures
called lymph
nodes. Lymph is a watery fluid derived from plasma that has seeped
out of ihe blood
system capillaries and mingled with the cells. Rather than returning to
the heart
through the blood veins, this lymph enters a series of one-way tymptratic
vessels that
return the fluid to the circulatory system. Along the way, the ducts pass
through
hundreds of tiny, capsulelike bodies called tymptr noaes. Located in the
neck
armpits, and groin, the lymph nodes contain cells that filter the lymph and
phagocytize foreign particles.

The spleen is composed primarily of lymph node tissue. Lying close to the stomach,
the spleen is also the site where red blood cells are destroyld.lhe spleen serves as
a
reserve blood supply for the body.

.The lymph nodes are also the primary sites of the white
blood cells called
lymphocytes. The body has two kinds of lymphocytes: B-lymphocytes and r-
lymphocytes. Both of these cells can be stimulated by microorganisms or other
foreign materials called antigens in the blood. Antigens are pi&ed up by phagocytes
and lymph and delivered to the lymph nodes. Here, ih" ly-pt ocyes are-stimulated
through a process called the immune response.

Certain antigens, primarily those of fungi and protozoa, stimulate the T-lymphocytes.
After stimulation, these lymphocytes leave the lymph nodes, enter the circulation,
and proceed to the site where the antigens of microorganisms were detected. The T-
lymphocytes interact with the microorganisms cell toiell and destroy them. This
process is called cell-mediated immunity.

B-lymphocytes are stimulated primarily by bacteria, viruses, and dissolved materials.

On stimulation, the B-lymphocytes revert to large antibody-producing cells called
plasma cells. The plasma cells synthesize proteins called antibodier, which are
released into the circulation. The antibodies flow to the antigen site and destroy the
microorganisms by chemically reacting with them in a highly specific manner. The
reaction encourages phagocytosis, neutralizes many microbial toxins, eliminates the
ability of microorganisms to move, and causes them to bind together in large masses.
This process is called antibody-mediated immunify. After the microorganisms have
been removed, the antibodies remain in the bloodstream and provide lifelong
protection to the body. Thus, the body becomes immune to specific disease
microorganisms.
 Disorders of the Circulatory System

Atherosclerosis

The accumulation of fatty deposits within the lining of an artery is termed atherosclerosis.
These a.reas, called plaques, gradually thicken and harden with fibrous material, sells, and other
deposits, restricting the lumen (opening) of the vessel and redueing blood flow to the tissues,
a
condition knorm as ischemia.
Atherosclerosis of the eoronary vesseis is a primary cause of heart disease. One sign of such
coronary artety disease (CaOl is the type of chest pain known as angina pectoris. This is a feeling of
constriction around the heart or pain that may radiate to the left arm or shoulder, usually brought oriUy
exertion. Often there is anxiety, diaphoresis (sweating), and dyspnea (difficulty in breathing;. angina
pectoris is treated by control of exercise and administration of nitroglycerin to dilate .oronuiy vesJels"
Other drugs may be used to regulate the heartbeat, strengthen the force of heart cpntraction, or prevent
formation of blood clots. Severe cases may be candidates frir angioplasty, which is surgical dilatation of
the blocked vessel by means of a catheter. Still further, the blocked vessel may be surgieally bypassed
with a vascular graft.
Atherosclerosis also predisposes to thrombosis, the formation of a blood clot or thrombus in a
vessel" Sudden occlusion (blockage) of a coronary artery by a thrombus causes local necrosis (death) i:f
tissue and formation of an infarct. This is the myocardial infarction or "heart attack" that is a leading
cause of sudden death. Symptoms include pain over the heart (precr:rdial pain) or upper parl of the
abdomen (epigastric pain) that may extend to the jaw or arms, pallor (paleness), diaphoresls, nuoseu,
and dyspnea. There may be a burning sensation similar to indigestion or heartbum. Often there is an
abnormality of heart rhythm, or arrhythmia, usually fibrillation, an extremely rapid, ineffective
beating of the hearl" Outcome is based on the degree of damage and early treatment to dissolve the clot
and reestablish normal heart rhythm. Myocardial infarction (MI) can be diagnosed by
electrocardiography (EKG), study of the electrical impulses given off by the heart as it functions, by
measurement of certain enzymes (CPK, LDH, AST) released into the blood from the damaged heart
muscle, and by a variety of other methods.
Atherosclerosis is a major cause of disease in industrialized countries, and the factors that
contribute to it are familiar to most people: heredity, high blood presswe, cigarette smoking, a diet high
in fat, lack of exercise, and stress. Other vessels commonly affected are the aorta, the earotid arteries
ieadiiig to the head, the cerebral arteries, arid afteries in thre leg"

Embolism

Occlusion of a vessel by a thrombus or other mass carried in the bloodstream is embotism" and
the mass itself is called an embolus. Usually the mass is a blood slot that breaks loose from the wail of
a vessel, but it rnay also be air (as from injection or trauma), fat (as from marrow released after a bone
break), bacteria, or other solid materials. Often a venous thrombus will travel through the heart and
then lodge in an artery of the lungs, resulting in a life-threatening pulmonary embolism. An embolus
from a carotid artery often blocks a cerebral vessel, causing a stroke.

Aneurysm

An arterial wall weakened by atherosclerosis or other cause rnay "nalloon out, forming aa
aneurysm" If the aileurysm ruptures, hemorrhage results, causing a strttke, or cerebrovaseular accident
(CVA), if a cerebral artery is involved. In a dissecting aneurysm, blood hemorrhages into the thick
middie layer of the artery wail, separating the muscle as it spreads and sometimes rupturing the rressel.
The aorta is most commonly involveci. It may be possible to repair a disseeting aneurysm surgicaliy
with a graft.
Heart Failure

When the heart fails to cntpty cllbctivcty for any reason, the general
term heart failure is
applied. The resulting increased pressure in the venous system leads io
edema, often in the lungs
(pulmonary edema), and justifies the description congestive heaft failure
(CHp)" Other symptoms are
cyanosis, dyspnea, and syncope. Heart failure is treated with rest,
drugs to strengthen heart
contractions, diuretics to eliminate fluid, and restriction of salt in the diet.

Hypertension

Hypertension, or high blood pressure: is a contributing factor in all the conditions described
atcve. In simple terms, hypertension is defined as a systolic
f...r,rr* greater than 140 mm Hg or a
diastolic pressure greater than 90 mm I{g. It causes the left ventiicle to eniarge (hypertrophy)
as a result
of increased work. Some cases are secondary to other disorders, such -as'kidney maifrrnction or
endocrine disturbance, but most cases of hypertension are due to unknown causes and are described
as
primary or essential hypertension. The condition is controlled with diuretics, vasorjilators,
and most
recently with drugs"

Medical terminology
1. Match the following terms to their proper definitions: a) atherosclerosis, b) cyanosis,
e)
dyspnea, d) edema, e) embolism, f) embolus, h) fibrillation, i) heart failure, j) hyperiension, k)
infarction, l) ischemia, m) murmur, n) phlebitis, o) stenosis, p) stroke, q) syncope, r) thrombosis,
s) thrombus.

19. The development of fatty, fibrous patches (plaques) in the rining of arteries, eausing narrowing
of the lumen and hardening of the vessel wall. The most common fonn of arteriosclerosis" (R.oot
ather/o means "porridge" or "gruel").
20. A blood clot that forms within a blood vessel"
2t. Inflarnmation of a vein.
22. Localized necrosis (death) of tissue resulting from a blockage or a narrowing of the artery that
supplies the area. A myocardial infarction (MI) ocours in eardiac muscle and usually rlsuits
from formation of a thrombus in a coronary artery.
23. Swelling of body tissues due to the presence of excess fluid. Causes include cardiovascular
disturbances, kidney failure, inflammation, and malnutrition.
24.Loeal deficiency of blood supply due to obstruction of the circulation.
25. Constriction or narrowing of an opening.
26. Bluish discoloration of the skin due to lack of oxygen.
27. Development of a blood clot within a vessel.
28. A condition caused by the inability of the heart to maintain adequate circulation of blood"
29. Difficult or labored breathing"
30" A temporary loss of eonsciousness due to inadequate blood flow to the brain; fainting.
31. Spontaneous, quivering and ineffectual coniraction of rnuscle fibers, as in the atria or the
ventricles"
32" An abnormal heart sound"
33. Sudden damage to the brain resulting from reduction of blood flow. Causes include
atherosclerosis, thrombosis, or herncrrhage ftom a ruptured aneurysm. Also called
cerebrovascular aecident. (CVA)
34. Obstruction of a blood vessel by a blood clot or other matter carried in the eirculation.
35. A mass carried in the circulation. tlsually a blood clot, but rnay alser by air, fat, bacteria, or
other solid matter fiorn within or from outside the body.
36. A condition of higher than normal bl<lod pressure.
 VOCABTILAIT Y PRAC'TIC]E

1. Fiii il tlie blanl<s rvitlr tlie :rpproliriatc.,r,ord.

a) Intake. expeiiing. pliat'i,',r,* traoirea. air Sai's, Iari,trx. pici.,s 1p. ai'n.toius;. i^iasie
itrcduct. moutli,
L'rcinch ial iubes.
The s5,'stem oithe boci;"'tha1 is resporrsible lor the .., clos,gelr a6d tire ... ,-rf carLron c!ioxide is caliecj
-l'i-re
the respiratory s).'stem. inain pafts of ihe respiratot.).s.,rs1s11i ar.e: tlre nose. . ... ancj
tlie lungs. As in the circLiiatory
systen'i. the passages or tubes in the resniratory system become smaller and srnalier as the5, go fr-st1
the nrouth to the ... in the iLrngs. Oxygen ancj oarbon ciioricie pass ii'eeii fi'om ihe ... to surroundins
blood vessels and vice versa. Blood carries cxygen to the cells and ,". carbon ciioxide as a ... .

b) Respilatory system, tisst:es, lymph nodes, lifeline. tissues, vital sigrrs, by r,,,;r.,- ol-rvastes, white
blood cells. properly, ti'ri'n-rr-rs, nutrieirts. blooc clotring. relrove" circulation.
Gooci ... is vitai toihealth, Ceils, ..., organs and 'oody systems cannc)i lirnction .." if circLrlation is
inadequate. The cireulatory svstem is the "." for the cniire body. When yr)Li rxaslrre .... you are
measuring the vitality of the body.
The circuiatory systetr serves three primar)/ functions. Tirey are: carrying fbod ancl oxygen to cells ...
the biood vesselsl renroving.". fiorn cells: fighting infection by carrying ... and other ciisease flghting
substances.
The heai'i, blood celis, blood vessels. and ,.. are considered part of tlre cii'culaiory system. Someiimes
the spleen and... are also inciuded. Tl-,e n:ain function within this s1,51sm is the puinping of blooci b,v
the heart to all pafis of the body, inclr"rciing the tiny ceils. T'he purpose is to bring dissolved food (.."j,
oxygen, hortnones, antibodies and ... factors to lhe cells, and to ... r,vaste proCucts from the cells, The
circuiation of blood also helps to heep the 'oody at an even temperature and balance the fluid level.
The circulatorv system g,orlcs closell,'rvith the ... .

2. Tlte tenq;le, tlte throat, tlte left lireasl, the inner elbow, the wrist, the tliigh, the
foot are the seven
prirnary puise points in tlie humen body. For each of them you are to supply synonyms, as in the
example"
e.g., the temple - temporal pulse

3. h'Ia"ke uit the lvord famiiy of the foliowing rycrds: pharynx, larynx, trachea.

4. il{rtclr the u,orC rvith the correct description oi" dcfinition:

Carb<thvdraies, plasma, vt,ltite corpu,scles, aorta, capiilctries, bile, stomctcit, incoittinence. excretiL)n.,
insuliit

A sac-lil<e bulge in the alimentary canal belo'w the esophagus and above the srna.li intestine which
c!igests arid holds food
A hon one secreted by the itancreas essential for prr'spsl.metabolisrn of srigar.
Sugars, starches, and ceilulose. Foocis containrng carbon hydl'ogen, and oxygen.
A secretion of the liver stored in the gall bladder and releaseC into the srnail intesiine to aid in
digesting fats.
The iargest artery carrying blood frcm the left sicje of the heait.
Tiny L,lood vessels with thin r,vails that ailorv ox,vgen and nutrients to be passed thi-oLrgli tirem to
nearby cells.
The liquid porlion of tiie blood.
White blcod cells. They, fight infbction.
'I-lre process of excreting and eliminating rvastes
fiorn the bocii,.
The inability to control one's bolel or bladder' f,unctiorrs.
 2. Match the terms in each of theses sets with thr:ir definitions and write the appropriate
letter (a-e) to the left of each number.
_ l. endocardium a. heart's pacemaker
_2. mitral b. thin membrane that lines the heart
3' pericardium c. pertaining to the left atrioventricular valve
- 4" SA node
_ d. vessel that empties into the right atrium
_ 5. vena cava e. fibrous sac around the heart

_ 6. thrombosis a. local blood deficiency

_,7. dysrhghmia b. formation of a blood clot in a vessel
_ 8. cardioversion c. abnormal heartbeat
__ 9. aneurysm d. defibrillation
10. ischemia e. localized dilatation of a blood vessel

_ fibrillation
11. a. twisted and swollen vessel
*-12. heart block b.part of the heart's conduction system
_ 13. atheriosclerosis e. accumulation of fatty material in the vessels
_ 14" varix d. ineffective quivering of muscle
_ 15. Purkinje fibers e. interruption in the heart conduction system

_ 16. embolism a. central opening, as of avessel'

_17. ductus arteriosus b. area over the heart
_ 18. lumen c. blockage of a vessel with a clot or plug
_ 19. infarct d. vessel that bypasses the lungs in fetal circulation
__20" precordium. e. area of dead tissue caused by lack of blood supply

disease
__21. Hodgkin's a. removal of a dilatation in a vessel
_Z2.lymphedema b. swelling of tissue due to lymph blockage
_23. tkombolysis c" malignant disease of lymphoid tissue
__24.lymphadenopathy d. any disease of a ll,rnph node
_25" aneurysmectomy e. dissolving of a blood clot

3. Fill in the blanks:

I " Each upper receiving chamber of the heart is a(n) . . ..
2. The heart chamber that pumps into the aorta is the . ..
"

3. A vessel that carries blood back to the heart is a(n) . " ".
4. The microscopic vessels through which materials are exchanged between the blood and the tissues
are the . ...
5. The relaxation phase of the heart cycle is called . " . .
6. The large lymphoid organ in the upper left abdomen is the .. ".
7. The large artery that supplies the head is the .....
8. The large vein that drains the head is the .. ...
9. Endarteritis is inflammation of the lining of a(n) ."...
10. Pirlebostasis is stoppage of blood flow in a(n) ....
1 1 . Thrombophlebitis is inflammation of a vein associated with formation cf a(n) . " ".

i2. Blood returning to the heart from the lungs enters the chamber of the heart named the .,..
13 " A small artery is called a(n) . . ..
14. The adjeetive ischemic means lacking in....
15. The lymphoid gland in the chest is the . ...
16" An embolectomy is the removal of a(n)."..
17" The largest artery is the ....
18" At its lower end, the aorta divides into a pair of arteries called the " . . .
19. T'he longest vein in the body, which runs the length of the leg, is the . " ,.
20. A phlebotomist is one who drains blood from a .. ..
21. A varicotomy is the incision of a(n) " . ..
22. A sin"us rhythm is a normal heart rhythm that originar.cs at the .. ".
23. Another term for the leaflet of a valve is the . . ".
24. The word that means inflammation of a vein is . . .
"

4. Select the correct answer:

1. The wordpercutaneous means:
a. on the skin
b. through the skin
c. into a vessel
d. into the blood
e" into the skin
2. The word transluminal pertains to the lumen of a vessel, whieh is the
a. wall
b. branch
c. outer layer
d. central opening
e" valve
3. The term that means baclc/low, as of blood, is
a" infarction
b. regurgitation
c. amplitude
d. prolapse
e. tourniquet
4.The popliteal vein is in the
a. arm
b. thish
c. knee
d. heart
e" ankle
5. The interventricular septum is the
a. cavity of the ventricle
b. wall between the atrium and ventricle
c. valve between the atrium and ventricle

e. vessel that carries blood out ofthe ventricle

5. Write the adjective form of each of the following words:

1. septum
2. apex
3. aorta
4. artery
5. vein
6. ventricle
7. diastole
8. sclerosis
9. spleen
10. varix
 Urinary system
The principal function of the urinary system is to maintain the volume and composition of body
fluids within normal limits. One aspect of this function is to rid the body of wasie products that
accumulate as a result of cellular metabolism, and because of this, it is sometimes referred to as
the excretory system. The urinary system maintains an appropriate fluid volume by reguiating the
amount of water that is excreted in the urine. Other aspects of its function include regutating ine
concentrations of various electrolytes in the body fluids and maintaining normal pU of tne blood.
In addition to maintaining fluid homeostasis in the body, the urinary system controls red blood
cell production by secreting the hormone erythropoietin. The urinary system also plays a role in
maintaining normal blood pressure by secreting the en4rme renin.

The urinary system consists ofthe kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, and urethra

The kidneys are the primary organs of the urinary system. The kidneys are the organs that filter
the blood, remove the wastes, and excrete the wastes in the urine. They are the orfans that
perform the functiors of the urinary system. The other components are accessory structures to
eliminate the urine from the body. The paired kidneys are Iocated between the twelfth thoracic
and third lumbar vertebrae, one on each side of the vertebral column. The right kidney usually is
slightly lower than the left because the liver displaces it downward. The kidneys protected by the
lower ribs, lie in shallow depressions against the posterior abdominal wall and behind the parietal
peritoneum. This means they are retroperitoneal. Each kidney is held in place by connective
tissue, called renal fasci4 and is surrounded by athick layer ofadipose tissue, called perirenal fal
which helps to protect it. A tough, fibrous, connective tissue renal capsule closely envelopes each
kidney and provides support for the soft tissue that is inside. In the adult, each kidney is
approximately 3 cm thick, 6 cm wide, and12 cm long. It is roughly bean-shaped with an
indentation, called the hilum, on the medial side. The hilum leads to a large cavify, called the
renal sinus, within the kidney. The ureter and renal vein leave the kidney, and the renal artery
enters the kidney at the hilum. The outer, reddish region is the renal cortex.This surrounds a
darker region called renal medulla. The latter consists of a series od renal pyramids which appear
striated because they contain straight tubular structures and blood vessels. The wide bases of the
pyramids are adjacent to the cortex and the pointed ends, called renal papillae, are directed
toward the center ofthe kidney. Portions ofthe renal cortex extend into the spaces between
adjacent pyramids to form renal columns. The cortex and medulla make up the parenchyrna, or
functional tissue, of the kidney. The central region of the kidney contains the renal pelvis, which
is located in the renal sinus and is continuouS with the ureter. The renal pelvis is a large cavity
that collects the urine as it is produced. The periphery of the renal pelyis is intemrpted by cuplike
projections called calyces. A minor calyx surrounds the renal papillae of each pyramid and
collects urine from that pyramid. Several minor calyces converge to form a major calyx. From the
major calyces the urine flows into the renal pelvis and from there into the ureter.

Each kidney contains over a million functional units, called nephrons, in the parenchyma (cortex
and medulla). A nephron has two parts: a renal corpuscle and a renal tubule.The renal corpuscle
consists of a cluster of capillaries, called the glomerulus, surrounded by a double-layered
epithelial cup, called the glomerular capsule. An afferent arteriole leads into the renal corpuscle
and an efferent arteriole leaves the renal corpuscle. Urine passes from the nephrons into
collecting ducts then into the minor calyces.The juxtaglomerular apparatus, which monitors blood
pressue and secretes renin, is formed from modified cells in the afferent arteriole and the
ascending limb of the nephron loop.
 Each ureter is a small tube, about 25 cm long, that carries
urine from the renal pelvis to the
urinary bladder. It descends from the renal pelvis, along
the fori"rio. abdominair*tl b.hind th.
parietal peritoneum, and enters the urinary 6luad"r
on ti. portoio. inferior surface.
The urinary bladder is a temporary storage reservoir for urine. It is located in the pelvic
cavity,
posteriorlo the symphysis pubis, and belowlhe parietal peritoneum.
The size and sirape of the
urinary bladder varies with the amount of urine it contains and
with pressure it receives from
surrounding organs. The inner lining of the urinary bladder is
a mucous membrane of transitional
epithelium that is continuous with that in the ureters. When the
bladder is empty, the mucosa has
numerous folds called rugae, The rugae and transitional epithelium
allow the biadder to expand as
it fiils. The second layer in the walls is the submucosa thai ,rppo.t,
the mucous membrane. It is
composed of connective tissue with elastic fibers. The next
laylr is the muscularis, which is
composed of smooth muscle. The smooth muscle fibers are
interwoven in all directions and
collectively these are called the detrusor muscle. Contraction of this
muscle expels u.ine aom ttre
bladder. on the superior surface, the outer layer of the bladder wall
is parietal peritoneum. ln all
other regions, the outer layer is fibrous connective tissue. There
is a triangular area, called the
trigone, formed by three openings in the floor of the urinary bladder.
TwJ of the openings are
from the ureters and form the base of the trigone. Small flaps of
mucosa cover these openings and
act as valves that allow urine to enter the bladder but prevent it from
backing up fromihe bladder
into the ureters' The third opening, at the apex of the trigone, is the openinglnto
the urethra. A
band of the detrusor muscle encircles this opening to foim the internal
uretLal sphincter.
The final passageway for the flow of urine is the urethra, a thin-walled
tube that conveys urine
from the floor of the urinary bladder to the outside. The opening to the
outside is the external
urethral orifice. The mucosal lining of the urethra is transitionaiepithelium.
The wall also
contains smooth muscle fibers and is supported by connective tissue.
The internal urethral
sphincter surrounds the beginning of the urethra, where it leaves the urinary
bladder. This
sphincter is smooth (involuntary) muscle. Another sphincter, the extemal urethral
sphincter, is
skeletal (voluntary) muscle and encircles the urethra where it go., through
tt p.fri. n"or. These
two sphincters control the flow of urine through the urethra.In-females, tf," "
,r."ih.u is short, only 3
outsiae jrrt *i"rio. to
to 4 cm (about 1.5 inches) long. The external urethral orifice opens to ine
the opening for the vagina. In males, the urethra is much longei, about
20 cm (7 to g inches) in
l:ngrt, and transports both urine and semen. The first part, nExt to the urinarytladder, passes
through the prostate gland and is called the prostatic urethra. The second pui,
ushort iegion that
penetrates the pelvic floor and enters the penis, is called the
membranous urethra. The third part,
the spongy urethr4 is the longest region. This portion of the urettra extends
the entire length of
the penis, and the external urethral orifice opens to the outside at the tip ofthe penis.
 ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

The endocrine system is instrumental in regulating mood, growth

and development,
tissue function, metabolism, and sexual function and reproductive processes.In
general,
the endocrine system is in charge of body processes that happen slowly,
such as cell
growth. Faster processes like breathing and body rnovement are
controlled by the nervous
system' But even though the nervous system and endocrine system
are separate systems,
they often work together to help the body function properly.

What Is the Endocrine System?

The foundations of the endocrine system are the hormones and glands.
As the body,s
chemical messengers, hormones transfer information and instructions from
one set of
cells to another. Many different hormones rnove through the bloodstream,
but each type
of hormone is designed to affect only certain cells.A gland is a group of cells that
produces and secretes, or gives off, chemicals. A gland selects and removes
materials
from the blood, processes them, and secretes the finished chemical product for use
somewhere in the body. Some types of glands release their secretions in specific
areas.
For instance, exocrine glands, such as the sweat and salivary glands, release secretions
in the skin or inside the mouth. Endocrine glands, on the other hand, release more
than
20 major hormones directly into the bloodstream where they can be transported
to cells in
other parls of the body.The major glands that rnake up the human endocrine system
include the:

. hypothalamus
. pituitary gland
. thyroid
r parathyroids
. adrenal glands
. pineal body
. reproductive glands (rvhich include the ovaries and testes)

The hypothalamus, a collection of specialized cells that is located in the lower central
part of the brain, is the main link between the endocrine and nervous systems. Nerve cells
in the hypothalamus control the pituitary gland by producing chernicals that either
stimulate or suppress hormone secretions fiorn the pituitary.

Although it is no bigger than a pea, the pituitary gland, located at the base of the brain
just beneath the hypothalamus, is considered the most irrportant paft of the endocrine
system. It's often called the "master gland" because it makes hormones that control
several other endocrine glands. The production and secretion of pituitary hormones can
be influenced by factors such as emotions and changes in the seasons. To accomplish
this, the hypothalamus provides information sensed by the brain (such as environmental
temperature, light exposure patterns, and feelings) to the pituitary.The tiny pituitary is
divided into two parts: the anterior lobe and the posterior lobe. The anterior lobe
regulates the activity of the thyroid, adrenals, and reproductive glands. The anterior lobe
produces hormones such as:

o growth hormone, which stimulates the growth of bone and other body tissues
and plays a role in the body's handling of nutrients and minerals

. prolactin which activates milk production in women who are breastfeeding

. thyrotropin, which stimulates the thyroid gland to produce thyroid hormones

. corticotropin which stimulates the adrenal gland to produce certain hormones

The pituitary also secretes endorphins, chemicals that act on the nervous system and
reduce feeiings of pain. In addition, the pituitary secretes hormones that signal the
reproductive organs to make sex hormones. The pituitary gland also controls ovulation
and the menstrual cycle in women.The posterior lobe of the pituitary releases
antidiuretic hormone, which helps control the balance of water in the body. The
posterior lobe also produces oxytocin, which triggers the contractions of the uterus in a
woman having a baby.

The thyroid, located in the front part of the lower neck, is shaped like a bow tie or
butterfly and produces the thyroid hormones thyroxine and triiodothyronine. These
hormones control the rate at which cells burn fuels from food to produce energy. The
production and release of thyroid hormones is controlled by thyrotropin which is
secreted by the pituitary gland. The more thyroid hormone there is in a person's
bloodstream, the faster chemical reactions occur in the body.

Attached to the thyroid are four tiny glands that function together called the
parathyroids. They release parathyroid hormone, which regulates the level of calcium
in the blood with the help of calcitonin, which is produced in the thyroid.

The body also has two triangular adrenal glands, one on top of each kidney. The adrenal
glands have two parts, each of which produces a set of hormones and has a different
function. The outer part, the adrenal cortex, produces hormones called corticosteroids
that influence or regulate salt and water balance in the body, the body's response
to stress,
metabolism, the immune system, and sexual development and function. The inner part,
the adrenal medulla, produces catecholamines, such as epinephrine. Also called
adrenaline, epinephrine increases blood pressure and heart rate when the body
experiences stress.

The pineal body, also called the pineal gland, is located in the middle of the brain. lt
secretes melatonin, a hormone that may help regulate when you sleep at night and when
you wake in the morning.

The gonads are the main source of sex hormones. Most people don't realize it, but both
guys and girls have gonads. In guys the male gonads, or testes are located in tl-re scrotum.
They secrete hormones called androgens the most important of which is testosterone . A
girl's gonads, the ovaries are located in her pelvis. They produce eggs and secrete the
female hormones estrogen and progesterone. Estrogen and progesterone are also
involved in the regulation of a girl's menstrual cycle. These hormones also play a role in
pregnancy.

Although the endocrine glands are the body's main hormone producers, some other
organs not in the endocrine system - such as the brain, heart, lungs, kidneys, liver, and
skin - also produce and release hormones. The pancreas is also part of the body,s
hormone-secreting system, even though it is also associated with the digestive system
because it produces and secretes digestive enzymes. The pancreas produces (in addition
to others) two important hormones, insulin and glucagon. They work together to
maintain a steady level of glucose, or sugar, in the blood and to keep the body supplied
with fuelto produce and maintain stores of energy.

What Does the Endocrine System Do?

Once a hormone is secreted, it travels from the endocrine gland that produced it through
the bloodstream to the cells designed to receive its message. These cells are called target
cells. Along the way to the target cells, specialproteins bind to some of the hormones.
These proteins act as carriers that control the amount of hormone that is available for the
cells to use. The target cells have receptors that latch onto only specific hormones, and
each hormone has its own receptor, so that each hormone will communicate only with
specific target cells that have receptors for that hormone. When the hormone reaches its
target cell, it locks onto the cell's specific receptors and these hormone-receptor
cornbinations transmit chemical instructions to the inner workings of the cell.
When hormone levels reach a certain normal amount, the endocrine system helps the
gland has
body to keep that level of hormone in the blood. For example, if the thyroid
secreted the right amount of thyroid hormones into the blood, the pituitary
gland senses

the normal levels of thyroid hormone in the bloodstream. Then the pituitary
gland adjusts

its releaseof thyrotropin, the hormone that stimulates the thyroid gland to produce
thyroid hormones.

Another example of this process is parathyroid hormone. Parathyroid hormone

increases
parathyroid
the level of calcium in the blood. When the blood calcium level rises, the
glands sense the change and reduce their secretion of parathyroid hormone'
This turnoff
process is called a negative feedback system'

Things That Can Go Wrong With the Endocrine System

Too much or too little of any hormone can be harmful to your body.
For example, if the
tall' If
pituitary gland produces too much growth hormone, a teen may grow excessively
problems
it produ"es too little, a teen may be unusually short. Doctors can often treat
or replacing certain
with the endocrine system by controlling the production of hormones
teens include:
hormones with medication. Some endocrine probleffrs that affect

produce
Adrenal insufficiency. This condition occurs when the adrenal glands don't
may include weakness'
enough corticosteroids. The symptoms of adrenal insufficiency
fatigue, abdorninal pain, nausea, dehydration, and skin changes'
Doctors treat adrenal
insufficiency with medications to replace corticosteroid hormones'

type 1 diabetes
Type 1 diabetes. When the pancreas fails to produce enough insulin,
disorder, which
occurs. In kids and teens, type I diabetes is usually an autoimmune
and destroy the cells of the
means that some parts of the body's immune system attack
pancreas that produce insulin. To control their blood sugar
levels and reduce the risk of
need regular injections
developing diabetes problems, kids and teens with this condition
of insulin.

can't produce normal

Type 2 diabetes. unlike type 1 diabetes, in which the body
amounts of insulin, in type 2 diabetes the body can't respond
to insulin normally' Kids
Some kids and teens can control their
and teens rvith the condition tend to be overr'veight.
medications, but many will
blood sugar level with dietary changes, exercise, and oral
needtotakeinsulininjectionslikepeoplewithtypeidiabetes.
grorvinguill maiie teir 3r-'s E: irk 5n{. qrs _JC,t 3\v-ESsir-eir. This rare condition
(sometimes called gigantisn r is usr.miil caused b1- a piruitan-tumor and can be treated by
removing the tumor. The opposite can happen rvhen a kid or teen has a pituitary glad that
doesn't produce enough grourh hormone. Doctors may treat these growth problems with
medication.Hyperthyroidism. Hrperthl,roidism is a condition in w'hich the levels of
thyroid hormones in the blood are very high. In kids and teens, the condition is usually
caused by Graves' disease, an immune system problem that causes the thyroid gland to
become very active. Doctors ma,v treat hyperthyroidism with medications, surgery, or
radiation treatments.

Hypothyroidism. Hypothyroidism is a condition in which the levels of thyroid hormones

in the blood are very low. Thyroid hormone deficiency slows body processes and may
lead to fatigue, a slow heart rate, dry skin, weight gain, constipation. Kids and teens with
this condition may also grow more slowly and reach puberty at a later age. Hashimoto's
thyroiditis is an immune system problem that often causes problems with the thyroid and
blocks the production of thyroid hormone. Doctors often treat this problem with
medication.

Precocious puberty. If the pituitary glands release hormones that stimulate the gonads to
produce sex hormones too early, some kids may begin to go through puberty at a very
young age. This condition is called precocious puberty. Kids and teens rvho are affected
by precocious puberty can be treated with medication that will help them develop at a
normal rate.
 The Digestive Process

The main purpose of the Digestive system is to break down food

and absorb nutrients.
There are two basic divisions to the digestive system, these are the gastrointestinal
(GI)
tract' also known as the alimentary canai, and the accesory digestive organs. your
mouth,
pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine and large iniestilre compo"se
the GI tract,
and your teeth, tongue, salivary glands, liver, gall blidaer and pancrels
are accessory
organs.The.digestive system carries out six basic processes; ingestion, secretion,
propulsion, digestion, absorption and defecation" lngestion is iaking
food into the mouth.
Secretion is the act of expelling a liquid. The cells lining the GI tract secrete
about 9
liters (9.5 quarts) of water, acid, buffers, ancl enzymes eich day to lubricate
the canal and
aid in the prooess of digestion. Propulsion consiits of alternating contraction
and
relaxation of smooth muscle in the walls of the GI tract to squeeze food
downwards.
Digestion has two parts, mechanical and chemic al. Mechanical digestion
is chewing up
the food and your stomach and smobth intestine chuming the food, while
chemical
digestion is the work the enzymes do when breaking large carbohydrate,
lipid, protein
and nucleic acid molecules down into their subcomponents -these and
others are the
nutrients-. Absorption occurs in the digestive system when the nutrients
move from the
gastrointestinal tract to the blood or lymph. Defecation is the process
of expelling what
the body couldn't use"
The start of the process - the mouth: The digestive process begins in the mouth.
Food
is partly broken down by the process of chewing and 6y the chernical
action of salivary
enzymes (these enzymes are produced by the salivary glands and break
dorvn starches
into smaller molecules).The esophagus - After being &ewed and swallowed,
the food
enters the esophagus. The esophagus is a long tube that runs from the
mouth io the
stomach. It uses rhythmic, wave-like muscle movements (called peristalsis)
to force food
from the throat into the stomach. This musele movement gives ui th" abiliiy to
eat or
drink even when we're upside-dorvn" In the stomach - The stomach is a laige,
sack-like
organ that churns the food and bathes it in a very strong acid (gastric acid).
Food in the
stomach that is partly digested and mixed with stomach acids is called chyme.
In the
small intestine - After being in the stomach, food enters the duodenum, t-he
first part of
the srnall intestine" It then enters the jejunum and then the ileum (the final part
of the
small intestine). In the small intestine, bile (produced in the liver and stored
in the gall
bladder), pancreatic enzymes, and other digestive enzymes produced by
the inner wall of
the small intestine help in the breakdown of food. tn ihe large intestine -
After passing
through the small intestine, food passes into the large intestine. In the large
intestile,
some of the water and electrolytes (chemicals like sodium) are removed
from the food"
Many microbes (bacteria like Bacteroides, Lactobacillus acidophilus, Escherichia
coli,
and Klebsiella) in the large intestine help in the digestion process.
The first part of the
large intestine is called the cecum (the appendix is connected to the cecum).
Food then
travels upward in the ascending colon. The food travels across the abdomen
in the
transverse colon, goes back down the other side of the body in the descending
colon, and
then through the sigmoid colon" The end of the proeess - Solld
waste is then"stored in
the rectum until it is excreted via the anus.

Digestive System Glossary:

anus - the opening at the end of the digestive system from which feces (waste)
exits the body.
appendix - a small sac located on the cecum.
ascending colon - the part of the large intestine that run upwarcls; it is located
after the eecum.
bile - a digestive chemical that is produced in rhe liver, stored in the gall bladder,
and seereted
into the small intestine.
cecum - the first part of the large intestine; the appendix is connected to the
ceeum.
chyme - food in the stom-ac\ttrat is partly digested and mixed with stomach
acids" Chy,me goes
on to the small intestine for further <iigestion.
descending colon - the part of the large intestine that run downwards after the
transverse colon
and before the sigmoid colon.
duodenum - the first part of the small intestine; it is C-shaped and runs from
the stomach to the
JeJunum.
epiglottis is the flap of cartilage lying behind the tongue and in front of the entrance
to the larynx
(voice box). At rest, the epiglottis is upright and allows air to pass through
the larynx and into the
rest of the respiratory system. During swaliowing, it folds baci to cover the
entrance to the
larynx, preventing food and drink from entering ihe windpipe(trachea)

esophagus - the long tube between the mouth and the stomach. It uses rhythmie
muscle
movements (called peristalsis) to force food from the throat into the stomach.
gall bladder - a small, sac-like organ located by the duodenum. It stores and releases
bile (a
digestive chemical which is produced in the liver) into the small intestine.
ileum - the last part of the small intestine before the large intestine begins.
jejunum - the long, coiied mid-section of the small intestine; it is between
the duodenum and the
ileum.
Iiver - a large organ located above and in front of the stomach. It filters toxins from
the blood,
and makes bile (which breaks down fats) and some blood proteins"
omentum is an apronlike double fold of fatty membrane that hangs down in front of
the
intestines. It contains blood vessels, nelves, lymph vessels and lymph nodes" It
acls as a storage
for fat and also may limit the spread of infectionin the abdominal cavity.
pancreas - an enzyme-producing gland located below the stomactr and above
the intestines.
Enzymes from the pancreas help in the digestion of carbohydrates, fats and proteins
in the small
intestine.
peristalsis - rhythmic muscle movements that force food in the esophagus from the
throat into the
stomach. Peristalsis is invoiuntary * you cannot control it. It is also what allows you
to eat and
drink while upside-down.
rectum - the lower part ofthe large intestine, where feces are stored before they are excreted.
salivary glands - glands located in the mouth that produce saliva. Saliva contains enzymes
that
break down carbohydrates (starch) into smaller molecules"
sigrnoid colon - the part of the large intestine between the descending colon and the rectum.
stomach - a sack-like, muscular organ that is attached to the esophagus. Both chernical
and
mechanical digestion takes place in the stomach. When food enters fre stomach,
it is churned in a
bath of acids and enzymes.
transverse colon - the part of the large intestine that runs horizontally across the abdomen.
 Disorders of the Ear and Hearing

Hearing Loss. Hearing impairment may result from disease, injury, or developmental problems
that affect the ear itself or any nervous pathways concerned with the ,.nr. of hearing. Sensorineural
hearing loss results from damage to the eighth cranial nerve or to central auditory put-h*uyr. Heredity,
toxins, exposure to ioud noises, and the aging process are possible causes for this type gf hearing toss.
may range lrom inability to hear certain frequencies of sound to a complete loss tf hearing (deafness).
ii
Conductive hearing loss results from blockage in sound transmission 6 the inner ear. Causes include
obstruction, severe infection, or fixation of the middle ear ossicles. Often the conclitions that cause
conductive hearing loss can be treated successfuliy"
Otitis is any inflammation of the ear" Otitis media refers to an infection that leads to the
accumulation of fluid in the middle ear cavity. One cause is malfunction or obstruction of the eustaclfan
tube, such as by ailergy, enlarged adenoids, injury, or congenital abnormalities. Another cause is infection
that spreads to the middle ear, most commonly from the upper respiratory tract. Continued infection may
lead to accumulation of pus and perforation of the eardrum. Otitis media usually affects children under 5
years of age and may result in hearing loss. If untreated, the infection may spread to other regions of the
ear and head treatment is with antibiotics. A tube may also be placed in the tympanic membrane to
ventilate the middle ear cavity, a procedure called a myringotomy.
In otosclerosis the bony structure of the inner ear deteriorates and then refbrms into spongy bone
tissue that may eventually harden. Most commonly, the stapes beeomes fixed against the innei ear and is
unable to vibrate, resulting in conductive hearing loss. The cause is unknown, but some cases are
hereditary" The damaged bone can usually be removed surgically. In a stapedectomy the stapes is
removed and a prosthetic bone is inser:ted"
Meniere's Disease is a disorder that affects the inner ear. It appears to involve the productioir and
circulation of the fluid that fills the inner ear, but the cause is unknown. The symptoms are vertigo
(dizziness), hearing loss, pronounced tinnitus (ringing in the ears), and a feeling of pressure in the ear" The
course of the disease is uneven, and symptoms may become less severe with time. Meniere's disease is
treated with drugs to control nausea and dizziness, such as those used to treat motion sickness. In severe
cases, the inner ear or part of the 8th cranial nerve may be destroyed surgically.
An acoustic neuroma is a tumor that arises from the neurilemma (sheath) of the Sth cranial nerve.
As the tumor enlarges, it presses on surrounding nerves and interferes with blood supply. This leads to
tinnitus, dizziness, and progressive hearing loss. Other symptoms develop as the tumor presses on the brain
stem and other cranial nerves. Usually it is necessary to remove the tumor surgically.

Disorders of the Eye and Vision

Errors of Refraction" If the eyeball is too long, images will form in front of the retina. In order to
focus clearly, an object must be brought eloser to the eye. This condition of nearsightedness is technically
called myopia. The opposite condition is hyperopia, or farsightedness, in which the eyeball is too short
and images form behind the retina. Objects must be moved away from the eye in order to focus clearly.
The same effect is produced by presbyopia, which accompanies aging. The lens loses elasticity and can no
longer accommodate for near vision. The person becomes increasingly farsighted. An astigmatism is an
inegularity in the curve of the cornea or lens that distorts light entering the eye and blurs vision. Most of
these impairments can be compensated for with glasses.
Infection. Several microorganisms can cause conjunctivitis (inflammation of the conjunctiva).
T'his is a highly infeetious disease commonly called "pinkeye". The bacterium Chlaniydia trachomatis
causes trachoma, inflammation of the oornea and conjunctiva that results in scarring. 'Ihis disease is easily
cured with sulfa drugs and antibiotics.
Gonorrhea contracted in the birth process is the usual cause of an acute conjunctivitis in newboms
ealled ophthalmia neonatorum. Silver nitrate is routinely instilled in the eyes of newbonis to prevent
such infections.
Disorders of the Retina. Retinal detachment, separation of the retina from the underiying layer
of the eye (the choroid), may be caused by atumor, hemorrhage, or injury to the eye. This interferes with
vision and is eommonly repaired with laser surgery.
 Degeneration of the macula, the point of sharpest vision, is a common cause of visual problems in
the elderly. When associated with aging, this del,erioration is described as senile macular dLgeneration
(SMD)" Other causes are <irug toxicity and hereditary diseases.
Circulatory problems associated with diabctes mellitus eventually cause changes in the retina
referred to as diabetic retinopathy. In addition to vascular damage, there is a yellowish, waxy exudate
high in lipoproteins. With time, new blood vessels form and penetrate the vitreous humor, causing
hemorrhage, detachment of the retina, and blindness.
A cataract is an opacity (cloudiness) of the lens. Causes of eataract include disease, injury,
chemicals, and exposure to physical forces, especially the ultraviolet radiation in sunlight. The cataracts
that frequently appear with age may result from exposure to environmeniai factors in combination with
degeneration due to aging. In order to prevent blindness, the cloudy lens must be removed surgically by
one of several methods" Following cataract removal, an artificial lens can be implanted or the person can
wear a contact lens or special glasses.
Glaucoma is an abnormal increase in pressure r,,ithin the eyeball. It occurs when more aqueous
humor is produced than can be drained away from the eye. There is pressure on blood vessels in the eye
and on the optic nerve, leading to blindness" There are many causes of glaucoma, and screening for
glaucoma should be a part of every routine eye examination" Fetal infeetion with German rneasles (rubella)
early in pregnancy can cause glaucoma, as well as cataracts and hearing impairment. Glaueoma is usually
treated with medication to reduce pressure in the eye, and is occasionaliy treated with surgery"

1" N{atch the terms in each of theses sets with their definitions and write the appropriate
Ietter (a-e) to the left of each number.
_ 1. proprioception a. inner ear
_* 2. olfaetion b. sense of smell
__ 3. gustation c" small bones of the middle ear
_ 4. labyrinth d. sense of taste
_ 5. ossicles e" awareness of body position

_ 6" pinna a. passage that cormects the middle ear and pharynx
_ 7. vestibular apparatus b. produces tears
_ 8. Eustachian tube c. projecting portion of the ear
__ 9. lacrimal gland d. part of the ear concemed with equilibrium
_ 10" lens e. changes shape for near and far vision

_ 11. presbyacusis a. normal refiaction of the eye

_12. myopia b. complete color blindness
_- 13. achromatopsia c. loss of hearing due to age
_ l .emmetropia d. nearsightedness
_- 15. ophtalmometer e" instrument for measuring the eyes

_ 16. strabismus a. point of sharpest vision

_17. vertigo b. false sensation of movcment
_ 18. mastoid process e. deviation of the eye
_ 19. cataract d. projection of the temporal bone
_20" fovea e. opacity of the lens

2" Fill in the blanks:

i. The coiled portion of the inner ear that contains the receptor for hearing is the . ".
2" The innermost layer of the eye that eontains the receptors for vision is the ...
3. 'fhe scientifie name for the eardrum is .. .
4. The niiddle layer of the eye, consisting of the choroids, eiliary body, and iris is the ...
5. The term oculornotar refers to rnovements of the . ".
6. The ossicle that is in c,ontact with the inner ear is the ".
"

7 . The muscular ring that adjusts the size of the pupil is the ...
8. Ivlydriasis is abnormal dilation of the ...
 System Clinical study Physiology
The nerrrous system consists ofthe central nervous
system (whioh is the brain and spinal cord) and
peripheial nervous system. The Lrain is the organ neurology
:,",1i"-t-:',"'ce,
thought, emotion, and sensory processing, anJ "f (dlsease)' psychtatry
serves many aspects of communication and eontrol
(behavioral),
neurophysiology
of various othei systems and tunctions. The speciat (vision),
:l^11f1]*:l"sv (hearing,
otolaryngo.logy
senses consist of vision, hearing, taste, and smell.
The eyes, ears, tongue, and nose gather inforrnat'on taste, smell)
about the body's environment.
The musculoskeletal system consists of the human
skeleton (which includes bones, ligaments, tendons,
and cartilage) and attached muscles. It gives the
-movemen," (skeleton), cell physiology,
body basiJsiructure and rhe abitity for ::]:ol"q (bone
orthopedics musculoskeletal
In addition to their structural role, the larger bones
in the body contain bone marrow, the site of
cusorclers) physiology
production of blood cells. Also, all bones are major
storag sites for calcium and phosphate.
The circulatory system consists ofthe heart and
blood vessels (arteries, veins, capillaries)" The heart
propels the circulation ofthe blood, which serves as
a "transportation system" to transfer oxygen, fuel,
nutrients, waste products, immune cells, and cardiology (heart), cardiovascular
signalling molecules (i.e., hormones) from one part hematology (blood) physiology
of the body to another. The btood consists of fluid
. that carries cells in the circulation, including some
that move from tissue to blood vessels and back, as
well as the spleen and bone murow.
The respiratory system consists ofthe nose,
nasopharynx, trachea, and lungs. It brings oxygen respiratory
frornthe air and excretes carbon dioxidJ and water pulmollology' physiology
back into the air.
The gastrointestinal system consists ofthe mouth,
esophagus, stomach, gut (small and large intestines),
and rectum, as well as the liver, pancreas,
gallbladder, and salivary glands. It converts food gastroenterology gastrointestinal
into small, nutritional, non-toxic molecules for physiology
distribution by the circulation to all tissues ofthe
body, and excretes the unused residue.
The integumentary system consists of the covering
of the body (the skin), including hair and nails as
well as other functionally important structures such
asthe sweat glands and sebaceous glands, The skin dermatology cell physiology,
provides containment, structure, aird protection for skin physiology
other organs, but it also serves urs a major sensory
interface with the outside world.
The urinary system consists ofthe kidneys, ureters,
bladder, and urethra. It removes water from the nephrology (function),
blood to produce urine, which carries a variefy of urology (struetural renal pliysiology
waste molecules and excess ions 6nd water out of disease)
the body.
The reproductive system consists ofthe gonads gynecology (wornen), reproductive
and the intemal and externai sex organs. The andrology (men), physiology
reproductive system produces gametes in each sex, sexology (behavioral
a mechanism for their combination, and a nurturing usp""tsj embryology
environment for the hrst 9 months of development (divelopmentat asfects;
of the offspring.
The irnmune system consists of the white blood
cells, the thymus, lymph nodes and lyrnph channels,
which are also part of the Iymphatic system. The
immune system provides a mechanism for the body
to distinguish its own cells and tissues from alien immunology immunology
cells and substances and to neutralize or destroy the
Iatter by using specialized proteins such as
antibodies, cytokines, and toll-like receptors, among
many others.
The endocrine system consists ofthe principal
endoorine glands: the pituitary, thyroid, adrenals,
pancreas, parathyroids, and gonads, but nearly all
organs and tissues produce specific endocrine
hormones as well. The endocrine hormones serve as endocrinologl endocrinology
signals from one body system to another regarding
an enornous array ofconditions, and resulting in
variety of changes of firnction.
1. Mary is a healthy 2l-year-old Olympic athlete who no longer has her menses due to her excessive
training. Her condition is called .
a. menorrhagia
b. dysmenorrhea
c. amenorrhea
d. menorrhea
2. Stopping a patient's blood flow during surgery is vital for the patient's survival" This act ofstopping
blood flow is called
a. hemostasis
b" phlebostasis
c. arteriostasis
d. venostasis
3. when doctors refer to pain in the internal organs of the body, they use the term
_.
a. visceroskeletal
b. viscerogenic
c. visceroptosis
visceralgia
d.
4. Human blood contains two types of cells, red and white. The white blood eells are also called
_"
a. melanocyte
b. leukocyte
c. cyanocyte
d. xanthocyte
5. When an examination of the interior ofthe eye is needed, the instrument that a doctor uses is called

a. ophthalmologist
b. ophthalamopathy
c. ophthalmoscope
d. ophthalmoplegia
6. High blood sugar is a conCition knorvn as ._"
a. hypoglycemia
b. hyperglycemia
c. hypoglycogen
d. hyperglycogen
 7. sometimes the testicles of a male child fail to descend from the abdominal
cavity when he is born.
This condition of hidden testicles is called
a" cryptotesticles
b" cryptorchidism
c. orchidism
d. orchidoplasty
8. When a woman's vagina needs to be examined for abnormalities, a specific
instrument is used. This
instrument is called _.
a" colopopathy
b. colposcope
c. vaginascope
d. rynoscope
9. There are three main layers oftissue in humans" The outer germ layer is called the
_.
a- ectoderm
b" endoderm
c, mesoderm
d. retroderm
10. There are three main layers
of tissue in humans. The middle germ layer is called the
a. ectoderm
_.
b. endoderm
c. mesoderm
d. paraderm
I l. There are many one-celled organisms in the world. Another word for one-cell is
a. nullicyte
b. monocyte
c" multicyte
d. muticellular
12. A high fever can cause the body to lose water. This loss of water is called
a. dehydration
b. dehydrated
c. exhydration
d. exhydrated
13" when a tumor is found, it is often cut out and removed. This process is called
a" aberesis
_.
b. exeresis
c. decretion
d. excretion
14. Opium belongs to a certain class of drugs that produces sleep. This type of drug is called
a. narcolepsy
a _.
b. narcotic
c.
narcosis
d. pseudocotic
15' Whenever a solution is injected into thdblood, it must have the same osmotic prossure as red blood
cells. A solution which has the same osmotic pressure is called:.
a. isotonic
b. anotonic
c. peritonic
d. circumotonic
16. When people have an allergic reaction, they may develop hives, which are limited in the space that
they cover. Hives may be called _ wheals"
a. isoscribed
b. diascribe.d
c. periscribed
d. circumscribed
17. Soft contact lenses easily attract water. They are
_"
a" hyrirophobia
 1

t'
t

b. hydrophobic
c. hydrophilic
d. hydrosis
18. When a country's population has people from different ethnic backgrounds, the population is
a. homogeneous
_.
b. heterogeneous
c. homosexual
d. heterosexual
19. When a patient has a problem over the stomach region of the body, the region is called
a. epigasuic
_.
b. infragastic
c. subgasric
d. intragastric
20. When an area is &ee from infection, the area is said to be
a. sepsis
b. septic
c. aseptic
d.d. antiseptic
21. Atype of drug that works against infection is called
a. anticonvulsive
b. antipyretic
c. anitnarcotic
d.d. antibiotic
22. Wher- a person has his/her heart on the right side of the body, the condition is called cardiac

a. transposition
b. contralateral
c. intransposition
d.d. anti-transposition
23. Arteries and nerves can divide into two branches. This division is also called
_.
a. unifurcation
b. bifurcation
c. trifiroation
d. hemifurcation
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b. bicongenital
c. congenital
d. consanguinity
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b. dissection
c. transsection
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