CHEM NOTES ELECTRONEGATIVITY

This page explains what electronegativity is, and how and why it varies around the
Periodic Table. It looks at the way that electronegativity differences affect bond type and
explains what is meant by polar bonds and polar molecules.

If you are interested in electronegativity in an organic chemistry context, you will find a
link at the bottom of this page.

What is electronegativity

Definition

Electronegativity is a measure of the tendency of an atom to attract a bonding pair of

electrons.

The Pauling scale is the most commonly used. Fluorine (the most electronegative
element) is assigned a value of 4.0, and values range down to caesium and francium
which are the least electronegative at 0.7.

What happens if two atoms of equal electronegativity bond together?

Consider a bond between two atoms, A and B. Each atom may be forming other bonds
as well as the one shown - but these are irrelevant to the argument.

If the atoms are equally electronegative, both have the same tendency to attract the
bonding pair of electrons, and so it will be found on average half way between the two
atoms. To get a bond like this, A and B would usually have to be the same atom. You will
find this sort of bond in, for example, H2 or Cl2molecules.

Note: It's important to realise that this is an average picture. The electrons are actually in a molecular
orbital, and are moving around all the time within that orbital.
This sort of bond could be thought of as being a "pure" covalent bond - where the
electrons are shared evenly between the two atoms.

What happens if B is slightly more electronegative than A?

B will attract the electron pair rather more than A does.

That means that the B end of the bond has more than its fair share of electron density
and so becomes slightly negative. At the same time, the A end (rather short of
electrons) becomes slightly positive. In the diagram, " " (read as "delta") means
"slightly" - so + means "slightly positive".

Defining polar bonds

This is described as a polar bond. A polar bond is a covalent bond in which there is a
separation of charge between one end and the other - in other words in which one end
is slightly positive and the other slightly negative. Examples include most covalent
bonds. The hydrogen-chlorine bond in HCl or the hydrogen-oxygen bonds in water are
typical.

What happens if B is a lot more electronegative than A?

In this case, the electron pair is dragged right over to B's end of the bond. To all intents
and purposes, A has lost control of its electron, and B has complete control over both
electrons. Ions have been formed.

A "spectrum" of bonds
The implication of all this is that there is no clear-cut division between covalent and ionic
bonds. In a pure covalent bond, the electrons are held on average exactly half way
between the atoms. In a polar bond, the electrons have been dragged slightly towards
one end.

How far does this dragging have to go before the bond counts as ionic? There is no real
answer to that. You normally think of sodium chloride as being a typically ionic solid, but
even here the sodium hasn't completely lost control of its electron. Because of the
properties of sodium chloride, however, we tend to count it as if it were purely ionic.

Note: Don't worry too much about the exact cut-off point between polar covalent bonds and ionic bonds.
At A'level, examples will tend to avoid the grey areas - they will be obviously covalent or obviously ionic.
You will, however, be expected to realise that those grey areas exist.

Lithium iodide, on the other hand, would be described as being "ionic with some
covalent character". In this case, the pair of electrons hasn't moved entirely over to the
iodine end of the bond. Lithium iodide, for example, dissolves in organic solvents like
ethanol - not something which ionic substances normally do.

Summary

No electronegativity difference between two atoms leads to a pure non-polar

covalent bond.

A small electronegativity difference leads to a polar covalent bond.

A large electronegativity difference leads to an ionic bond.

Polar bonds and polar molecules

In a simple molecule like HCl, if the bond is polar, so also is the whole molecule. What
about more complicated molecules?

In CCl4, each bond is polar.

Note: Ordinary lines represent bonds in the plane of the screen or paper. Dotted lines represent bonds
going away from you into the screen or paper. Wedged lines represent bonds coming out of the screen or
paper towards you.

The molecule as a whole, however, isn't polar - in the sense that it doesn't have an end
(or a side) which is slightly negative and one which is slightly positive. The whole of the
outside of the molecule is somewhat negative, but there is no overall separation of
charge from top to bottom, or from left to right.

By contrast, CHCl3 is polar.

The hydrogen at the top of the molecule is less electronegative than carbon and so is
slightly positive. This means that the molecule now has a slightly positive "top" and a
slightly negative "bottom", and so is overall a polar molecule.

A polar molecule will need to be "lop-sided" in some way.

Patterns of electronegativity in the Periodic Table

The most electronegative element is fluorine. If you remember that fact, everything
becomes easy, because electronegativity must always increase towards fluorine in the
Periodic Table.
Note: This simplification ignores the noble gases. Historically this is because they were believed not to
form bonds - and if they don't form bonds, they can't have an electronegativity value. Even now that we
know that some of them do form bonds, data sources still don't quote electronegativity values for them.

Trends in electronegativity across a period

As you go across a period the electronegativity increases. The chart shows

electronegativities from sodium to chlorine - you have to ignore argon. It doesn't have an
electronegativity, because it doesn't form bonds.

Trends in electronegativity down a group

As you go down a group, electronegativity decreases. (If it increases up to fluorine, it

must decrease as you go down.) The chart shows the patterns of electronegativity in
Groups 1 and 7.
Explaining the patterns in electronegativity

The attraction that a bonding pair of electrons feels for a particular nucleus depends on:

the number of protons in the nucleus;

the distance from the nucleus;

the amount of screening by inner electrons.

Note: If you aren't happy about the concept of screening or shielding, it would pay you to read the page
on ionisation energies before you go on. The factors influencing ionisation energies are just the same as
those influencing electronegativities.

Use the BACK button on your browser to return to this page.

Why does electronegativity increase across a period?

Consider sodium at the beginning of period 3 and chlorine at the end (ignoring the noble
gas, argon). Think of sodium chloride as if it were covalently bonded.

Both sodium and chlorine have their bonding electrons in the 3-level. The electron pair
is screened from both nuclei by the 1s, 2s and 2p electrons, but the chlorine nucleus
has 6 more protons in it. It is no wonder the electron pair gets dragged so far towards
the chlorine that ions are formed.

Electronegativity increases across a period because the number of charges on the

nucleus increases. That attracts the bonding pair of electrons more strongly.

Why does electronegativity fall as you go down a group?

Think of hydrogen fluoride and hydrogen chloride.

The bonding pair is shielded from the fluorine's nucleus only by the 1s 2 electrons. In the
chlorine case it is shielded by all the 1s22s22p6 electrons.

In each case there is a net pull from the centre of the fluorine or chlorine of +7. But
fluorine has the bonding pair in the 2-level rather than the 3-level as it is in chlorine. If it
is closer to the nucleus, the attraction is greater.

As you go down a group, electronegativity decreases because the bonding pair of

electrons is increasingly distant from the attraction of the nucleus.

Diagonal relationships in the Periodic Table

What is a diagonal relationship?

At the beginning of periods 2 and 3 of the Periodic Table, there are several cases where
an element at the top of one group has some similarities with an element in the next
group.

Three examples are shown in the diagram below. Notice that the similarities occur in
elements which are diagonal to each other - not side-by-side.
For example, boron is a non-metal with some properties rather like silicon. Unlike the
rest of Group 2, beryllium has some properties resembling aluminium. And lithium has
some properties which differ from the other elements in Group 1, and in some ways
resembles magnesium.

There is said to be a diagonal relationship between these elements.

There are several reasons for this, but each depends on the way atomic properties like
electronegativity vary around the Periodic Table.

So we will have a quick look at this with regard to electronegativity - which is probably
the simplest to explain.

Explaining the diagonal relationship with regard to electronegativity

Electronegativity increases across the Periodic Table. So, for example, the
electronegativities of beryllium and boron are:

Be 1.5
B 2.0

Electronegativity falls as you go down the Periodic Table. So, for example, the
electronegativities of boron and aluminium are:

B 2.0
Al 1.5

So, comparing Be and Al, you find the values are (by chance) exactly the same.

The increase from Group 2 to Group 3 is offset by the fall as you go down Group 3 from
boron to aluminium.
Something similar happens from lithium (1.0) to magnesium (1.2), and from boron (2.0)
to silicon (1.8).

In these cases, the electronegativities aren't exactly the same, but are very close.

Similar electronegativities between the members of these diagonal pairs means that
they are likely to form similar types of bonds, and that will affect their chemistry. You
may well come across examples of this later on in your course.

Questions to test your understanding

If this is the first set of questions you have done, please read the introductory page before you start.
You will need to use the BACK BUTTON on your browser to come back here afterwards.

questions on electronegativity

answers

There are no questions on the rest of this page.

Warning! As far as I am aware, none of the UK-based A level (or equivalent) syllabuses any longer want
the next bit. It used to be on the AQA syllabus, but has been removed from their new syllabus. At the time
of writing, it does, however, still appear on at least one overseas A level syllabus (Malta, but there may be
others that I'm not aware of). If in doubt, check your syllabus.

Otherwise, ignore the rest of this page. It is an alternative (and, to my mind, more awkward) way of
looking at the formation of a polar bond. Reading it unnecessarily just risks confusing you.

The polarising ability of positive ions

What do we mean by "polarising ability"?

In the discussion so far, we've looked at the formation of polar bonds from the point of
view of the distortions which occur in a covalent bond if one atom is more
electronegative than the other. But you can also look at the formation of polar covalent
bonds by imagining that you start from ions.

Solid aluminium chloride is covalent. Imagine instead that it was ionic. It would contain
Al3+ and Cl- ions.

The aluminium ion is very small and is packed with three positive charges - the "charge
density" is therefore very high. That will have a considerable effect on any nearby
electrons.

We say that the aluminium ions polarise the chloride ions.

In the case of aluminium chloride, the electron pairs are dragged back towards the
aluminium to such an extent that the bonds become covalent. But because the chlorine
is more electronegative than aluminium, the electron pairs won't be pulled half way
between the two atoms, and so the bond formed will be polar.

Factors affecting polarising ability

Positive ions can have the effect of polarising (electrically distorting) nearby negative
ions. The polarising ability depends on the charge density in the positive ion.

Polarising ability increases as the positive ion gets smaller and the number of charges
gets larger.

As a negative ion gets bigger, it becomes easier to polarise. For example, in an iodide
ion, I-, the outer electrons are in the 5-level - relatively distant from the nucleus.

A positive ion would be more effective in attracting a pair of electrons from an iodide ion
than the corresponding electrons in, say, a fluoride ion where they are much closer to
the nucleus.
Aluminium iodide is covalent because the electron pair is easily dragged away from the
iodide ion. On the other hand, aluminium fluoride is ionic because the aluminium ion
can't polarise the small fluoride ion sufficiently to form a covalent bond.

Where would you like to go now?

To look at electronegativity in an organic chemistry context . . .

To the bonding menu . . .

To the atomic structure and bonding menu . . .

To Main Menu . . .

Jim Clark 2000 (last modified March 2013)

Air pollution, photochemical smog

http://planningtank.com/environment/air-pollution-effects-
of-domestic-industrial-wastes/2
THE TROPHOSPHERE

This is the first layer of the atmosphere it ranges from the earth surface and goes
up to a height of 7 to 20 km. This layer contains the highest oxygen concentration
as it is the layer where most organic activity take place. The weather patterns which
are forecasted presently are done in this layer by the warm air radiated from the
earth. It is stated that the temperature in troposphere is around -55 C (-64 F)

Air pollution
The major problem that the atmosphere is being subjected to is pollution. In India,
about 100 million tons of pollutants are being added to the atmosphere annually. This
figure is likely to go up in future. Polluted air is harmful to man and the biosphere on
the whole, as well. This problem needs to be tackled urgently. Since all of us contribute
to it directly or indirectly, we must study air pollution in detail and discuss the mean
s of controlling and preventing it.
Air pollution can be defined as 'the change of composition of air by the addition of
harmful substances like the industrial and automobile gases and particulate matter.'
Sources of Air Pollution
Most of the sources of air pollution are related to man's activities as a result of the
modern lifestyle. Added to this are also natural causes like the volcanoes, anaerobic
decomposition of organic matter, atmospheric reactions, etc.
Burning of Fossil Fuels
Fossil fuels include petroleum and coal. Burning of coal produces a lot of smoke and
dust whereas burning of petrol mainly produces sulphur dioxide. In addition to these,
the pollutants include carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO 2), nitrogen oxides,
hydrocarbons, particulate matter and traces of metals.
Automobiles
Petrol on combustion produces carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, nitrogen oxides,
aldehydes, sulphur compounds, organic acids and ammonia and carbon particles.
Incomplete combustion of petrol produces a hydrocarbon, 3,4 benzpyrene. There is
more pollution during acceleration and deceleration than during constant speed.
Industries
Fertiliser Plants
They produce oxides, sulphur, nitrogen, hydrocarbons, particulate matter and fluorine.
Thermal Plants
Since they are coal based the pollutants are fly ash, soot and sulphur dioxide.
Textile Industries
They produce cotton dust, nitrogen oxides, chlorine, naphtha vapours, smoke and
sulphur dioxide.
Steel Plants
They produce carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, sulphur dioxide, phenol, fluorine,
cyanide, particulate matter, etc.
Volcanic eruptions release oxides of nitrogen that pollute the atmosphere.
Decomposition of organic matter under anaerobic conditions produces methane which
on being oxidised in the atmosphere produces carbon monoxide. Decomposition of
these matter also produces foul smelling gases.
Photochemical oxidation of marine organic matter and biological oxidation by marine
organisms produce lot of carbon monoxide on the surface of the oceans which enters the
atmosphere.
Major Pollutants
There are six main categories of air pollutants:
oxides of carbon
sulphur dioxide
oxides of nitrogen
hydrocarbon
inorganic particulate matter and aerosols
 organic particulate matter
Harmful Effects of the Pollutants in Air
The various categories of air pollutants and their harmful effects are summarised in the
given table:
 Pollutant Source/Cause Effect
Affects the respiratory activity as
haemoglobin has more affinity
Automobile exhaust, for Co than for oxygen. Thus, CO
photochemical reactions combines with HB and thus
Carbon monoxide in the atmosphere, reduces the oxygen-carrying
biological oxidation by capacity of blood. This results in
marine organisms, etc. blurred vision, headache,
unconsciousness and death due
to asphyxiation (lack of oxygen).
Carbon Burning of fossil
fuels,depletion of forests
(that remove excess
Global warming as it is one of the
Carbon di oxide carbon dioxide and help
greenhouse gases.
in maintaining the
oxygen-carbon dioxide
ratio).
Respiratory problems, severe
Industries, burning of
headache,reduced productivity of
fossil fuels, forest fires,
plants, yellowing and reduced
electric generation plants,
storage time for paper, yellowing
Sulphur dioxide smelting plants, industnal
and damage to limestone and
boilers, petroleum
marble, damage to leather,
refineries and volcanic
increased rate of corrosion of
eruptions.
iron, steel, zinc and aluminium.
Automobile exhaust and
Hydrocarbons
industries,leaking fuel
Polynuclear Aromatic
tanks, leaching from toxic Carcinogenic (may cause
Compounds(PAC) and
waste dumping sites and leukemia)
Polynuclear Aromatic
coal tar lining of some
Hydrocarbons(PAH)
water supply pipes.
Refngerators, air
Destroy ozone layer which then
Chlorofluoro carbons conditioners, foam
permits harmful UV rays to enter
(CFCs) shaving cream, spray cans
the atmosphere.
and cleaning solvents.
Automobile exhausts,
burning of fossil fuels, Forms photochemical smog, at
forest fires,electric higher concentrations causes leaf
generation plants, damage or affects the
Nitrogen Oxides
smelting plants, industnal photosynthetic activities of
boilers, petroleum plants and causes respiratory
refineries and volcanic problems in mammals.
eruptions
Irritation of eye, throat and
Photochemical reactions respiratory tract, damage to
PAN - peroxylacetyl
of hydrocarbons and clothes, paint and rubber
-nitrate
nitrogen oxides. articles, damage to leaves and
stomatal tissue in plants.
Particulate matter Lead Combustion of leaded
Toxic effect in man.
halides (lead pollution) gasoline products
Asbestosis - a cancerous disease
Asbestos particles Mining activities
of the lungs
Effects of Air Pollution
Global Warming
Most of the solar radiation entering the earth's atmosphere is reflected back into the
space. However some of the heat is absorbed by the gases like the carbon dioxide. This
serves to keep the earth warm much like the greenhouses. Greenhouses are glasshouses
which maintain a temperature higher than the surroundings for the plants to grow and
yield better. The other gases that contribute to this are water vapour, methane,
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and nitrous oxide. These gases are called the greenhouse
gases.
While greenhouse effect is a necessary and natural phenomenon. Every year teh
temperature are going up due to pollution and the levels of these greenhouse gases is
also going up. This is called global warming. According to estimates, at the current rate
of increase, the average global temperature will go up by 3oC to 8oC in the next 100
years.
This will have the following effects:
Climate of different regions
Distribution of plants and animals
Disturbance in agriculture and food production
Melting of snow caps and resultant increase in sea levels. This will submerge
parts of coastal cities of Calcutta, New York, London and other major cities.
Formation of Photochemical Smog
When pollutants like hydrocarbons and nitrogen oxides combine in the presence of
sunlight, smog is formed. This is a mixture of gases and since it is formed by
photochemical reactions, it is called the photochemical smog. The word 'smog' is
derived from the two words-smoke and fog.
It forms a yellowish brown haze especially during winter and hampers visibility. It also
causes many respiratory disorders and allergies as it contains polluting gases.
Formation of Acid Rain
Sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides react with water in the atmosphere producing
sulphuric acid and nitric acid. These acids come down along with the rain. This
phenomenon is called acid rain. The pH of acid rain varies from 3-6. The composition of
acid rain is sulphuric acid, nitric acid and weak carbonic acid.
It has the following adverse affects on the environment:
Causes respiratory and skin disorders.
Affects productivity of plants by damaging the leaves.
Enters the soil and affects the soil pH and other conditions.
Enters the ground and river waters which causes harm to the aquatic life.
Causes damage to marble and thus damages buildings and monuments like the
Taj Mahal
Aerosol Formation
Aerosol is formed by the dispersion of solid or liquid matter in the atmosphere. There
are natural aerosols also in the atmosphere. However, polluting aerosols are formed by
the pollutant particulate matter like carbon particles.
If the aerosols form a thick layer in the troposphere, they affect the weather conditions
by blocking the solar radiation. Aerosols are also deposited on the leaves and affect the
photosynthesis. Aerosols disperse the organic metallic pollutants far and wide.
Depletion of Ozone
The stratosphere of the atmosphere has ozone (O 3). Ozone is known to absorb the
Ultraviolet (UV) rays present in the sun's radiation. The UV rays are believed to cause
skin cancer and mutations. Thus, the ozone protects us from the harmful effects of the
UV rays.
However, hydrocarbons such as the chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) destroy the ozone
molecules which deplete the ozone layer. Ozone holes have been detected in the
atmosphere which permit the UV rays to reach the earth's surface. The harmful effects
of the UV rays are visible in the countries such as Australia and New Zealand where the
rate of skin cancer is higher than the other regions of the world.
Control of Air Pollution
Air pollution can be controlled by different methods depending on the source and the
pollutant. The different methods are:
One of the major causes of air pollution are the automobiles. The fuels being used
should be lead-free as this will reduce the level of lead in the atmosphere. The
carburetor should be cleaned regularly and good quality fuel should be used. This
reduces the smoke emission from the exhaust pipes of the vehicles. Efforts to introduce
vehicles running on alternate sources (for example solar energy) of energy should be
made. These methods will go a long way in reducing the occurrence of photochemical
smog.
The industrial pollution is best controlled at source. The polluting gases should be
passed through filters and other devices such as cyclone collectors, scrubbers,
precipitators, etc. so that the particulate matter is removed before the waste gases are
released out. The toxic gases should be detoxified.
The domestic and industrial smoke producing units should have long chimneys to take
the polluting gases far above and then disperse over a larger area. They should also
invest in solar cookers or bio gas.
The pollution by sulphur dioxide is mainly due to coal-based industries. Alternate non-
sulphur containing fuel must be used. It is also possible to remove the sulphur from the
fuel before use.
There are many plant species like the neem (Azadirachta indica), bel (Aegle marmelos),
gulmohur (Delonix regia), etc. that clean the atmosphere. More trees of such types
should be planted.
For effective control and prevention of air pollution it is important to educate people
and create public awareness about the ill-effects of air pollution.
The following are some methods that may be adopted to control pollution on a large
scale:
Combustion
Pollutants in the form of organic gases or vapours can be burnt to convert them into
water vapour and relatively less harmful products, such as carbon dioxide.
Absorption
The gaseous effluents may be made to pass through scrubbers or absorbers. These
contain a suitable liquid absorbent, which removes or modifies one or more of the
pollutants present in the gaseous effluents making it comparitively harmless.
Adsorption
The gaseous effluents are passed through porous solid adsorbents kept in suitable
containers. The organic and inorganic constituents of the effluent gases are trapped at
the interphase of the solid adsorbent. Adsorbents hold (molecules of a gas or liquid or
solute) to its surface, causing a thin film to form.
Methods to Control Particulate Emissions
Particulate emissions may be controlled by using mechanical devices that generally
work on the basis of the following:
Gravity
In this process, the particles settle down by gravitational force. Sudden changes in the
direction of the gas flow causes the particles to separate out due to greater momentum.
Fabric Filters
The gases containing dust are passed through a porous medium. which is usually woven
fabrics. The particles present in the gas are trapped and collected in the filters. The gases
freed from the particles are then discharged.

A Typical Bag Filter

Wet Scrubbers
Wet scrubbers are used in chemical, mining and metallurgical industries to trap sulphur

dioxide, ammonia, metal fumes, etc .

Electrostatic Precipitators
When a gas or an air stream containing aerosols in the form of dust, fumes or mist, is
passed between two electrodes, then, the aerosol particles get precipitated on the
electrode.
Electrostatic Precipitator
The following practices also help in controlling air pollution:
Better designed equipment and smokeless fuels must be used in hearths in
industries and at home.
Automobiles should be properly maintained and must adhere to emission -
control standards. (Bharat II or Euro II)
More trees should be planted along road-side.
Renewable energy sources, such as wind, solar energy, ocean currents, must be
tapped to fulfil energy needs.
Tall chimneys should be installed for vertical dispersion of pollutants.
Photochemical smog
Photochemical smog occurs due to the action of sunlight on air pollutants, generating
photochemical reactions. The principal constituents of the photochemical smog are
gaseous hydrocarbons (leading to ozone formation) and oxides of nitrogen (NO x) that
are a part of automobile exhaust.)
The reaction of sunlight with hydrocarbons and NO2 results in a variety of chemical
products. One of these is ozone, made up of 3 atoms of oxygen (O3), which is an
irritating noxious gas. Other undesirable chemicals such as aldehydes also result from
this photochemical reaction. This type of smog is oxidizing in character because of the
presence of O3, NO2 and some photochemical oxidants.
Note: While Ozone formed during photochemical reaction in the lowest region of the
atmosphere is an air pollutant, in the upper atmosphere, the natural existence of the
ozone layer helps protect living organisms from harmful U.V. rays from the Sun.
Because sunlight is essential to this type of smog, the concentration of ozone and other
measurable chemicals it is maximum around mid day of summer months and falls of
considerably at night.
Photochemical smog causes eyes irritation and coughs due to the presence of ozone and
can lead to respiratory problems and reduced physical (athletic) ability.
Formation of photochemical smog
When pollutants like hydrocarbons and nitrogen oxides combine in the presence of
sunlight, smog is formed. This is a mixture of gases and since it is formed by
photochemical reactions, it is called the photochemical smog. The word 'smog' is
derived from the two words - smoke and fog.
It forms a yellowish brown haze especially during winter and hampers visibility. It also
is a cause of many respiratory disorders and allergies as it contains polluting gases.
Photochemical smog is mainly composed of ozone (O3), peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN) and
NOx. It is also known as brown air where solar radiation is intense. In seasons of lesser
solar radiation or areas, smog formation is incomplete and the air is referred to as grey
air.

A simplified set of photochemical reactions involved in smog formation is as follows:

Reactions occuring inside engine:

Reactions occuring in atomsphere:

Smog ozone may damage plant as well as animal life. Several species of plants are very
susceptible to PAN in smog. PAN damages choloroplasts, which results in reduction of
photosynthetic effeciency and growth of plants.
Ozone layer and ozone hole
Contrary to common misconception, Ozone is not in the form of thick layer surrounding
atmosphere. Equally untrue is another misconception that a hole is made in this ozone layer. To
understand low ozone spread in atmosphere, one needs to know the structure and composition
of atmosphere.

Depletion of Ozone

The distribution of ozone in ionosphere, mesosphere and stratosphere is being depleted. The
concentration of ozone is gradually reducing. As the content of ozone is highest in ionosphere
and the air itself being very thin, the depletion is negligible in ionosphere. But in mesosphere
and stratosphere the air is thicker and ozone content is less. The depletion of ozone is of higher
order in these layers. The so called hole in ozone layers simply means that above some
continents (specifically Antarctica, Asia and parts of South America) the mesosphere and
stratosphere have lost their original level of ozone content.

The depletion of ozone layer is a global phenomena both in terms of cause and effect.
The geographical limits of countries are not barriers to either dispersal of gases in layers
of atmosphere or depletion of gases. The causes for depletion may arise in any country.
The effects (in terms of depletion) may arise in any other country. The effects (in terms
of ozone depletion) need not be exactly above the country causing the depletion.

Causes of Depletion

It is now established that chloroflouro carbon (CFC) chemicals evolved from various
refrigerants, coolants and propellants are the primary reasons for depletion of ozone.
CFC are a group of chlorine bearing gases of low specific gravity. They rise to
stratosphere and mesosphere. Due to ionising solar radiation in these layers, (which is
the primary reason for production of ozone) fresh chlorine gas is produced from CFCs.
This nascent chlorine gas has the capacity to react with ozone and bring down the level
of ozone substantially.

The concept of ozone depletion is new. But study of international ozone trendis being made
since 1988, when international ozone commission was established. Extensive ozone assessment
facilities were established under International Middle Atmospheric Programme (IMAP) in India
to study ozone along with number of other greenhouse gases.

Destruction of ozone in the ozone layer

Example 19:

The ozone in the ozone layer protects the earth from harmful ultraviolet radiation by trapping
these radiations. This ozone layer has been thinning gradually and poses potential health
hazards for the future. The thinning of ozone layer has been attributed to the presence of
chlorofluorohydrocarbons like CFCl3 and CF2Cl2 in the atmosphere. These chemicals have been
used as aerosol propellants and cooling mixtures in refrigerators. How these chemicals affect
ozone concentration is illustrated with the equations given below.

Chlorine atom being highly reactive reacts with ozone (O3).

The monoxide of chlorine further reacts with another molecule of O 3

The chlorine atom so obtained reacts with another ozone molecule. Hence, steps (ii) and (iii) are
repeated again and again and, leads to the depletion of concentration of ozone.
Air Pollution - causes, effects and control measures

http://mjcetenvsci.blogspot.com/2013/11/air-pollution-
causes-effects-and.html
Air pollution - Air pollution may be defined as the presence of one or more contaminants like dust,
mist, smoke and colour in the atmosphere that are injurious human beings, plants and animals.

1. Rapid industrialization
2. Fast urbanization
3. Rapid growth in population
4. Growth of vehicles on the roads and
5. Activities of human beings have disturbed the natural balance of the atmosphere.
The composition of Air is given below:
Nitrogen 78%
Oxygen 21%
Argon less than 1%
Carbondioxide 0.037%
Water vapour Remaining
Ozone, Helium and ammonia Trace amount

Sources of Air pollution

Sources of air pollution are of two types.
Natural sources and Artificial sources

Natural sources of pollution are those that are caused due to natural phenomena. Ex: Volcanic
eruptions, Forest fires, Biological decay, Pollen grains, Marshes, Radioactive materials.

Artificial sources are those which are created by man. Ex: Thermal power plants, Vehicular emissions,
Fossil fuel burning, agricultural activities etc.

Classification of Air Pollutants

Depending on the form of pollutants present in the environment, they are classified as:
1. Primary pollutants and
2. Secondary pollutants
Primary pollutants are those that are directly emitted in the atmosphere in the harmful form
Ex: CO, NO, CO2, SO2 etc.

Secondary pollutants are those that are formed by reacting with other components or some basic
component of the atmosphere to form new pollutants.
Ex: Oxides of Nitrogen (NO2 or NO3) react with moisture in the atmosphere to give Nitric acid

Indoor air pollutants are primary air pollutants. The most important indoor air pollutant is Radon gas.
Sources of indoor air pollutants are:
1. Radon gas is emitted from building materials like bricks, concrete, tiles, etc that are derived
from soil containing radium
2. Radon is also found in natural gas and ground water and is emitted while being used.
3. Burning fuel in the kitchen and cigarette smoke release pollutants like CO, SO2, HCHO
(Formaldehyde) and BAP (Benzo-(A) pyrene).
SOURCES AND COMMON EFFECTS OF COMMON AIR POLLUTANTS
Carbonmonoxide: It is a colourless, odourless gas that is poisonous animals. It is formed by incomplete
combustion of carbon containing fuels.
Source of carbonmonoxide is cigarette smoking and incomplete combustion of fossil fuels (more than
77% comes from motor vehicle exhaust)
Health effects include reduced ability of red blood cells to carry oxygen to body cells and tissues. This
leads to headache and anemia. At high levels it causes coma, irreversible brain damage and death.

Nitrogen Dioxide: It is a reddish-brown irritating gas that causes photochemical smog. In the
atmosphere, it gets converted into nitric acid (HNO3). It is caused by burning fossil fuels in industries
and power plants.
Health effects include lung irritation and damage. Environmental effects involve acid deposition
leading to damage of trees, lakes, soil and ancient monuments. NO2 can damage fabrics.

Sulphur Dioxide: It is a colourless and irritating gas that is formed by combustion of sulphur containing
fossil fuels such as coal and oil. In the atmosphere it is converted into Sulphuric acid which is a major
component of acid deposition.
Health effects involve breathing problems for healthy people.
Environmental effects involve reduced visibility and acid deposition on trees, lakes, soils and
monuments leading to their deterioration and adverse effect on aquatic life.

Suspended Particulate Matter (SPM): Includes a variety of particles and droplets (aerosols) that can be
suspended in atmosphere for short to long periods.
Human sources for SPM include burning coal in power and industrial units, burning diesel and other
fuels in vehicles, agriculture, unpaved roads, construction, etc.
Health effects include nose and throat irritation, ling damage, bronchitis, asthama, reproductive
problems and cancer.
Environmental Effects include reduced visibility and acid deposition. Acid deposition may lead to
damaged trees, soils and aquatic life in lakes.

Ozone is a highly reactive gas with an unpleasant odour occurring in the stratosphere where it protects
mankind fro the harmful ultra-violet rays from the Sun. However on earth, it is a pollutant.
It occurs on earth due to reaction between Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) and Nitrogen Oxides. It
moderates the climate

Photochemical smog is a browinsh smoke that frequently forms on clear, sunny days over large cities
with significant amounts of automobile traffic.It is mainly due to chemical reactions among nitrogen
oxides and hydrocarbons in the presence of sunlight.
Health effects include breathing problems, cough, eye, nose and throat irritation, heart diseases,
reduced resistance to colds and pneumonia.
Environmental effects involve damage to plants and trees. Additionally, Smog reduces visibility.

Lead is a solid and highly toxic metal. Its compounds are emitted into the atmosphere as particulate
matter.
Human Sources: Paint, Smelters (metal refineries), lead manufacture, storage batteries, leaded
petrol, etc
Health effects: Lead accumulates in the body and brain leading to nervous system damage and mental
retardation (especially in children), digestive and other health problems. Lead containing chemicals
are known to cause cancer in test animals.
Environmental Effects: It can harm wildlife.
Hydrocarbons Lower haydrocarbons accumulate due to decay of vegetable matter.
Human effects: They are carcinogenic

Chromium: It is a solid toxic metal emitted into the atmosphere as particulate matter.
Human sources: Paint, Smelters, Chromium manufacture, Chromium plating.
Health Effects: Perforation of nasal septum, chrome holes, etc.

CONTROL MEASURES
The atmosphere has several built-in self cleaning processes such as dispersion, gravitational settling,
flocculation, absorption, rain-washout, etc to cleanse the atmosphere. However, control of
contaminants at their source level is a desirable and effective method through preventive or control
technologies.
Source control: Some measures that can be adopted in this direction are:
1. Using unleaded petrol
2. Using fuels with low sulphur and ash content
3. Encouraging people to use public transport, walk or use a cycle as opposed to private vehicles
4. Ensure that houses, schools, restaurants and playgrounds are not located on busy streets
5. Plant trees along busy streets as they remove particulates, carbon dioxide and absorb noise
6. Industries and waste disposal sites should be situated outsdide the city preferably on the
downwind of the city.
7. Catalytic converters should be used to help control emissions of carbon monoxide and
hydrocarbons
Control measures in industrial centers
1. Emission rates should be restricted to permissible levels by each and every industry
2. Incorporation of air pollution control equipment in design of plant layout must be made
mandatory
3. Continuous monitoring of the atmosphere for pollutants should be carried out to know the
emission levels.
EQUIPMENT USED TO CONTROL AIR POLLUTION
Air pollution can be reduced by adopting the following approaches.

1. Ensuring sufficient supply of oxygen to the combustion chamber and adequate temperature so
that the combustion is complete thereby eliminating much of the smoke consisting of partly burnt
ashes and dust.
2. To use mechanical devices such as scrubbers, cyclones, bag houses and electro-static
precipitators in manufacturing processes. The equipment used to remove particulates from the exhaust
gases of electric power and industrial plants are shown below. All methods retain hazardous materials
that must be disposed safely. Wet scrubber can additionally reduce sulphur dioxide emissions.
3. The air pollutants collected must be carefully disposed. The factory fumes are dealt with
chemical treatment.
Posted by Mrinal Gour at 3:08 PM
What is greenhouse effect?
Greenhouse effect describes a process by which thermal radiation dissipated by the
suns being absorbed and reradiated in all directions in the earths atmosphere to
facilitate better heating to the earth, rather than direct heating from the sun.
The "greenhouse effect" is not the same as global warming. "Global warming" refers
to the increase in global average temperature due to excessive amounts of
greenhouse gases. The greenhouse effect describes a critical function of our
atmosphere: to keep the earth warm enough to sustain life.
The greenhouse effect is somewhat similar to the process that goes on in a real
greenhouse. The original concept of the greenhouse effect dates back to 1824 with
Joseph Fourier. The glass of a greenhouse allows the suns radiation in, which warms
the ground inside, which in turn warms the air above the ground by longwave (heat)
radiation. The glass then acts like a barrier to keep the warm air inside from mixing
with the cooler air outside the greenhouse.
The greenhouse gases in the atmosphere allow the suns short wavelength radiation
in, and because of the chemical properties of the gases, they do not interact with
sunlight. But they do absorb the longwave radiation from the earth and emit it back
into the atmosphere, different from a greenhouse which does not allow the
longwave radiation to escape through the glass. The increase in trapped energy
leads to higher temperatures at the earth's surface. This has caused some people to
rename the process the atmospheric greenhouse effect or just the greenhouse
effect.

Figure B

Image from EPA

The most abundant greenhouse gases responsible for the greenhouse effect in the
atmosphere are water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and ozone.
These greenhouse gases keep the surface of the Earth approximately 60F warmer
than we would expect without these gases present.
The greenhouse effect works like this: First, the suns energy enters the top of the
atmosphere as shortwave radiation and makes its way down to the ground without
reacting with the greenhouse gases. Then the ground, clouds, and other earthly
surfaces absorb this energy and release it back towards space as longwave
radiation. As the longwave radiation goes up into the atmosphere, it is absorbed by
the greenhouse gases. The greenhouse gases then emit their radiation (also
longwave), which will often keep being absorbed and emitted by various surfaces,
even other greenhouse gases, until it eventually leaves the atmosphere. Since some
of the re-emitted radiation goes back towards the surface of the earth, it warms up
more than it would if no greenhouse gases were present.
If the Earth's greenhouse gases increased in concentration and nothing else in the
atmosphere changed, then the surface temperature would be expected to rise. The
amount of radiation directed back down to Earth would increase and that would
heat up the surface as the world's energy balance adjusted to the new conditions.
However, the Earth has a very complicated climate system and if this increase in
energy occurred, other things like increased evaporation and cloud formation as
well as melting of polar ice would be likely to occur and interact in unexpected ways
that would further change regional as well as global temperature and climate.

GLOSSARY

Photochemical smog is composed of primary and secondary pollutants.

Primary pollutants, which include nitrogen oxides and volatile organic compounds,
are introduced into the atmosphere via vehicular emissions and industrial
processes.
Secondary pollutants, like ozone, result from the reaction of primary pollutants with
ultraviolet light.
Photochemical smog is most common in sunny and dry cities, like Los Angeles.
Smog has a variety of negative health impacts.

TERMS[ edit ]
volatile
vevaporating or vaporizing readily under normal conditions; having a low boiling
point
monatomic
a substance consisting of a single atom (not molecules of the element); examples
include the noble gases and many metals
Photochemical smog
a type of air pollution formed through solar radiation reacting with airborne
pollutants, like nitrogen oxides and volatile organic compounds
http://www.pollutionsystems.com/chemical-scrubbers-gas-scrubbers.html

Pollution Systems offers Chemical Scrubbers, aka Gas Scrubbers, that are efficiently
and effectively designed to remove gas pollutants. Often these pollutants are
chemicals such as ammonia, chlorine or sulfur compounds. Chemical Scrubbers
work by dissolving or absorbing the pollutant into the scrubbing liquid. The
scrubbing liquid used will depend on the properties of the targeted pollutant.
Pollution Systems gas scrubber systems incorporate high quality design and
construction for long-term, continuous operation while minimizing the equipment
maintenance needed.
High efficiency removal of many gas pollutants is common in many applications.
Gas scrubber selection will depend on the operating process characteristics and the
particular pollutant(s) that is being removed. Pollution System Solutions works
closely with each of our customers to determine the appropriate technology to use
depending on their process and the application.
energy generated in ways that do not deplete natural resources or harm the
environment, especially by avoiding the use of fossil fuels and nuclear power.

The United States currently relies heavily on coal, oil, and natural gas for its energy.
Fossil fuels are non-renewable, that is, they draw on finite resources that will
eventually dwindle, becoming too expensive or too environmentally damaging to
retrieve. In contrast, the many types of renewable energy resources-such as wind
and solar energy-are constantly replenished and will never run out.
Most renewable energy comes either directly or indirectly from the sun. Sunlight,
or solar energy, can be used directly for heating and lighting homes and other
buildings, for generating electricity, and for hot water heating, solar cooling, and a
variety of commercial and industrial uses.
The sun's heat also drives the winds, whose energy, is captured with wind turbines.
Then, the winds and the sun's heat cause water to evaporate. When this water
vapor turns into rain or snow and flows downhill into rivers or streams, its energy
can be captured using hydroelectric power.
Along with the rain and snow, sunlight causes plants to grow. The organic matter
that makes up those plants is known as biomass. Biomass can be used to produce
electricity, transportation fuels, or chemicals. The use of biomass for any of these
purposes is called bioenergy.
Hydrogen also can be found in many organic compounds, as well as water. It's the
most abundant element on the Earth. But it doesn't occur naturally as a gas. It's
always combined with other elements, such as with oxygen to make water. Once
separated from another element, hydrogen can be burned as a fuel or converted
into electricity.
Not all renewable energy resources come from the sun. Geothermal energy taps the
Earth's internal heat for a variety of uses, including electric power production, and
the heating and cooling of buildings. And the energy of the ocean's tides come from
the gravitational pull of the moon and the sun upon the Earth.
In fact, ocean energy comes fromr a number of sources. In addition to tidal energy,
there's the energy of the ocean's waves, which are driven by both the tides and the
winds. The sun also warms the surface of the ocean more than the ocean depths,
creating a temperature difference that can be used as an energy source. All these
forms of ocean energy can be used to produce electricity.
http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/index/tech.html
Flue-gas desulfurization (FGD) is a set of technologies used to remove sulfur dioxide
(SO. 2) from exhaust flue gases of fossil-fuel power plants, and from the emissions
of other sulfur oxide emitting processes.

Make your own Water Wheel

Make your own Wind Winch
One major advantage with the use of renewable energy is that as it is renewable it
is therefore sustainable and so will never run out.
Renewable energy facilities generally require less maintenance than traditional
generators. Their fuel being derived from natural and available resources reduces
the costs of operation.
Even more importantly, renewable energy produces little or no waste products such
as carbon dioxide or other chemical pollutants, so has minimal impact on the
environment.
Renewable energy projects can also bring economic benefits to many regional
areas, as most projects are located away from large urban centres and suburbs of
the capital cities. These economic benefits may be from the increased use of local
services as well as tourism.

It is easy to recognise the environmental advantages of utilising the alternative and

renewable forms of energy but we must also be aware of the disadvantages.
One disadvantage with renewable energy is that it is difficult to generate the
quantities of electricity that are as large as those produced by traditional fossil fuel
generators. This may mean that we need to reduce the amount of energy we use or
simply build more energy facilities. It also indicates that the best solution to our
energy problems may be to have a balance of many different power sources.
Another disadvantage of renewable energy sources is the reliability of supply.
Renewable energy often relies on the weather for its source of power. Hydro
generators need rain to fill dams to supply flowing water. Wind turbines need wind
to turn the blades, and solar collectors need clear skies and sunshine to collect heat
and make electricity. When these resources are unavailable so is the capacity to
make energy from them. This can be unpredictable and inconsistent. The current
cost of renewable energy technology is also far in excess of traditional fossil fuel
generation. This is because it is a new technology and as such has extremely large
capital cost.
 Carbon Cycle

Carbon Cycle - Photosynthesis:

Photosynthesis is a complex series of reactions carried out by algae, phytoplankton, and the leave
in plants, which utilize the energy from the sun. The simplified version of this chemical reaction is
utilize carbon dioxide molecules from the air and water molecules and the energy from the sun to
produce a simple sugar such as glucose and oxygen molecules as a by product. The simple sugars
are then converted into other molecules such as starch, fats, proteins, enzymes, and DNA/RNA i.e
of the other molecules in living plants. All of the "matter/stuff" of a plant ultimately is produced as
result of this photosynthesis reaction.

An important summary statement is that during photosynthesis plants use carbon

dioxide and produce oxygen.

Carbon Cycle - Combustion/Metabolism

Reaction:
Combustion occurs when any organic material
reacted (burned) in the presence of oxygen to
give off the products of carbon dioxide and wa
and ENERGY. The organic material can be any
fossil fuel such as natural gas (methane), oil, o
coal. Other organic materials that combust are
wood, paper, plastics, and cloth. Organic
materials contain at least carbon and hydroge
and may include oxygen. If other elements are
present they also ultimately combine with oxy
to form a variety of pollutant molecules such a
sulfur oxides and nitrogen oxides.

Metabolism occurs in animals and humans afte

Click for larger image
the ingestion of organic plant or animal foods.
the cells a series of complex reactions occurs w
oxygen to convert for example glucose sugar i
the products of carbon dioxide and water and
ENERGY. This reaction is also carried out by
bacteria in the decomposition/decay of waste
materials on land and in the water.

An important summary statement is that durin

 combustion/metabolism oxygen is used an
arbon dioxide is a product. The whole
purpose of both processes is to convert chemi
energy into other forms of energy such as hea

Carbon Cycle - Sedimentation:

Carbon dioxide is slightly soluble and is absorb

into bodies of water such as the ocean and lak
It is not overly soluble as evidenced by what
happens when a can of carbonated soda such
Coke is opened. Some of the dissolved carbon
dioxide remains in the water, the warmer the
water the less carbon dioxide remains in the
water.
Some carbon dioxide is used by algae and
phytoplankton through the process of
photosynthesis.

In other marine ecosystems, some organisms

such as coral and those with shells take up car
dioxide from the water and convert it into calc
carbonate. As the shelled organisms die, bits a
pieces of the shells fall to the bottom of the
oceans and accumulate as sediments. The
Click for larger image
carbonate sediments are constantly being form
and redissolved in the depths of the oceans. O
long periods of time, the sediments may be ra
up as dry land or into mountains. This type of
sedimentary rock is called limestone. The
carbonates can redissolve releasing carbon
dioxide back to the air or water.
 Human Impacts on the Carbon Cycle - Foss
Fuels:

In the natural carbon cycle, there are two main

processes which occur: photosynthesis and
metabolism.

During photosynthesis, plants use carbon

dioxide and produce oxygen.
During
metabolismoxygen is used and carbon
dioxide is a product.

Humans impact the carbon cycle during the

combustion of any type of fossil fuel, which ma
include oil, coal, or natural gas. Fossil Fuels we
formed very long ago from plant or animal
Click for larger image
remains that were buried, compressed, and
transformed into oil, coal, or natural gas. The
carbon is said to be "fixed" in place and is
essentially locked out of the natural carbon cy
Humans intervene during by burning the fossil
fuels. During combustion in the presence of ai
(oxygen), carbon dioxide and water molecules
released into the atmosphere.
The question becomes as to what happens to
extra carbon dioxide that is released into the
atmosphere. This is the subject of considerable
debate and about it possible effect in enhancin
the greenhouse effect which may than result in
global warming.
https://www.epa.gov/indoor-air-quality-iaq/volatile-organic-compounds-impact-
indoor-air-quality

Introduction
Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are emitted as gases from certain solids or
liquids. VOCs include a variety of chemicals, some of which may have short- and
long-term adverse health effects. Concentrations of many VOCs are consistently
higher indoors (up to ten times higher) than outdoors. VOCs are emitted by a
wide array of products numbering in the thousands.

Organic chemicals are widely used as ingredients in household products. Paints,

varnishes;and wax all contain organic solvents, as do many cleaning,
disinfecting, cosmetic, degreasing and hobby products. Fuels are made up of
organic chemicals. All of these products can release organic compounds while
you are using them, and, to some degree, when they are stored.

EPA's Office of Research and Development's "Total Exposure Assessment

Methodology (TEAM) Study" (Volumes I through IV, completed in 1985) found
levels of about a dozen common organic pollutants to be 2 to 5 times higher
inside homes than outside, regardless of whether the homes were located in rural
or highly industrial areas. TEAM studies indicated that while people are using
products containing organic chemicals, they can expose themselves and others
to very high pollutant levels, and elevated concentrations can persist in the air
long after the activity is completed.

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Sources of VOCs
Household products, including:
 paints, paint strippersand other solvents

wood preservatives

aerosol sprays

cleansers and disinfectants

moth repellents and air fresheners

stored fuels and automotive products

hobby supplies

dry-cleaned clothing

pesticide

Other products, including:

building materials and furnishings

office equipment such as copiers and printers, correction fluids and

carbonless copy paper

graphics and craft materials including glues and adhesives, permanent

markers and photographic solutions.

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Health Effects
Health effects may include:

Eye, nose and throat irritation

 headaches, loss of coordination and nausea

damage to liver, kidney and central nervous system

Some organics can cause cancer in animals, some are suspected or

known to cause cancer in humans.

Key signs or symptoms associated with exposure to VOCs include:

conjunctival irritation

nose and throat discomfort

headache

allergic skin reaction

dyspnea

declines in serum cholinesterase levels

nausea

emesis

epistaxis

fatigue

dizziness

The ability of organic chemicals to cause health effects varies greatly from those
that are highly toxic, to those with no known health effect.

As with other pollutants, the extent and nature of the health effect will depend on
many factors including level of exposure and length of time exposed. Among the
immediate symptoms that some people have experienced soon after exposure to
some organics include:
 Eye and respiratory tract irritation

headaches

dizziness

visual disorders and memory impairment

At present, not much is known about what health effects occur from the levels of
organics usually found in homes.

Search EPA's Integrated Risk Information System (IRIS)

o A compilation of electronic reports on specific substances found in

the environment and their potential to cause human health effects

EPA's Office of Drinking Water Regulations

o List of Contaminants and their MCLs: Organic Chemicals

U.S. Geology Survey's National Water-Quality Assessment (NAWQA)

Program

o Information on VOCs in Water Sources

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Levels in Homes
Studies have found that levels of several organics average 2 to 5 times higher
indoors than outdoors. During and for several hours immediately after certain
activities, such as paint stripping, levels may be 1,000 times background outdoor
levels.

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 Steps to Reduce Exposure
Increase ventilation when using products that emit VOCs.

Meet or exceed any label precautions.

Do not store opened containers of unused paints and similar materials

within the school.

Formaldehyde, one of the best known VOCs, is one of the few indoor air
pollutants that can be readily measured.

o Identify, and if possible, remove the source.

o If not possible to remove, reduce exposure by using a sealant on all

exposed surfaces of paneling and other furnishings.

Use integrated pest management techniques to reduce the need for

pesticides.

Use household products according to manufacturer's directions.

Make sure you provide plenty of fresh air when using these products.

Throw away unused or little-used containers safely; buy in quantities that

you will use soon.

Keep out of reach of children and pets.

Never mix household care products unless directed on the label.

Follow label instructions carefully.

Potentially hazardous products often have warnings aimed at reducing exposure

of the user. For example, if a label says to use the product in a well-ventilated
area, go outdoors or in areas equipped with an exhaust fan to use it. Otherwise,
open up windows to provide the maximum amount of outdoor air possible.

Throw away partially full containers of old or unneeded chemicals safely.

Because gases can leak even from closed containers, this single step could help
lower concentrations of organic chemicals in your home. (Be sure that materials
you decide to keep are stored not only in a well-ventilated area but are also safely
out of reach of children.) Do not simply toss these unwanted products in the
garbage can. Find out if your local government or any organization in your
community sponsors special days for the collection of toxic household wastes. If
such days are available, use them to dispose of the unwanted containers safely.
If no such collection days are available, think about organizing one.

Buy limited quantities.

If you use products only occasionally or seasonally, such as paints, paint

strippers and kerosene for space heaters or gasoline for lawn mowers, buy only
as much as you will use right away.

Keep exposure to emissions from products containing methylene chloride

to a minimum.

Consumer products that contain methylene chloride include paint strippers,

adhesive removers and aerosol spray paints. Methylene chloride is known to
cause cancer in animals. Also, methylene chloride is converted to carbon
monoxide in the body and can cause symptoms associated with exposure to
carbon monoxide. Carefully read the labels containing health hazard information
and cautions on the proper use of these products. Use products that contain
methylene chloride outdoors when possible; use indoors only if the area is well
ventilated.

Keep exposure to benzene to a minimum.

 Benzene is a known human carcinogen. The main indoor sources of this
chemical are:

environmental tobacco smoke

stored fuels

paint supplies

automobile emissions in attached garages

Actions that will reduce benzene exposure include:

eliminating smoking within the home

providing for maximum ventilation during painting

discarding paint supplies and special fuels that will not be used
immediately

Keep exposure to perchloroethylene emissions from newly dry-cleaned

materials to a minimum.

Perchloroethylene is the chemical most widely used in dry cleaning. In laboratory

studies, it has been shown to cause cancer in animals. Recent studies indicate
that people breathe low levels of this chemical both in homes where dry-cleaned
goods are stored and as they wear dry-cleaned clothing. Dry cleaners recapture
the perchloroethylene during the dry-cleaning process so they can save money
by re-using it, and they remove more of the chemical during the pressing and
finishing processes. Some dry cleaners, however, do not remove as much
perchloroethylene as possible all of the time.

Taking steps to minimize your exposure to this chemical is prudent.

If dry-cleaned goods have a strong chemical odor when you pick them up,
do not accept them until they have been properly dried.
 If goods with a chemical odor are returned to you on subsequent visits, try
a different dry cleaner.

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Standards or Guidelines
No federally enforceable standards have been set for VOCs in non-industrial
settings. To learn more about VOC's, including current guidelines or
recommendations set by various organizations for formaldehyde concentrations,
visit Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratorys Indoor Air Quality Scientific
Findings Resource Bank.

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Additional Resources
ASHRAE: Indoor Air Quality Guide, Strategies 5.1 and 5.2

ASHRAE Standard 189.1-2014, Sections 10.3.1.4 and 10.3.1.4 (b) 1

California Department of Public Health: Standard Method for the Testing

and Evaluation of Volatile Organic Chemical Emissions from Indoor Sources
Using Environmental Chambers (Emission Testing Method for California
Specification 01350)

California Title 17 ATCM to Reduce Formaldehyde Emissions from

Composite Wood Products

Carpet and Rug Institute: Green Label Plus

 Collaborative for High Performance Schools: High Performance Products
Database

EPA: Formaldehyde Standards for Composite Wood Products

Indoor Air Fact Sheet No. 4 (revised) - Sick Building Syndrome

o Explains the term "sick building syndrome" (SBS) and "building

related illness" (BRI). Discusses causes of sick building syndrome, describes
building investigation procedures and provides general solutions for resolving the
syndrome.

Indoor Air Pollution: An Introduction for Health Professionals

o Assists health professionals (especially the primary care physician)

in diagnosis of patient symptoms that could be related to an indoor air pollution
problem. Addresses the health problems that may be caused by contaminants
encountered daily in the home and office. Organized according to pollutant or
pollutant groups such as environmental tobacco smoke, VOCs, biological
pollutants and sick building syndrome, this booklet lists key signs and symptoms
from exposure to these pollutants, provides a diagnostic checklist and quick
reference summary, and includes suggestions for remedial action. Also includes
references for information contained in each section. This booklet was
coauthored with the American Lung Association, the American Medical
Association and the U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission.

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Contact Us to ask a question, provide feedback, or report a problem.

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