4.

4 THE ENERGY BALANCE

Now we are ready to write the general energy balance

equation. To write any balance equation we need a well-
defined system of boundaries. Let us choose is our system
the tank shown in Fig. 4.1.

We begin our balance by excluding from consideration

magnetic, electrostatic, surface, and nuclear energies. Thus,
the only kinds of energy which 1 lb of matter can contain are
internal, kinetic, and potential: u + ke + pe. Now, the general
balance says that
Accumulation = flow in - flow out + creation - destruction (4.2)
however, observations of nature have led to the conclusion that
energy can be neither created nor destroyed.
So for energy the balance equation is Accumulation = flow in flow out (4.3)

Accumulation is the differential of the energy contained within the system boundary. The only such energy is that associated
with the matter within the boundary. If the matter is uniform (if all has the same u, ke, and pe), then accumulation is d[m(u
+ pe + ke)] where m is the mass in the system. We use this simplified form for now and consider nonuniform systems in
Sec. 4.13.

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Energy can enter in three ways. One way is by matter coming in the inlet pipe. For every infinitesimal amount of matter which
flows in, the amount of energy which flows in with it is (u + pe + ke)in . dmin Obviously, for matter flowing out the outlet line,
energy can also flow out. The amount of energy flowing via the outlet line is (u + pe + ke)out dmout. The two other ways energy
can flow in or out are via heat through the heating or cooling jacket, which we call dQ, and via mechanical work of various
forms, which we call dW.. Substituting these into Eq. 4.3, we find

This is a preliminary equation; its final form will appear shortly. We now introduce two sign conventions that are very common
in thermodynamics:

These stem from the early attempts of thermodynamicists to study the steam engine. For a steady-running or cyclical steam
engine, Eq. 4.4a reduces to

Using the definitions in Eqs. 4.5 and 4.6 for the steam engine, we find

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which is so simple and pleasing that most workers in thermodynamics have settled upon it. Others have decided that all flows
into the system should be positive and all flows out of the system should be negative (which is the convention in accounting
and almost all other balances) so they show (+ dW) where this book shows (- dW). You must learn to live with these two different
choices of sign for the work term, which appear in different texts. Equation 4.5 says that dQ is the net heat coming into the
system and that dW is the net work going out of the system. Making the substitution of Eqs. 4.5 and 4.6 into Eq. 4.4a, we find
this final form of Eq. 4.4a:

KINETIC AND POTENTIAL ENERGIES

Equation 4.4b can be used only if we can find a way to assign numerical values to the various symbols in it. We already have an
expression for work, Eq. 4.1. It has the dimension of force times distance; in SI its unit is the joule (1 J = N m). In the
English engineering system. of units, its unit is the foot-pound force, abbreviated ft lbf.
We deduced Eq. 4.4b for the system shown in Fig. 4.1, but it applies equally well to many other systems. Let us now
choose as our system a 1-kg steel ball. We lift it slowly a distance dz. We insulate it so that during this lifting process there is
no heat transfer to or from the surroundings; dQ = 0. Moreover, no matter flows into or out of the system: dmin= dmout = 0.
Since no matter flows in or out, substituting this in Eq. 4.4b, we find

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If we have proceeded without friction heating, the final temperature is the same as the initial temperature; so we conclude that
dusys is zero. The final and initial velocities are also zero; so d(ke)sys is zero. Furthermore, according to
Eq. 4.1, dW equals - F dz. Here the sign of the work term is
negative because work is done on the system. The force
needed to lift the ball is the same as the weight of the ball,
i.e., its mass times the acceleration of gravity. So

Example 4.1. Determine the change in potential energy of a 10-kg bag of feathers which is raised a vertical distance of 23
m.
Since we are dealing with a change in potential energy (as we do in all practical problems), we need not concern ourselves
with the datum. We can see this by applying Eq. 4.13 to the initial and final states:

This is the change in potential energy per unit mass. We

calculate the total change in potential energy by multiplying
the potential-energy change per unit mass by the mass present:

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To find the answer in joules or foot-pounds-force, we use the force-mass conversion factor:

1 Joule = 0.7376 ft.Ibf

Now we take the 1-kg ball of steel and throw it horizontally. Again we take the ball as the system. As before, we can insulate it
so that no heat flows in or out (dQ = 0). During the throwing process no matter flows into or out of the ball,

so dmin= dmout = 0. Furthermore, if we proceed without friction heating, the temperature will not change; so dusys = 0. If we
throw it perfectly horizontally, then there is no change in elevation during the throwing; so d(gz)sys= 0. As before, dW = -F
dx. Substituting all these in Eq. 4.4b yields

We may replace F with msy,asys (according to Newton's law) to get

But a = dV/dt, where V is the velocity; so a dx = dV dx/dt. Furthermore, dx/dt = V; so a dx = V dV. We can now integrate
both sides of Eq. 4.15 to get

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Example 4.2. What is the kinetic energy of a 0.01-Ibm bullet traveling at 2000 ft/s relative to the barrel of the gun it has just
left?
Here the velocity is measured relative to the same datum as we wish the kinetic energy to be relative to, so we have no
problem with the datum.

4.6 INTERNAL ENERGY

Now that we have the numerical forms of kinetic energy per unit mass and potential energy per unit mass, we can rewrite Eq.
4.4b as

The common unit used for kinetic and potential energies is foot-pounds-force or joules, but this is an inconvenient unit for
heat flows or for the internal energy. Instead, we use a "heat" unit, the British thermal unit (Btu) or the calorie (cal). The
British thermal unit (Btu) is defined as the amount of energy which must be transferred into 11bm of water to raise its
temperature 1F starting at 59.5F. It is the unit used in English-speaking countries to measure most heat flows.

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Now suppose we take as our system the tank shown in Fig. 4.1. We close the valves in the inlet and outlet lines, so that dmin=
dmout= 0. We also stop the rotating shaft and do not move the volume-changing piston, so there will be no work done (dW = 0).
Now we transfer 100 Btu of energy into the tank from the heating jacket:

However, in this operation the elevation and velocity of the material in the tank did not change, so that d(gz)sys= d(V2/2)sys= 0,
and since msys remained constant, we may take it out of the differential. This leads to

using these value to rearrange the unit in whole energy

1 Btu = 778 ft lbf 1 cal = 4.184 J (4.22)
balance equation

We said before that internal energy might be thought of as hotness plus chemical energy. However, there can also be internal-
energy changes at constant temperature. Suppose we have some mass of some substance in an absolutely rigid vessel. Now we
transfer heat into the vessel. For this process Eq. 4.18 yields

Thus, we see that for a simple constant-volume heating we have du = dQ/m.

What are the possible external signs of such an increase in internal energy?
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1. The substance may increase in temperature.
2. The substance may undergo an energy-consuming chemical reaction, such as 2NH3 N2 + 3H2
3. The substance may undergo a phase change such as ice > water or water to steam.
4. The substance may undergo a crystal-structure change, such as . This is really a phase change but is not as
obvious as those shown above.
5. Any combination of the four items listed above may occur simultaneously.

So we see that any exact definition of an internal-energy change must be based on consideration of all the terms in Eq. 4.18. Thus,
Eq. 4.18 is the exact definition of the change in internal energy. If we restrict ourselves to a closed system of constant mass, with
no changes in kinetic or potential energy, the equation simplifies to

4.7 THE WORK TERM

So far we have said little about the work term in Eq. 4.18. Suppose our system is the 1-kg steel ball described previously.
The system is practically rigid, and the work done on it generally consists of something, e.g., a hand, pushing it. This work
is shown by Eq. 4.1.
Now consider the system shown in Fig. 4.1. Let us assume that the material in the tank is something easily compressed,
such as air or steam. In this case we can do work on the system by moving they volume-changing piston; the magnitude of
this work is shown by Eq. 4.1. However, the force required to move the piston is equal to the piston's cross-sectional area
times the pressure in the tank. Further, the product of the piston's cross-sectional area and the distance traveled is equal to
the change in volume of the tank; so

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 where V is the volume of the tank. If we close the inlet and outlet lines of the tank, turn off the heating and cooling coils, and
then move the piston inward, Eq. 4.18 shows the following:

When we move the piston inward, dV is negative; so dusys is positive. When dusys is positive, the temperature of the system will
rise, unless a phase change occurs. This phenomenon can be observed easily in an ordinary bicycle pump. Driving the piston
inward causes the air in the pump to become hot. So we see that one form of work we must consider is the work of moving the
boundaries of the system. This work is equal to P dV and is often simply referred to as "P dV work."
4.8 INJECTION WORK
If we considered only such systems as a cannonball or a
tank with no flow in or out, we would never need to
introduce the idea of injection work. However, it is often
advantageous to choose as our system a certain set of
boundaries through which mass flows, which we call an
open system.
Suppose we have as our system the tank shown in Fig. 4.1. We now
bring into the tank a mass dmin from the inlet line; nothing flows out,
there is no heat transfer, and there is no work due to moving the
volume-changing piston or turning the shaft. What will be the
energy balance for this operation? This is easiest to see when we
do it by a two-step process; see Fig. 4.2.
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In the first step we let the mass dm flow in and simultaneously move the volume-changing piston out. We move the piston at a rate
such that the fluid originally in the tank is not compressed. This means that all the fluid pushed aside by the fluid coming in is
pushed into the space vacated by the volume-changing piston. Thus, no net work is done on the system because, for all the fluid
involved, there is no volume change. Therefore, the compression work P dV is zero. Thus, the energy balance for step 1 is

Now, to get to the desired final state, we must move the volume-changing piston back to its original position. It must move back
by a volume exactly equal to the volume of the fluid which moved in, which is vin dmin ; then the work to move it back is dW =
- Pvin dmin. The minus sign indicates that dV = vin dmin. The energy balance for this second step is

The energy balance for the entire injection process, Which is the equivalent of the two steps given above, must be the sum of the
energy balances for the two separate steps:

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What does this (Pv)in dmin term represent? We call it injection work, because it is exactly the work that was needed to inject the
mass dmin across the system boundaries. It is also sometimes called intrusion work, flow work, and flow energy.

Obviously, we could repeat the calculation for fluid flowing out the outlet line. How, then, will we reconcile this injection
work idea with Eq. 4.18? Equation 4.18 is correct as it stands; for the process described above, the (Pv)in dmin term is included
in the dW term. However, we now break up the dW term as follows:

where the subscripts "inj" and "a.o." denote "injection" and "all others," respectively.

We now make this substitution in Eq. 4.18 and factor the injection work terms as shown in Eq. 4.30:

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 4.9 ENTHALPY
In Eq. 4.32 the combination u + Pv occurs in the flow-in and flow-out terms. This combination occurs so often in
thermodynamics that it has been given a name and a symbol:

u + Pv = h = enthalpy per unit mass, or specific enthalpy (4.33)

The enthalpy it is the combination of the internal energy per unit mass and the injection work per unit mass. You will soon
appreciate its convenience in solving practical problems. Substituting Eq. 4.33 in Eq. 4.32, we find its exact equivalent:

This is not a derivation of the first law of thermodynamics; that law is underivable. Rather, this is a set of algebraic
manipulations and definitions that convert the statement "energy obeys the balance equation without creation or destruction"
to a very convenient and useful working, equation.

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4.10 RESTRICTED FORMS
Equation 4.34 is powerful because it is so general. However, whenever we write it down, we have, in effect, written down the four
restrictions listed previously. The procedure recommended for solving all thermodynamics problems is to write Eq. 4.32 or Eq.
4.34, select a system of boundaries, and cancel the terms that appear negligible. Each cancellation represents an assumption.

Example 4.4. A sample of air and coal is contained in the constant-pressure cylinder shown in Fig. 4.3. This cylinder has a
frictionless, weightless piston, so the pressure inside the cylinder is always exactly the same as the pressure of the atmosphere
(which we assume is 1 atm). A small spark is now introduced, causing the coal to burn. When the burning is over, the piston
has moved so that the volume of the contents is increased by 1 ft3. The heat transferred to the surroundings was 42 Btu. What is
the internal-energy change for this reaction?
We choose as our system the contents of the cylinder. In this system there is no flow
in or out, so that dmin= dmout = 0. Furthermore, there is a negligible change in the
kinetic or potential energies of the material contained in the system: d(gz)sys= d(V2/2)sys
= 0. Because there is no mass flow in or out, d(mu)sys= m dusys= dUsys. Making these
substitutions in Eq. 4.34, we find

This formula appears in most chemistry books as the basic statement of the first law of
thermodynamics! From the foregoing we can see that it is a much more restricted form
than the one we chose .(Eq. 4.34). We can now substitute for dW from Eq. 4.26:

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 1 Btu = 252.164401 calories =1055.05585 joules

Here dQ is negative according to our sign convention.

Example 4.5. A steady-flow water power plant has its water inlet 15 m above its water outlet. The water enters the plant with a
velocity of 3 m/s and leaves with a velocity of 10 m/s. What is the work done by the plant per kilogram of water passing through
it?
We choose as our system the plant from inlet to outlet. If the flow is steady, then, as discussed in Sec. 3.3, we have d[m(u +
gz +V2/2)] sys = 0. Furthermore, for the assumption of only one inlet and one outlet stream dmin equals dmout. We can then divide
by dm to find

This is the steady flow form of the first law of

thermodynamics. It appears in most chemical and
mechanical engineering textbooks either as shown or
rearranged to

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Returning to the water power plant, we assume that there is no heat transfer to the plant (dQ = 0) and that the enthalpy of the
outlet water is the same as the enthalpy of the inlet water (this is equivalent to the assumption that the inlet and outlet water
streams are at the same temperature and pressures). Then

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4.11 SOME COMMON MACHINES AND PROCESSES

Several very common types of machine and process are described by simple forms of the energy balance.

A. Adiabatic Throttle

The adiabatic throttle is a reasonable model for any partially open valve, the expansion valve on any refrigerator, a leak from a
high-pressure storage container, etc. Such a device is shown in Fig. 4.4. The system boundaries are as shown. We make the
following assumptions:
1. The flow is steady.
2. The flow is horizontal.
3. The inlet and outlet velocities are negligible.
4. The heat transfer into or out of the system is negligible.

In this system there is no work done except the injection work, which we
have excluded from dWa..o.; therefore, dWa..o = 0. When we make these
substitutions in Eq. 4.34, we find

Dividing by dmin, which is the same as dmou and rearranging, we find

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Example 4.6. Freon 12 flows steadily through an insulated throttle valve. The upstream conditions are 100 psia and 100F. The
downstream pressure is 20 psia. What is the downstream temperature?
From Eq. 4.39 we have h in = h out . Using App. A.2, we find hi = 88.5 Btu/lbm. Therefore, the fluid flowing out has a
pressure of 20 psia and an enthalpy of 88.5 Btu/lbm. From App. A.2 we can read the outlet temperature abuot 7 5 F .

B. Turbine and Compressor

A turbine or an expansion engine is a device for extracting work from a flowing fluid stream by allowing the stream to
decrease in pressure or velocity. Compressors, fans, blowers, and pumps are devices for increasing the pressure of a fluid
stream by doing work on it. Obviously, the turbine and the compressor are inverses of each other, and some machines are
actually designed so that they can serve as expansion engines one moment and compressors the next (the piston-and-cylinder
arrangement in automobile engines serves as a compressor in the compression stroke and an expansion engine in the power
stroke). The flow diagram of such a device is shown in Fig. 4.5. We use the boundaries shown in the figure and assume:
1. Steady flow.
2. Negligible change in elevation from inlet to outlet . Then Eq.
4.34, rearranged, becomes

For most such devices we can also assume:

1. Negligible heat transfer to surroundings.
2. Negligible kinetic energies of inlet and outlet streams. Therefore,

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For a turbine or expansion engine which extracts work from the fluid passing through it, the work per unit mass is positive
(because of the sign convention discussed above), and hin must be greater than hout . For a pump, fan, blower, or compressor
which does work on the fluid passing through it, the reverse is true: hout must be greater than hin , in which case dWa.o/ dm is
negative, indicating work flowing into the system.

Example 4.7. An insulated, steady-flow, horizontal Freon compressor has the following conditions:
Flow rate:15,000 Ibm/h
Inlet:10 psia, 20F
Outlet:40 psia, 120F
What power is required to drive this compressor?
From Eq. 4.41 we have dWout/dm = hin hout. From App. A.2 we read hin = 81.0 Btu/lbm and hout= 94.2 Btu/lbm. Therefore,

1 hp = 2545 Btu/hr
1 hp = 0.745699872 kW
1 kW = 3412.142 BTU/hr
The minus sign here indicates work done on the system.
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 C. Simple Heater or Cooler
A simple heater is shown in Fig. 4.6. For this system we use the
boundaries shown and make the following assumptions:
1. Steady flow
2. Horizontal flow
3. Negligible inlet and outlet velocities
In this system, too, no work is done except the injection work, which we have excluded from dWa.o, therefore, substituting
in Eq. 4.34 gives

Example 4.8. A steady-state Freon cooler is used to remove 106 Btu/h from a meat-chilling room. The Freon is to enter as
saturated liquid at 20 psia and to leave as saturated vapor at the same pressure. What flow rate of Freon is required?
We use Eq. 4.42 and choose the flowing Freon as our system. In App. A.2 we read hin = 6.8 Btu/lbm and hout= 76.4
Btu/lbm. Then

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