Harmonics and Unbalances Generated by Microgeneration
Systems
Miguel ngelo Nobre Martins
Instituto Superior Tcnico,
Av. Rovisco Pais, 1049-001 Lisbon, Portugal
miguelamiais@gmail.com
Abstract - The use of micro-generation as a way
to meet the challenges of environmental and
energetic sustainability has consequences on the
quality of power.
The main goal of this MSc thesis is to analyze
the impact of single phase and three phase
microgeneration on the voltage waveform of a low
voltage (LV) network. A model of an urban low
voltage underground network is built in
Matlab/Simulink environment, including the model
of: medium / low voltage transformer, electrical
cables, loads, microgenerators and their current
controllers
The impact of single phase and three phase
microgeneration in the quality of voltage waveform
is evaluated simulating the proposed network for
different scenarios. Power quality parameters as
voltage variations, Total Harmonic Distortion
(THD) and Voltage Unbalance Factor (VUF) are
evaluated. Simulation results are obtained for
different distributions of non linear loads, load
power and microgeneration power.
Keywords: Microgeneration, Power Quality
Low Voltage Network, Total Harmonic Distortion,
Voltage Unbalance Factor (VUF).
I. INTRODUCTION
The use of renewable natural resources for
electricity generation has been widespread in recent
years. New technologies have emerged and others
have evolved allowing greater exploitation of these
resources. With the Kyoto treaty, the commitment of
most countries worldwide is to reduce the emission of
greenhouse gases by making a more rational use of
existing energy resources, and for greater investment
in energy forms considered clean. Wind farms, small
hydro plants, photovoltaic and biomass power stations
are some of the existing solutions in Portugal, which
represent an increasing share of clean energy produced
in the country. At a time when the use of renewable
energy is growing consensus, the concept of
microgeneration arises. Investment in, small-scale
electricity production and selling it to the grid is at
present being subjected to economic incentives by the
government, in order to promote microgeneration in
Portugal.
The Decree-Law 363/2007 of 2 November [1] has
established the legal framework of microgeneration in
Portugal. According to existing legislation is possible
to who has a contract to purchase electricity, selling
energy to the electricity grid. However the installed
power in microgeneration cannot exceed 50% of the
contracted power, with a limit of 5,75kW to facilities
not integrated into condominiums. The document sets
out conditions of access and limits to microgeneration
(recommended maximum of 25% of the power
adapter) and also planned a system of subsidized
prices for the sale of electricity. Wind and solar
microgeneration systems are the ones with better
conditions for a higher yield in Portugal (mainly
solar), and this fact is the country's geographical
location.
The photovoltaic microgeneration is the utilization
of solar radiation through the photovoltaic effect.
Cells on the panels are composed of semiconductor
materials that allow the conversion of energy
associated with solar radiation into electrical energy.
Regarding the wind microgeneration, it uses small
wind turbines to transform the kinetic energy of wind
into electricity. Microgeneration systems may or may
not be connected to the LV network. As part of the
isolated systems, the microgenerators must have
equipment of energy storage - batteries. Systems
connected to the grid use voltage inverters to inject a
sinusoidal current in phase with the voltage.
To date there are already registered in Portugal a few
thousand micro-producers of electricity [2]. Given the
growing interest in this new form of energy
production, it is expected that this number continues
to grow.
II. LV NETWORK
The model grid of low voltage was built in Power
Systems Toolbox of Matlab / Simulink. The network
includes models of the transformer MV / LV, cables
used and the more representative loads of the LV
network.
A. MV/LV Transformer
The operation of the electricity MV (medium
voltage) is carried out in three levels of voltage: 10kV,
15kV and 30kV. In urban network (underground grid)
transformers commonly used in connecting the MV
network and the LV network have powers of 630kVA,
400kVA and 250kVA. These transformers are
connected in a delta (MV)/star (LV) system with
neutral grounded in LV.
In this work was considered a 630kVA transformer
with a voltage level in the primary winding of 30kV recorded. Whereas an inductive load has SRL = 150 VA
and 400V in the secondary (phase-to-phase voltages). and power factor 0.56 the waveforms in Fig. 4 were
The model of the transformer used in the network is obtained.
the T model that is represented in Fig. 1.

R1 jX1 R2 jX2

Gm jBm

Fig. 1 T model of the transformer

From the values cataloged [12] for tests on open

Fig. 3 Voltage and current measured in a domestic refrigerator
and short-circuit the parameters R1, R2, X1, X2, Gm
and Bm were calculated [11]. 400 10

B. Electrical Cables
230
5
In LV urban networks are commonly used
underground cables, whose length from the

Corrente[A]
Tenso[V]
transformer to the farther customer, does not exceed, 0

usually, 500m. Generally, in Portugal are used

insulated low-voltage cables with three different -230
5

sections: 185mm2, 95mm2 and 35mm2. The cables

have aluminum conductor core, and PVC insulation -400
0.16 0.18
-10
0.2
(cables LVAV and LSVAV). From the model of a Tempo [s]

transmission line [4] a cable model is built (modified Fig. 4 Voltage and current in a RL (inductive) load representing a
domestic refrigerator.
model). This model considers the three phases and
neutral conductor of the cable.
D. Non-Linear (NL) Loads
Ra La
The single-phase rectifiers presented in this work
Rb Lb are not commanded full-wave rectifiers (rectifiers with
diodes) - Fig 5. Two types of rectifiers were scaled
Rc Lc differing in power.
i0
1
1
/2Ccn /2Ccn
1 1
/2Can /2Can
1
/2Cbn Rn Ln 1
/2Cbn Vak2
Vak1 D1 D2
LIN

Fig. 2 Representation of the modified model of the cable VIN

V0
AC C0 R0

The resistance, inductance and capacity are

calculated from the values cataloged by the
manufacturers [3] and their length. Vak4 D4 Vak3 D3

C. Linear Loads
Fig. 5 Single-phase rectifier model
The low-voltage networks are predominantly
single-phase loads, which can be linear or nonlinear. The equivalent resistance of the rectifier output is
In the model constructed, the linear loads are determined based on the power of the device,
considered to be of purely resistive or inductive according to where voav is the average value of output
nature. voltage and power is PTV equivalent of an entire set of
The network model is intended to represent groups n devices that are connected to the network.
of consumers, distributed by various outlets of the
transformer. Thus, for each resistive load type a 2
typical power (PR = 1000W) is assumed. This value is 0 = (1)

then affected by the amount of devices with resistive
behavior that are connected to the network at any The rectifier has an input filter LIN filtering the
given moment (e.g. incandescent bulbs or heaters). To current [5]. It is considered that the LIN is 3% of the
make the network more representative of reality load(2).
inductive loads were designed. In Fig. 3 the
waveforms of voltage and current of a refrigerator are 0,030
= (2)
2

2
 400 20

The condenser is sized to limit the ripple of the

output voltage. 230

10

= (3)

Corrente [A]
Tenso [V]
0 0

Where =10ms. [5]

-10
-230
The type 1 rectifier is intended to represent a TV.
It is considered that the power of each TV is 200W.
-400 -20
The voltage and current waveforms measured in a TV 0.16 0.18
Tempo [s]
0.2

and type 1 rectifier are shown in Fig. 6 and Fig. 7. Fig. 9 - Voltage and current in the type 2 rectifier representing a
washer.

III. M ICROGENERATION

Microgeneration systems require the use of

switched converters able to link the production
systems to the electricity grid voltage inverters.
To ensure shorter simulation times, it was
considered that microgeneration units are represented
only by their voltage inverters.
Fig. 6 - Voltage and current measured in a TV Two types of voltage inverters were scaled: a
400 10 single-phase inverter and a three-phase inverter.
The proposed single-phase inverter is intended to
230
5 represent one or a combination of various
microgeneration units that can be installed by low
Voltage [V]

voltage customers that comply with legal requirements

Current [A]

0 0

[1]. The inverter consists of 4 IGBTs with diodes in

anti-parallel - Fig. 10.
-5
-230

i1 i2
-400 -10
0.06 0.08 0.1
Time [s] S1 S3

io RL Lo
Fig. 7 - Voltage and current in the type 1 rectifier representing a
TV. UDC
Vo VR RR

The type 2 rectifier is intended to represent a

S2 S4
washing machine. It is considered that the power of
each machine is 2000W. The voltage and current
waveforms measured in a washing machine and the Fig. 10 Single-phase inverter model
type 2 rectifier are shown in Fig. 8 and Fig. 9.
The output voltage of the inverter is given by (3).

= () (3)
where

1, 1 4
= 0, 1 3 (4)
1, 2 3

and is the DC input voltage .

Fig. 8 - Voltage and current measured in a washer
The connection to the network is made through a
filter (LO) that will reduce the ripple of the current
injected into the network [5].

= (5)
4

UDC is the DC input voltage of the inverter, Io is

the current ripple injected into the network and fc the

3
switching frequency. Resistance RL represents the In Fig. 13 is represented the harmonic specter and
internal resistance of . The equivalent resistance THD of the current injected into the network by a
(RR) at the converter terminals represents the single-phase inverter. The THD current of the inverter
impedance of the network seen from the inverter doesnt reach the limit (3%) indicated by the
terminals. To ensure the proper functioning of the manufacturers [7].
inverter, the DC voltage should be higher than the
amplitude of the grid voltage. It is assumed that UDC is
400V.
To represent a microgenerator, the inverter must
inject a current in the network that is proportional to
the power generated by solar radiation received by a
set of photovoltaic panels, or wind covering a
microturbine. Reference currents were calculated
based on the microgeneration units power - Iref
=12.75A. Only the magnitude of reference current can
Fig. 13 Injected current harmonic specter single-phase inverter
be manipulated, and the phase is obtained from the
supply voltage. The block diagram that illustrates the It was also scaled a three-phase inverter - Fig. 14.
current control is shown in Fig. 11.
VR
Iref V0 - I0
+ 1 sT z
ki sT p
Converter Filter
S1A S1B S1C
- + ia RLA LA VAR
A
VAB
ib RLB LB VBR
B VCA N
UDC
VBC
ki ic RLC LC VCR
C

Fig. 11 Block diagram of the current control

S2A S2B S2C

It is intended that the current to inject into the

Fig. 14 - Three-phase inverter model
network follow the reference, which will be
established based on the maximum power that can be Because there are two components of the currents,
extracted from the sun or wind. In order to ensure that two current controllers Cd(s) and Cq(s) must exist. The
the error between the current and its reference value design principles of the controllers are the same used
tends to be zero is necessary to scale a power in the single-phase inverter. The block diagram of the
compensator, C(s). controlled system is represented in Fig. 15.
1+
() = (6)

Irefd -
+ 1 sT z + Hd

Where the time constants e are: sT p

-

L V0d I0d
2
=
Three-phase
(7) Converter
Output Load
+ I0q
L V0q
+
Irefq Hq
=
+ 1 sT z
(8) sT p
+ +
-

Where KD is the gain of the association modulator

+ converter, ki is the close loop gain and Td is the Fig. 15 Decoupled block diagram of the current controllers
system response delay.
In Fig. 12 is shown the voltage and current of the When connected to the grid, inverters must be
inverter output. synchronized with it, which means that the angular
400 30
position of the network should be calculated. In Fig.
16 is represented the block diagram of the
230 synchronizer used [8].
15

V cos()
Corrente [A]

Low Pass
Tenso [V]

0 0 Va Filter V
abc
Vb
V V V
2 2

Vc
V
Low Pass sin()
-15
Filter
-230 V
Fig. 16 Block diagram of the grid synchronizer
-400 -30
0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1
Tempo [s]
The current injected by the inverters on the
Fig. 12 Grid voltage and injected current into the grid by a single-
phase inverter network are represented in Fig. 17.

4
 20
this reason, THD has been calculated considering the
15
first 50 harmonics of voltage.
10
The VUF is calculated using the RMS values of
phase-to-phase voltage [9] according to (10)
5
Corrente [A]

1 36
=
-5

-10
(10)
1+ 36
-15 Fase R
Fase S
Fase T
-20
0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1
Tempo [s]
The constant is given by (11) and depends on the
Fig. 17 - Injected current into the grid by a three-phase inverter RMS phase-to-phase voltage UAB, UBC, UCA.
It can be seen in Fig. 18 that the distortion in the 4 4 4
+ +
current three-phase inverter is lower than in the single- = 2 + 2 + 2 2 (11)

phase inverter and the manufacturer limit [7].
The power factor is defined by:

1
= (12)
1+2

B. Network Topology
The proposed network is an underground low
voltage network, so it is more common in urban
Fig. 18 - Injected current harmonic specter three-phase inverter centers. The nominal voltage is 230V/400V. In this
model it is considered a generator of medium voltage
IV. S IMULATIONS AND RESULTS (30kV) with short circuit impedance which aims to
The simulations of the electricity of the LV represent the network of medium voltage. The
network were performed using the software Matlab / MV/LV transformer has 630kVA and the wiring
Simulink. diagram is delta / star with grounded neutral. The
The objective of the network simulations is to evaluate transformer has six outputs connected directly to
the impact of microgeneration on the quality of the sections of cable sections 95mm2 and 185mm2.
waveform. Load groups were set up to represent a set of
customers. In each output of the transformer are
A. Parameters analyzed
several groups of loads connected by sections of cable
The parameters that measure the quality of the with different lengths, all of which have the neutral
waveform evaluated are: variation in supply voltage, grounded. The maximum length between the
Voltage Unbalance Factor (VUF), power factor and transformer and the most distant group of loads is 100
Total Harmonic Distortion (THD). These parameters meters.
have limits defined by the standard NP EN 50160 [14]
- Tab. 1.

Tab. 1 Limits defined by NP EN 50160 [14]

Parameter Limit
Supply Voltage Variation 10% of Nominal Voltage
Voltage Unbalance Factor (VUF) 2%
Voltage Total Harmonic Distortion (THDV) 8%

THD is calculated using (9).

2
=2 ( )
= 1( )
(9)

The standard NP EN 50160 imposes a limit of 8%

[14] for the voltage THD. This value is calculated
considering only the first 40 harmonics of voltage
(frequency 2000 Hz). Power Quality meters consider
harmonics up to the 50th order to carry out the
measurement of THD (2500Hz frequency) [13]. For

5
 MT BT LVAV185
20 m
1 LVAV95
60 m
2 C. Results
The simulations for the scenario without
630KVA
30kV/400V
microgeneration revealed variations in supply voltage
LVAV185
20 m
3 LSVAV95 4 below the value required by the standard. Power
60 m
factors in this scenario are all above 0.8.
For the scenario with 10% of microgeneration the
variations on supply voltage are reduced in both
5 6
LVAV185
30 m
LVAV95
50 m
scenarios load (20% SN 80% SN). However there is a
greater voltage drop in a setting of the network power
edge. The power factor of the network with 80% SN is
LSVAV185
above 0.8. For 20% SN situation power factor has
LVAV185 7 40 m 8
20 m some low values and, in some cases negative - Fig. 20.
LVAV95
50 m
This is due to the fact that in the groups were the
9 microgenerators are installed, the current is more
distorted (high current THD values) inversely
influencing the value of power factor. In some cases
the values are negative, which corresponds to a
LVAV185 10 LSVAV95 11
30 m 60 m reversal in the power flow, that is, the microgenerator
providing active power to the network.

12 13
LVAV185 LSVAV95 10% Microgeneration / 70%NL Loads/ 20%S N
30 m 70 m
1,00
0,80
0,60
Fig. 19 LV network scheme 0,40
0,20
0,00
The value indicating the maximum SN of 13 groups -0,20
of charges is given by (13), where Si represents the -0,40
-0,60
power associated with each group of loads.
PT G1 G2 G3 G4 G5 G6 G7 G8 G9 G10 G11 G12 G13

=13 Fase R Fase S Fase T

= =1 (13)
Fig. 20 Power factor of the LV grid with 10% of microgeneration
units, 70% of non-linear loads with 20%SN load
The power for each group of loads Si, is calculated
as the sum of products of power contracted by factor For the scenario with 25% of microgeneration, the
of simultaneity and the number of customers values of voltage are all (unlike the other scenarios)
associated with each step. exceeding 230V. Nevertheless, the variation is below
the standard. The behavior of the values of power
= (14) factor for 20%SN scenario is aggravated with the
increase of microgeneration units. In this scenario, the
Where, effects mentioned above are much more severe
is the power contracted by causing almost all of the groups to show low or
customers: 3,45kVA; 6,9kVA e 20,7kVA. negative power factors Fig. 21
is the factor of simultaneity associated with
the number of customers every step of contracted 25% Microgeneration / 70%NL Loads / 20%S N
power. [10] 0,40

associated with each of the power 0,20

0,00
contracted.
-0,20

-0,40
As the power consumption at each time by all
-0,60
consumers connected to the network can vary, as well
-0,80
as the percentage of non-linear loads, scenarios have PT G1 G2 G3 G4 G5 G6 G7 G8 G9 G10 G11 G12 G13
been set up where these two factors vary.
Fase R Fase S Fase T
Variation of power consumption,
20% of Fig. 21 - Power factor of the LV grid with 25% of microgeneration
units, 70% of non-linear loads with 20%SN load
80% of .
Variation in load distribution, For the scenario with 25% of microgeneration with
50% of non-linear loads. three-phase units, the voltage variation and power
70% of non-linear loads. factor behavior are identical to the scenario with
single-phase units.

6
 Comparisons of the THD voltage in the scenarios VUF to the network with 70% of non-linear loads.
with and without microgeneration with 50% of non-
linear loads are represented in Fig. 22 and Fig. 23. 70% Non-Linear Loads/ 20% SN
0,16
0,14
50% of Non-Linear Loads / 20% SN
3,00
0,12
0,10

VUF [%]
2,50
0,08
2,00 0,06
THD [%]

1,50 0,04
0,02
1,00
0,00
0,50
PT G1 G2 G3 G4 G5 G6 G7 G8 G9 G10 G11 G12 G13
0,00
Without Microgeneration With Microgeneration (10%)
With Microgeneration (25%) With 3-phase Microgeneration (25%)

Without Microgeneration With Microgeneration (10%) With Microgeneration (25%)

Fig. 26 Comparison of VUF of the LV grid with 70% of non-
Fig. 22 Comparison of the voltage THD in one phase of the LV linear loads and 20% SN load for the different scenarios.
grid with 50% of non-linear loads with 20%SN load for the different
scenarios.
70% Non-Linear Loads / 80% SN
0,12
50% of Non-Linear Loads / 80% SN
0,10
3,00
0,08
2,50

VUF [%]
0,06
2,00
THD [%]

1,50
0,04

1,00 0,02

0,50 0,00
PT G1 G2 G3 G4 G5 G6 G7 G8 G9 G10 G11 G12 G13
0,00

Without Microgeneration With Microgeneration (10%)

With Microgeneration (25%) With 3-phase Microgeneration (25%)
Without Microgeneration With Microgeneration (10%) With Microgeneration (25%)
Fig. 27 - Comparison of VUF of the LV grid with 70% of non-linear
Fig. 23 Comparison of the voltage THD in one phase of the LV loads and 80% SN load for the different scenarios.
grid with 50% of non-linear loads with 80%SN load for the different
scenarios.

V. CONCLUSIONS
With 70% of non-linear loads the THD results
obtained are in Fig. 24 and Fig. 25. To study the impact caused by the introduction of
microgeneration in the voltage waveform, a LV
70% of Non-Linear Loads / 20% SN network was built. The model included: a source of
4,00
3,50
medium voltage, a transformer MV / LV; cables;
3,00 linear and nonlinear loads; microgeneration units and
2,50
power quality meters. The simulations were made for
THD [%]

2,00
1,50 various scenarios of loading and microgeneration
1,00
0,50 levels.
0,00
The variation of voltage and VUF never exceed
the limits imposed by the standard NP EN 50160.
Without Microgeneration With Microgeneration (10%) With Microgeneration (25%) With 3-phase Microgeneration (25%) In all scenarios it was found that the increase of
Fig. 24 - Comparison of the voltage THD in one phase of the LV nonlinear loads on the network is a factor undermining
grid with 70% of non-linear loads with 20%SN load for the different the quality of the waveform.
scenarios. When the microgeneration totals 10% of the
transformer power, the values of THD go very close to
70% of Non-Linear Loads / 80% SN
4,00
those obtained in the scenarios without
3,50
3,00
microgeneration.
2,50 With the increase in microgeneration for 25% of
THD [%]

2,00
1,50 the transformer power, it was found that the values of
1,00
0,50 THD increased. However remained below the limit
0,00
(8%) imposed by the standard. For this
microgeneration scenario, the network presented
Without Microgeneration With Microgeneration (10%) differing behavior, in the 20%SN situation THD
With Microgeneration (25%) With 3-phase Microgeneration(25%)
increases were higher than those registered at the 80%
Fig. 25 - Comparison of the voltage THD in one phase of the LV
grid with 70% of non-linear loads with 80%SN load for the different situation.
scenarios. When you combine single-phase inverters with
three-phase there is a reduction in THD for the
equivalent scenario with only single-phase
The values of VUF remained well below the microgeneration.
values imposed by the standard in all simulations. In In general, the values of power factor measured in
Fig. 26 and Fig. 27 is represented the comparison of microgeneration scenarios decreased for scenarios

7
without microgeneration, becoming, in some cases, Distribuio MT/BT.
negative. This is due to the reversal of the power flow
carried over the network. [13] Fluke 435, Fluke 430 Series Three Phase
The simulations performed to the scaled low- Power Quality Analyzers Technical Data,
voltage grid make it possible to conclude that the www.fluke.pt
influence of non-linear loads is important in the
quality of the waveform. The existence of [14] Norma Portuguesa EN 50160.,Caractersticas
microgeneration leads to an increase in rms voltage, da tenso fornecida pelas redes de distribuio
the VUF and the THD. However, despite the increase pblica de energia elctrica, 2001.
in values of these parameters, the limits defined by the
standard NP EN 50160 have never been exceeded.
The power factor was the parameter that showed
worse performance with the introduction of
microgeneration.

VI. REFERENCES

[1] Decreto-Lei n 363/2007 de 2 de Novembro de

2007, Dirio da Repblica.

[2] www.renovaveisnahora.pt

[3] Quintas & Quintas, Guia Tcnico,

QUINTAS & QUINTAS Condutores
Elctricos, S.A., Esposende, 2007.

[4] Sucena Paiva, J., Redes de Energia Elctrica

Uma Anlise Sistmica, IST Press, 2005.

[5] Silva, J.F., Sistemas de Energia em

Telecomunicaes: Textos de apoio,
Departamento de Engenharia Electrotcnica e
de Computadores do Instituto Superior
Tcnico, Universidade Tcnica de Lisboa,
2007.

[7] Ingeteam, Ingecon Sun Product Technical

Data, www.ingeteam.com

[8] Silva, N. A., Controlo das Potncias Activa e

Reactiva Fornecidas Rede Elctrica por
Conversores CC/CA Fontes de Tenso,
Dissertao de Mestrado, 2004, Porto

[9] Kim, J-G., Lee, E-W., Lee, D-J., Lee, J-H.,

Comparison of Voltage Unbalance Factor by
Line and Phase Voltage, 2005, Korea.

[10] Regulamento de Segurana de Redes de

Distribuio de Energia Elctrica em Baixa
Tenso, DGGE.

[11] Borges da Silva, J. F., Electrotecnia

Terica, Departamento de Engenharia
Electrotcnica e de Computadores do Instituto
Superior Tcnico, Universidade Tcnica de
Lisboa, 1995.

[12] Merlin Gerin, Catlogo de Transformadores a

leo Hermticos Normas, Equipamento
Base, Opes e Ensaios, Transformadores

8
9