Ch5 Differentiation

UNIVERSITY KUALA LUMPUR MALAYSIAN INSTITUTE OF AVIATION TECHNOLOGY
CHAPTER 5: DIFFERENTIATION
Introduction
The line of sight of a person sitting in a car

traveling along a roller coaster track P will
be parallel to the tangent line T
Consider the graph of a function f (fig: a) that gives the distance traveled by a car on a straight
road t seconds after starting from rest. At the initial stage, the curve rises slowly. Reflecting the
slow speed of the car (rate of change of the position y with respect to time t). As time passes, the
curve rises more rapidly. Showing that the speed of the car in the latter phase is greater than that
in the earlier phase. The speed of the car is therefore not constant over the period of time.
What is the speed of the car at any given instant of time t? This is called the instantaneous
speed of the car, which is the speed of the car at that particular instant of time.
How to measure the changes in f for any value of x ?
Consider the graph of f (fig: b). Think of the curve as a stretch of roller coaster track. When the
car is at the point P on the curve, a passenger sitting in the car, looking straight ahead will have a
line of sight that is parallel to the line T (tangent to the curve at P)
Therefore , the rate at which y is increasing or decreasing with respect to x can be measured by
considering the slope of the tangent line to the curve at the point in question.
munirah/foundation/unikl-miat/2012/chap5-differentiation 1
Tangent Line
Let QX be any point on the graph of f distinct from P (a point on the graph). The straight line that
passes through the two points, P and QX is called a secant line
If QX move toward P along the curve, the secant line through P and Q X rotates about the fixed
point P. And the point QX approaches a fixed line through P. This fixed line is the tangent line.
Consider the point P(2,1)

2
Points Q1 , Q2 , . , Q6 lie on the graph of f(x) = x .
The lines S1 , S2 , . , S6 are the corresponding secant line through P.
By using, the formula to find the slope of a straight line that passes through 2 points.
y 2 y1
m
x 2 x1
Find the slopes of the secant lines.
From the results, we see that the slopes of the secant lines seem to approach the number 1
CONCLUSION: the slope of the tangent line is 1.
To find a general expression involving the function f(x) that describes the slopes of the
approximating sequence of secant lines, we consider:
Point Coordinate
P (x, f(x))
Q (x+h, f(x+h))
Using the equation for the slope of a line:
y 2 y1
m
x 2 x1
Observe that as the number h approaches zero, the point Q ( x+h , f(x+h)) approaches the point P
along the graph of f . Therefore, the sequence lines through points P & Q approaches the tangent
line through P.
DEFINITION: The slope of the tangent line to the graph of f at the point P is given by:
f x h f x
lim if it exits
h0 h
Example:
1. Find the slope of the tangent line to the graph of the linear function f(x) = 3x + 5
f x h f x 3 x h 5 3 x 5
lim lim
h0 h h0 h
lim 3
h0
3
Therefore, the slope of the linear function is 3.
2
2. Find the slope of the tangent line to the graph of y = f(x) = x at any point ( x , y ) .
What is the slope of the tangent line T to the graph of f at the point (2 , 1), what is the
equation of T ?
Slope of the tangent line to the graph of f at any point
f x h f x
1
x h x 2
2 1
lim lim 4 4
h0 h h0 h
1 2 2 1 1
x xh h 2 x 2
lim 4 4 4 4
h0 h
x h
lim
h0 2 4
x

2
x 2
The slope of the tangent line T to the graph of f at the point (2,1) is 1
2 2
The equation of T, at point (2,1) with slope m = 1
m x 1 y 1
y 1 1 x 2
y x1
Rate of Change
Suppose that we are given a function f that describes the relationship between the two quantities
x and y:
y = f(x)
The number f(x+h) f(x) measures the change in y that corresponds to a change of h in x.
f x h f x f x h f x
The difference quotient: measures the average rate of
x h x h
change of f with respect to x over the interval [ x , x+h ]
As this equation is the same as the equation of the slope, we conclude that the difference quotient
also measure the slope of the secant line that passes through the two points, P and Q on the graph
f.
By taking the limit of the difference quotient as h approaches zero,
f x h f x
lim
h0 h
We obtain the rate of change of f at the point x often called the instantaneous rate of change of
f at the point x.
AVERAGE RATE OF CHANGE of f over the interval [ x , x + h ] or slope of the secant line
to the graph of f through the point ( x , f(x) ) and ( x+h , f(x+h)) is
f x h f x
h
INSTANTANEOUS RATE OF CHANGE of f at the point x or slope of tangent line to the

graph of f at ( x , f(x) ) is
f x h f x
lim
h0 h
DERIVATIVE
The derivative of a function

The derivative of a function f with respect to x is the function f defined by:
f x h f x
f ' x lim
h0 h
The domain of f is the set of all x when the limit exists
Thus the derivative of a function f is a function f that gives the slope of the tangent line to the
graph of f at any point (x, f(x)) and thus the rate of change of f at x.
Notation:
DX f(x) : dee sub x of f of x
dy
: dee y dee x
dx
y : y prime
f : f prime
f (x) : f prime of x
Example:
1. Let f (x) = x2
a. compute the derivative f of f b. compute f(2) and interpret your
result
f x h f x x h x 2 f(x) = 2x
2
lim lim
h0 h h0 h f(2) = 2(2) = 4
x 2 xh h 2 x 2
2
f ' x lim
h0 h
The slope of the tangent line to the graph
lim 2 x h
h0 of f at the point (2, 4) is 4. The function f
2x
is changing at the rate of 4 units per unit
change in x.
2. Let f(x) = x2 - 4x
a. compute the derivative f of f
lim
f x h f x
lim

x h 4 x h x 2 4 x
2

h0 h h0 h
2 xh h 4 h
2
f ' x lim
h0 h
lim 2 x h 4
h0
2x 4
b. find the point on the graph of f where the tangent line to the curve is horizontal
If the tangent line to the curve is horizontal, then the slope is zero
f ' x 0
y 2 4 2
2
2x 4 0
y 4
x2
Therefore, the point is (2, -4)
c. sketch the graph of f and the tangent line to the curve at the point found in (b)
d. what is the rate of change of f at this point ?

The rate of change of f at this point (2, - 4) is zero
Let f x
1
3.
x
a. compute the derivative f of f
f x h f x 1 1 1
lim lim .
h0 h h0 x h x h
x x h 1
f ' x lim .
h0 x h x h
1
lim
h0 x hx
1
2
x
b. find the slope of the tangent line T to the graph of f when x = 1
when x = 1;
The Slope; f ' x

1
x2
f ' 1 1
c. find an equation of the tangent line T in (b)
when x = 1, y = 1
at point (1,1), m = -1
y1
1
x1
y x 2
Equation of a Tangent Line
If a function f(x) is differentiable at point x = x o, then there exists a tangent line passing through
the point (xo, f(xo)). The equation of this tangent line is
y f ' xo x xo f xo
Example:
Find the equation of the tangent line that passes through the point (3,9) of the graph of the
function f(x) = x2
Solution:
f(3) = 9
f(x) = 2x,
Therefore f (3) = 6
Hence the equation of a tangent is y = 6(x 3) + 9
Or in slope intercept form y = 6x 9
Functions that is not differentiable at a point

Functions that fail to be differentiable are functions that do not possess derivative at certain
values of x.
A continuous function f(x), fails to be differentiable at a point x = a when:
The graph of f(x) makes an abrupt change of direction at that point
The tangent line is vertical ( since the slope of a vertical line is undefined )
f is not differentiable at x = a
The graph makes an abrupt change The slope at x = a is undefined
of direction at x = a.
We can draw a unique tangent through We cannot draw a unique tangent line
(xo, f(xo)) function is differentiable at xo. through (xo,f(xo)) function is not
differentiable at xo.
Continuity and differentiability
In general, the continuity of a function at a point x = a does not necessarily imply the
differentiability of the function at that point .The converse however is true.
Example:
Explain why the function fails to be differentiable at each of the points
x=a,x=b,x=c,x=d,x=e,x=f,x=g
At x = a, b, c : The function is discontinuous at these points

At x = d, e, f : The function has a kink at each of these points
At x = g : The tangent line is vertical at this point
RULES IN DIFFERENTIATION
Basic rules
These rules are used to simplify the process of finding the derivative of a function
Derivative of
d
c 0
a. dx
Constant
Where c = constant
b. Power Rule dx

d n
x nx n1
Where n = any real number

Derivative of a d
cf x c d f x
c. constant multiple dx dx
of a function Where c = constant
The sum /
d.
d
f x g x d f x d gx
difference rule dx dx dx
Derivative of
e.
d
f g x f ' g x g' x
composite function dx
ln f x f ' x
Derivative of a
loga x 1
d d
f. logarithmic dx f x dx x ln a
function Where x > 0 Where x > 0
Derivative of a
g. trigonometric
d
sin f x cos f x f ' x d
cos f x sin f x f ' x
dx dx
function
Derivative of an
h. exponential
dx
e
d f x

e f x . f ' x
d x
dx

a a x ln a
function
Examples:
Find the derivative of
a. f(x) = 28 b. f(x) = -2 c. f(x) = x
5
d. f(x) = x e. f x x2 f. f x x
f x f x 5x 3 f x
1 3
g. 3
h. i.
x x
t2 5
j. f x 3 k. f x 4x 5 3x 4 8x 2 x 3
5 t
r 3 4r 2 3
l. f x
r
Product Rule
The derivative of the product of two differentiable functions is given by:
d
u x v x u' x v x u x v' x
dx
Example:
1. Find the derivative of the function f(x) = (2x2 1) (x3 + 3)
Let u x 2x 2 1 v(x) x 3 3
u' x 4x v' x 3x 2
f' x u' x vx v' x u x

4x 2x 2 1 3x 2 x 3 3

x 4x 3 12 6x 3 3x
x 10x 3
3x 12
2. Find the derivative of the function f x x 3 x 1
Quotient rule
The derivative of the quotient of two differentiable functions is given by
d u x v x u' x u x v' x

dx v x v x 2
Example:
x2 1
1. Find the derivative f of f x
x 2 1
Let u x x 2 1 v(x) x 2 - 1
u' x 2x v' x 2x
vx u' x u x v' x
f' x
vx 2

x 2 12x x 2 12x
x 2
1 2

2x x 2 1 x 2 1
x 2
1
2
4x

x 2
1 2
Find the derivative f of f x

x
2.
x 1
2
Chain Rule
If the function f is differentiable and h(x) = [f(x)]n, where n = real number, then
d
f x n n f x n1 . f ' x
dx
Example:
1. Find the derivative h of the function : h(x) = (x2 + x + 1)2
h(x) = 2(x2 + x + 1)(2x + 1)
2. Find the derivative H of the function : H(x) = (x2 + x + 1)2
3. Differentiate the function : Gx x 2 1
4. Differentiate the function : f x 2x 3 8 3x 2
Example:
Differentiate each of the following function
1. The derivative of the Trigonometric function

a. g(x) = sin (2x + 1) b. f(x) = cos (2x2 1)
c. f(x)=sec(5x2 3) d. g(x) = 5cot(5x2)
2 2 2
e. f x csc x f. gx cos2x
3 5
h. h(x) = (x + sin x2)10 i. f(x) = x2 sin x
2. The derivative of the exponential function

3
a. f x e x 2 1
b. f x e 2
t 2
c. f(x) = x2ex d. y = xe-2x
3. The derivative of the logarithmic function
a. f(x) = ln(x2 + 1) b.
gt ln t 2 e t
2

c. f(x) = x ln x d. y = ln[(x2 + 1)(x3 + 2)6]
f x
lnx
e.
x
INCREASING AND DECREASING FUNCTION
A function f(x) is said to be increasing on an interval if for any c, d within this interval, c < d
implies f(c) < f(d).
A function f(x) is said to be decreasing on an interval if for any c, d within this interval, c < d
implies f(c) > f(d)
First derivative test
Mr. Blue is moving up if the slope (derivative) is positive
Mr. Blue is moving down if the slope is negative
Theorem: Let f be differentiable on an open interval (a,b).

f(x) f(x) Conclusion
>0 Increasing on (a,b)
<0 Decreasing on (a,b)
Example:
Find the interval on which f(x) = x3 3x increases and on which it decreases
Solution:
Step 1: Find the derivative
f(x) = 3x2 3
Step 2 : Find the stationary points

f(x) = 3x2 3 = 0
3(x 1) (x+1) = 0
Therefore; x1 = -1 and x2 = 1
Step 3 : Solving inequalities
(-,-1) (-1,1) (1,+)

Point x -1 1
Let say x = -2 Let say x = 0 Let say x = 2
(x 1) +
(x + 1) + +
f(x) =3(x 1)(x + 1) + 0 0 +
f(x) > 0 f(x) < 0 f(x) > 0
f(x) = x3 3x
f(x) Number line Interval f(x) Conclusion

Increasing on
>0 x (-, -1) (1,+) f(x) > 0
-1 1 (-, -1) (1,+)
Decreasing on
<0 x (-1, 1) f(x) < 0
(-1,1)
-1 1
LOCAL EXTREMUM POINT
A point (a,f(a)) on the graph of a function y = f(x) is said to be a point of local maximum of f(x)
if there exists an open interval I containing the point a, such that for any x I, f(x) < f(a). In this
case f is said to reach local maximum value at x = a.
Function f(x) is defined on I
A point (b,f(b)) on the graph of a function y = f(x) is said to be a point of local minimum of f(x)
if there exists an open interval I containing the point b, such that for any x I, f(x) > f(b). In this
case f is said to reach local minimum value at x = b.
From the figure above;

1. Points Q and S on the graph above are points of local maximum.
There is a difference between points Q and S, the tangent line drawn through Q is
horizontal but there is no definite tangent line through S. In this case, we say that S is a
cusp.
2. Point R is a point of local minimum.
3. Points through which line are horizontal are called stationary points.
Critical points
Critical points are stationary points and cusps.

If a point C = (c,f(c)) is a critical point then c is a critical number
Critical numbers are those at which the derivative of the function is zero or does not
exist.
Critical points are candidates for Local Maximum and Local Minimum.
Not every critical point is a point of local extremum.
From the figures above;

1. Points L, M, N and O are critical points.
2. Only M and O are points of local extremum. M is local maximum point and O is a local
minimum point.
3. L and N are not extremum points.
4. Points L and O are stationary points.
5. Points M and N are cusp.
The First Derivative test for Local Extrema
Let f(x) be continuous on an interval (a,b) and c be a critical number for the function f.
Let also f(x) be differentiable on intervals (a,c) and (c,b).
Then:
a. The point (c,f(c)) is a Local Maximum if f(x) > 0 for all x in (a,c) and f(x) < 0 for all x
in (c,b)
Point x (a,c) c (c,b)
f(x) + 0
f(x) > 0 Local maximum f(x) < 0
f(x)
number
b. The point (c,f(c)) is a Local Minimum if f(x) < 0 for all x in (a,c) and f(x) > 0 for all x
in (c,b)
f(x) 0 +
f(x) < 0 Local minimum f(x) > 0
f(x)
number
c. The point (c,f(c)) is not an Extremum if f(x) has the same sign in open intervals (a,c)
and (c,b) on both sides of c
f(x) + 0 +
f(x) > 0 Not an f(x) > 0
f(x)
extremum

f(x) 0
f(x) < 0 Not an f(x) < 0
f(x)
extremum
Example:
Find the intervals in which f(x) = x3 6x2 + 37 increases, decreases and in which the extremum
points occur.
Solution:
Step 1: Calculate the derivative
f(x) = 3x2 12x
Step 2 : Find the stationary points
f(x) = 3x2 12x = 0
3x (x 4) = 0
Therefore; x1 = 0 and x2 = 4
Step 3 : Solving inequalities
(-,0) (0,4) (4,+)

Point x 0 4
Let say x = -1 Let say x = 0 Let say x = 2
3x + +
(x 4) +
f(x) =3x (x + 1) + 0 0 +
f(x) > 0 f(x) < 0 f(x) > 0
f(x) = x3 6x2 + 37 37 5
Therefore, Local maximum point = (0, 37)
Local minimum point = (4, 5)

Increasing on
>0 x (-, 0) (4,+) f(x) > 0
0 4 (-, 0) (4,+)
Decreasing on
<0 x (0, 4) f(x) < 0
(0,4)
0 4
Second Derivative
The derivative of the function f(x) is a function itself. The derivative of a derivative is called the
d 2 f x
second derivative and is denoted by f(x) or .
dx 2
By the definition, f(x) = (f(x)). In the same way, we can define the third and other higher
order derivatives.
Second derivative test for Local Extrema

Let xo be a stationary number for the function f(x) (ie. f(xo) = 0). If:
a. f(xo) < 0, then (xo, f(xo)) is a point of local maximum.
b. f(xo) > 0, then (xo, f(xo)) is a point of local minimum.
Example:
Test f(x) = x3 3x2 + 2 for local extrema.
Solution:
f(x) = 3x2 6x
Step 2: Find the stationary points
f(x) = 3x2 6x = 0
3x (x 2) = 0
Step 3: Find the second derivative
f(x) = 6x 6
Step 4: Calculate the values of f(x) at stationary points
At x1 = 0; f(0) = (0)3 3(0)2 + 2 = 2
f(0) = 6(0) 6 = - 6
Since f(x) < 0; The local maximum point is (0, 2)
At x1 = 2; f(2) = (2)3 3(2)2 + 2 = - 2
f(2) = 6(2) 6 = 6
Since f(x) > 0; The local maximum point is (2, -2)
CONCAVITY
The derivative can also determine the direction of concavity of a graph.
Keeps water concave up
Spills water concave down
Definition
Let f be differentiable on an interval (a,b)
a. f is called concave up on (a,b) if for any xo (a,b), the graph of f lies above the tangent
line through (xo, f(xo))
When xo moves from a to b, the tangent rotates about the point (xo, f(xo)) in the
counterclockwise direction. When the tangent rotates counterclockwise, the slope of the
tangent, which equals the derivatives f(x), increases.
b. f is called concave down on (a,b) if for any xo (a,b), the graph f lies below the tangent
line through (xo, f(xo))
When xo moves from a to b, the tangent rotates about the point (xo, f(xo)) in the clockwise
direction. In this case, the slope of the tangent, f(x), decreases.
Second Derivative Test for Concavity
Let a function f be twice differentiable on (a,b)

a. If f(x) > 0 for any x (a,b), then f is concave up on (a,b)
b. If f(x) < 0 for any x (a,b), then f is concave down on (a,b)
Example:
Test f(x) = - x3 + 6x2 9x for concavity
Solution:
f(x) = 12 6x
Step 2: Find the inflection point
f(x) = 12 6x = 0
x=2
Step 3: Solve the inequalities
x (- , 2) 2 (2, +)
f(x) + 0 -
f(x) -2
Concave up Concave down
Step 4: Conclusion
1. Since f < 0 for x (2,+), therefore f(x) is concave down at (2,+).
2. Since f > 0 for x (-,2), therefore f(x) is concave up at (-,2).
3. The points of inflection for f(x) is (2,-2)
ABSOLUTE EXTREMA
From the above graph:

Points P and S are the points of local maximum.
Point Q is the point of local minimum.
Point S is the highest point in the graph and it is called the point of absolute maximum
The lowest point in the graph is (a,f(a)) and it is called the absolute minimum point.
The absolute maximum or minimum point may be or maybe not a point of local
extremum
Definition
Let a function f be defined on an interval I.
If f(xo) f(x) for all x in I, then f(xo) is called the absolute maximum value of f on I and
denoted by max f ( x )
xI
If f(xo) f(x) for all x in I, then f(xo) is called the absolute minimum value of f on I and
denoted by min f ( x )
xI
NOTE: Not every function has maximum or minimum value on an interval.
Example:
1. Consider the function f(x) = x2 with I = (0,1]
Obviously absolute maximum value is 1, but

there is no absolute minimum value. (Function
is not defined at x = 0)
2. Consider the function f(x) = ln x, in the interval I = (0, +)
There is no absolute extreme values on (0, +)
3. Suppose f x x and I = [0,4]
The absolute maximum value is 2, and the

absolute minimum value is 0
Theorem: Existence of Extrema
Let a function f be continuous on a closed interval [a,b] and let x o be in [a,b] such that f(xo) is an
absolute extreme value of f in the interval [a,b]
Then the number xo is either a critical number or an endpoint of interval [a,b]
To find absolute extreme values of a function f on [a,b]:

1. Find the derivative f(x)
2. Find all critical number x1, x2.. xn of function f that belong to [a,b]
3. Evaluate f(x1), , f(xn), f(a) and f(b)
4. The largest of the values in step 2 is max f ( x ) and the smallest is min f ( x )
xa ,b xa ,b
Example:
x3 x2
Find absolute extreme values of the function f x 6 x 1 on the interval [-1,4]
3 2
Solution:
Function f is differentiable at every point; therefore, there are no cusps, only stationary points.
Step 1: Find the stationary points by solving equation f(x) = 0

f(x) = x2 x 6 = 0
(x + 2)(x 3) = 0
Therefore ; x1 = - 2 and x2 = 3
Even though the critical numbers are -2 and 3 but only 3 belongs to interval [-1,4]
Step 2: Evaluate f(xi) when x1 = -1, x2 = 3 and x3 = 4
f 1
13 12 6 1 1 6
1
3 2 6
3 2
f 3 63 1 12.5
3 3

3 2
f 4
42 42 64 1 9
2
3 2 3
1
Step 3: The largest and smallest values from step 2 are 6 and -12.5
6
max f x 6
1
Therefore;
x1,4 6
1
The maximum point is: 1,6
6
min f x -12.5
x1,4
The minimum point is: 3,-12.5
CURVE SKETCHING
When sketching a graph of a function, the following are the most significant to consider:
1. The domain
2. Behavior of the graph near the boundary points of the domain and as x
3. x and y intercepts
4. Intervals in which the function increases or decreases
5. Local maxima and local minima
6. Concavity
Example:
x3
Sketch the graph of the function f x 4x 2 12x 5
3
Solution:
Step 1: Determine the domain
Domain of f(x) = (-,+)
Step 2: Determine the lim f x
x
lim f x lim f x
x x
Step 3: Calculate the x and y-intercepts
When x = 0, f 0
03 402 120 5 5
3
Therefore; y-intercept = 5
x-intercepts is difficult to find
Step 4: Find the intervals in which function increases and decreases.

f(x) = x2 8x + 12 = 0
(x 2) (x 6) = 0
(-,2) (2,6) (6,+)
Point x 2 6
Let say x = 0 Let say x = 3 Let say x = 6
(x 2) + +
(x 6) +
f(x) =(x 2)(x 6) + 0 0 +
x3 f(x) > 0 f(x) < 0 f(x) > 0
f x 4x 2 12x 5
3

Increasing on
>0 x (-, 2) (6,) f(x) > 0
2 6 (-, 2) (6,)
Decreasing on
<0 x (2, 6) f(x) < 0
2 6 (2,6)
Step 5: Calculate the local maximum and local minimum point by applying First
Derivative Test
(-,2) (2,6) (6,+)

Point x 2 6
Let say x = 0 Let say x = 3 Let say x = 6
f(x) =(x 2)(x 6) + 0 0 +
3 f(x) > 0 2 f(x) < 0 f(x) > 0
f x
x
4x 2 12x 5 15 5
3 3
2
Therefore, Local maximum point = (2, 15 )
3
Local minimum point = (6, 5)
Step 6: Determine the concavity for the function
f(x) = 2x 8 = 0
x=4
x (- , 4) 4 (4, +)
f(x) 0 +
2
f(x) 10
3
Concave down Concave up
Since f > 0 for x (4,+), therefore f(x) is concave up at (4,+).

Since f < 0 for x (-,4), therefore f(x) is concave down at (-,4).
2
The points of inflection for f(x) is (4, 10 )
3
Step 7: Evaluate function f(x) at some point and make final adjustment to the graph
x -1 1 3 5 8 9
1 2 2
f(x) -11 13 14 6 15 32
3 3 3
LHOPITAL RULE
f ( x) 0
Let lim be one of the ambiguities or , functions f ( x) and g ( x) be differentiable in
x a g ( x) 0
f '( x)
some interval containing point a, except, may be, point a itself, and lim exist, finite or
x a g '( x)
f ( x) f '( x)
infinite. Then lim exists and equals lim .
x a g ( x) x a g '( x)
This rule is also true if a .
Example:
sin x sin' x cos x
1. lim lim lim 1
x 0 x x 0 x' x 0 1
ex 1
2. lim
x 0 x
ln 1 x
3. lim
x 0 x
x5 1
4. lim
x 1 2x 3 x 1
x arctan x x arctan x 1 1/ (1 x 2 ) x2 1
5. lim lim lim lim
x 0 3
sin x x 0 x 3 x 0 3x 2 x 0 3x (1 x )
2 2
3
NOTE : Sometimes we have to apply LHopitals Rule twice or more.
x 10 10x 9
6. lim
x 1 x 5 5x 4
TAYLORS FORMULAE.
Definition:
Let say that function f ( x) is o-small of function g ( x) as x approaches a if there exists
function ( x) , such that f ( x) ( x) g ( x) and lim ( x) 0 . This will be denoted

x a
as f ( x) o( g ( x)), x a .
Example:
1. x3 3x2 o( x), x 0 .
Indeed: x3 3x2 ( x2 3x) x, ( x) x 2 3x
and lim( x 2 3x) 0 .

x 0
f ( x)
If g ( x) 0 when x a , f ( x) o( g ( x)), x a is equivalent to lim 0.
x a g ( x)
Roughly speaking, this could be understood that f ( x) is smaller than g ( x) , as x is close
to a.
2. x sin x o( x), x 0 .
x sin x ( x sin x) ' 1 cos x 0
Indeed: lim lim lim 0.
x 0 x x 0 x' x 0 1 1
The following rules will help to manipulate with o-simbolics.
o-arithmetics
1. o( xn ) o( x n ) o( x n ), x 0.
2. If m n , then o( xm ) o( x n ) o( x m ), x 0.
3. o( xm )o( xn ) o( x mn ), x 0.
4. xmo( xn ) o( xmn ), x 0.
Example:
1. o( x3 ) o( x3 ) o( x3 ), x 0 .
Indeed, let f ( x) o( x3 ) and g ( x) o( x3 ) .

By definition, this means that
f ( x) 1 ( x) x3 , g ( x) 2 ( x) x3 and lim 1 ( x) lim 2 ( x) 0 .
x 0 x 0
Then f ( x) g ( x) 1 ( x) x3 2 ( x) x3 (1 ( x) 2 ( x)) x3.
We denote 1 ( x ) 2 ( x ) ( x) .
Hence f ( x) g ( x) ( x) x3 and lim ( x) lim(1 ( x) 2 ( x)) 0 .

x 0 x 0
Therefore f ( x) g ( x) o( x3 ), x 0.
2. o( x3 ) o( x5 ) o( x3 ), x 0 .
3. o( x2 )o( x7 ) o( x9 ), x 0.
4. x3o( x2 ) o( x5 ), x 0.
Theorem:
Taylors Formulae: Let function f ( x) has at point a all derivatives up to n-th. Then
f '(a) f ''(a) f ( n ) (a)

f ( x) f (a) ( x a) ( x a) 2 ... ( x a) n o( x a) n , x a. (1)
1! 2! n!
Formulae (1) are called Taylors Formulae with the remainder in Peanos form.
f '(a) f ''(a) f ( n ) (a )
Polynomial Pn ( x) f (a) ( x a) ( x a)2 ... ( x a) n is called Taylors
1! 2! n!
polynomial of nth degree and difference f ( x) Pn ( x) rn ( x) - the remainder.
If we set a 0 in formulae (1), we obtain
f '(0) f ''(0) 2 f ( n ) (0) n

f ( x) f (0) x x ... x o( x n ), x 0. (2)
1! 2! n!
Formulae (2) are often referred to as McLaurin Formulae.
Example:
If x 0 , then:
n
x 2 k 1
1. sin x (1)k o( x 2 n1 ) Refer Figure-1
k 0 (2k 1)!
n
x2k
2. cos x (1)k o( x 2 n ) Refer Figure-2
k 0 (2k )!
xk

n
3. ex o xn Refer Figure-4
k 0 k!
n
( 1)( 2)...( k 1)
4. (1 x) 1 x k o( x n )
k 1 k!
n
xk
5. ln(1 x) (1) k 1
o( x n ) Refer Figure-3
k 1 k
yx
1.5
x3 x5
y x
1 3! 5!
sin( x)
x 0.5
y sin x
3
x
x
6 3.14 2.355 1.57 0.785 0 0.785 1.57 2.355 3.14
x3
x
5
x
3 y x
x 0.5
3!
120 6
1.5
Figure-1: Approximation of yx sin x by Taylors polynomials.
x2 x4
y 1
1.5
2! 4!
y cos x
1
cos( x)
2
x
1 0.5
2
2 4
x x
1 3.14 2.355 1.57 0.785 0 0.785 1.57 2.355 3.14 x2 x4 x6
2 24 y 1
2! 4! 6!
4 2 6
x x x 0.5
1
24 2 720
1
x2
y 1
2!
1.5
Figure-2: Approximation of y xcos x by Taylors polynomials.
1.5
1
ln( 1 x)
x
2 y ln(1 x)
x 0.5
2
2 3
x x
x 3 2.25 1.5 0.75 0 0.75 1.5 2.25 3
2 3
3 2 4
x x x 0.5
x
3 2 4
1.5
Figure-3: Approximation of y xln(1 x) by Taylors polynomials.
exp( x) 4
1 x
ye x
2 3
x
1 x
2
2 3 2
x x
1 x
2 6
1
x3 x x
2 4
1 x
6 2 24
2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Figure-4: Approximation of xy e x by Taylors polynomials.
Taylors Formulae (1) suggests, that Taylor Polynomial

f '(a) f ''(a) f ( n ) (a )
Pn ( x) f (a) ( x a) ( x a) 2 ... ( x a) n
1! 2! n!
is a good approximation for function f ( x) , and this approximation is better, the closer x is to a.
The following theorem states that Taylors polynomial is the best approximation polynomial
among all polynomials of the same degree.
Theorem 2:
Let function f ( x) has at point a all derivatives up to n-th and let for a polynomial Pn ( x) , of the
degree n , the following is true
f ( x) Pn ( x) o( x a) n , x a.
Then Pn ( x) is the Taylors polynomial of n-th degree for function f ( x)
f '(a) f ''(a) f ( n ) (a )
Pn ( x) f (a) ( x a) ( x a) 2 ... ( x a) n .
1! 2! n!
This theorem will help us to find Taylors polynomials without calculations of derivatives.
Example:
Find McLaurens polynomial of degree seven for the function y x 2 sin x .
Solution:
x3 x5
We have sin x x o( x5 ), x 0.
6 120
Multiplying both, sides by x 2 us obtain
x5 x 7
x 2 sin x x3 x 2o( x5 ), x 0. But x2o( x5 ) o( x7 ), x 0
6 120
x5 x 7
Hence x 2 sin x x3 o( x7 ), x 0.
6 120
According to Theorem 2, the polynomial
x5 x 7
P7 ( x) x3
6 120
is a McLaurens polynomial for the function y x 2 sin x .
Example:
Determine McLaurens polynomial of the 3rd degree for the function y ln(1 x)sin x .
Solution:
x3 x 2 x3
We have sin x x o( x3 ) and ln(1 x) x o( x3 ).
6 2 3
x 2 x3 3 x3 3 x3
Then ln(1 x)sin x x o( x ) x o( x ) x o( x3 ) .
2
2 3 6 2
The required polynomial is

x3
P3 ( x) x .
2
Applications of Taylors Formulae
1. Approximation
For approximation, we will use formulae f ( x) Pn ( x) , where Pn ( x) is the Taylors
polynomial of n-th degree for function f ( x)
f '(a) f ''(a) f ( n ) (a )
Pn ( x) f (a) ( x a) ( x a) 2 ... ( x a) n .
1! 2! n!
The closer x is to number a, the more accurate is approximation.
Example:
x3
Applying formulae sin x x , evaluate approximately sin 0.5 (angle is in radians).
6
Solution:
0.53 0.125
sin 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.479666 .
6 6
Calculator gives the answer sin 0.5 0.4794255 .
Example:
Using Taylors polynomial of degree 3, evaluate 3
0.96 .
Solution:
We use first three terms of Taylors formulae
n
( 1)( 2)...( k 1)
(1 x) 1 x k o( x n ) ,
k 1 k!
1
taking x = -0.04, and n = 2.
3
11
1 1
1 3 3
3
0.96 (1 0.04) 1 (0.04)
3
(0.04)2 0.9868444 .
3 2
Calculator gives the answer 3
0.96 0.9864848 .
2. Evaluating of higher derivatives
This method is based on Theorem-2.
If function f ( x) , having n consequent derivatives at point a, can be represented at the

form
f ( k ) (a)
f ( x) a0 a1 ( x a) a2 ( x a) ... an ( x a) o( x a) , x a ,
2 n n
then ak ,
k!
and thus
f ( k ) (a) ak k ! . (*)
Example:
1. Evaluate 10th derivative at 0 of the function f ( x) x3 sin x .
Solution:
Using McLaurins formulae for sin x , we have
x3 x5 x 7 7 x6 x8 x10
f ( x) x sin x x x o( x ) x
3 3 3
o( x10 )
3! 5! 7! 3! 5! 7!
From (*) we have

1
f (10) (0) 10! 720.
7!
2. Evaluate 4th derivative at 0 of the function f ( x) ln cos 2 x .
Solution:
Using McLaurins formulas for functions cos 2x and ln(1 x) , we obtain:
4 x 2 16 x 4 2
ln cos 2 x ln 1 o( x 4 ) ln 1 2 x 2 x 4 o( x 4 )
2! 4! 3
2
2 1 2 2 4 x4
2 x x 4 2 x 2 x 4 o( x 4 ) 2 x 2 x 4
2
o( x 4 )
3 2 3 3 2
4
2 x 2 x 4 o( x 4 ).
3
Hence
f 4 0 a 4 .4! .4! 32
4
3
3. Limit calculations
Example:
5
1 2x 1 5x
1. lim
x 0 x
Solution:
1 2x 1 5x
5
1
2x ox 1 5x ox
1
1
lim lim 5 2
x 0 x x 0 x
2.1x ox
lim
x 0 x
2.1 o1
lim
x 0 1
2.1
sin 5 x sin 3x 5 x o( x) 3x o( x) 2 x o( x)
2. lim lim lim 1
x 0 sin 2 x x 0 2 x o( x) x 0 2 x o( x)
ASSIGNMENT
1. Find the derivative of the following functions

x 5
a. 3x3 2x + 6 b. x2 (3x 1) c.
3x 2
x 2 2x
d. e. 2x f. ex 2x
3
3
g. x h. 3x 2 i. 2xex
j. log x k. 2lnx l. ln3x2
xlnx
m. (2x 5)3 n. o. 3x 2 1
1 ex
p. e2x-5 q. ln(3x + 4) r. 3x lnx2
2. Find the slope of the tangent line to the graph of the given function at any point
a. f(x) = 13 b. f(x) = 2x2 + 5x c. f(x) = - x2
3. Find the slope of the tangent line to the graph of each function at the given point and
determine an equation of the tangent line.
a. f(x) = 2x + 7 at (2,11) b. f(x) = 3x x2 at ( - 2, - 10)
c. f(x) = - 2x at (1, -2) d. f(x) = 3x2 4x + 7 at (2,11)
1
f x
1
e. at 3,
x 3
4. Find the instantaneous rate of change of y with respect to x at the given value of x
a. f(x) = 2x at x = 2 b. f(x) = 3x 4 at x = 1
c. f(x) = x2 + 2x at x = 2
5. Let f(x) = 2x2 + 1

a. Find the derivative f of f
b. sketch the graph of f and the tangent line to the curve at the point (1,3)
c. write an equation of this tangent line
6. Let f(x) = x2 2x + 1
a. find the derivative f of f
b. find the point on the graph of f where the tangent line to the curve is horizontal
c. sketch the graph of f and the tangent line to the curve at the point found in (b)
d. what is the rate of change of f at this point ?
7. Find the derivative of the following functions at the given points.

a. f(x) = 3x2 3 at x = - 1 b. f x 3 x at x = 8
x 1
c. f x at x = 2 d. f(x) = e3x 4 at x = 0
x2
e. f x 2x 1 at x = 4 f. f(x) = ln (2x 5) at x = 3
8. Find the slope on the given curve at the given point:

a. y = 3x2 x at (1,2) b. y = (4x + 1)3 at (0,1)
c. y = xe2x at x = 0 d. f x 4 3x 7 at x = 3
3 x 2
e. y at 1, f. f(x) = ln (2 + 3x) at x = 0
2x 1 3
9. Find the equation of the tangent line for the following functions at the given points.
1 x
a. y = 3x2 + x at (1,4) b. f x at x = 0
1 x
c. y = xex at (0,0) d. y = ln (2x + 1) at x = 1
10. A moving object moves along the straight line according to the formula:
t3
St 3 2t
3
Where t is time and S is the coordinate of the object on the line.
a. What is its instantaneous velocity at t = 1?
b. When is its instantaneous velocity 0?
c. When is the velocity increasing? When is it decreasing?
11. Test the following functions for increasing, decreasing, maximum and minimum
x 13 3x 2
f x f x f x
5
a. b. c.
x 2 25 x 12x 37
2
x2
d. f(x) = x3 6x2 + 12x e. f(x) = 2x3 24x2 + 72x + 6
12. Sketch the graph of the following functions. Indicate where they increase, decrease, their
concavity, maximum, minimum and points of inflection.
f x x 3 3x 2 9x 2
1
a. f(x) = x3 6x2 + 9x b.
3
13. Use LHopitals Rule to find the following limits.

sin x x x3 3x 2 x cos x sin x
a. lim b. lim c. lim
x 0 x3 x 1 x3 2 x 1 x 0 x3
sin x x cos x 3x 2 4 x 7 ln cos x
d. lim e. lim f. lim
x 0 sin 3 x x 1 2 x 2 3 x 5 x 0 ln cos 3 x
ln( x 2 8) ln cos 2 x ln(1 x) x

g. lim h. lim i. lim
x 3 2 x 2 5 x 3 x 0 x2 x 0 tan 2 x
x sin x
k. lim
x 0 tan x x
14. Using Taylors formulae, find limits

sin 3x tan 3x tan 3x sin 3x
a. lim b. lim c. lim
x 0 sin 5 x x 0 sin x x 0 x3
1 cos 4 x 3
1 3x 1 2 x 5
x 1
d. lim e. lim f. lim
x 0 x2 x 0 x2 x 1 6 x 1
x2

cos x e 2
ln(1 2 x) 1 5 x 1
g. lim i. lim
x 0 x4 x 0 x
15. Write McLaurin formulae for the following functions
f ( x) e2 x x up to the term x 3 .
2
a. f ( x) tan x up to the term x 5 b.
c. f ( x) ln cos x up to the term x 4 . d. f ( x) sin(sin x) up to the term x 3

Ch5 Differentiation

Hochgeladen von

Dokumentinformationen

Copyright

Verfügbare Formate

Dieses Dokument teilen

Dokument teilen oder einbetten

Freigabeoptionen

Stufen Sie dieses Dokument als nützlich ein?

Sind diese Inhalte unangemessen?

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

Ch5 Differentiation

Hochgeladen von

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

UNIVERSITY KUALA LUMPUR MALAYSIAN INSTITUTE OF AVIATION TECHNOLOGY

The line of sight of a person sitting in a car

How to measure the changes in f for any value of x ?

Consider the point P(2,1)

Using the equation for the slope of a line:

Therefore, the slope of the linear function is 3.

Slope of the tangent line to the graph of f at any point

By taking the limit of the difference quotient as h approaches zero,

INSTANTANEOUS RATE OF CHANGE of f at the point x or slope of tangent line to the

The derivative of a function

DX f(x) : dee sub x of f of x

d. what is the rate of change of f at this point ?

a. compute the derivative f of f

b. find the slope of the tangent line T to the graph of f when x = 1

The Slope; f ' x

c. find an equation of the tangent line T in (b)

Equation of a Tangent Line

Functions that is not differentiable at a point

Continuity and differentiability

At x = a, b, c : The function is discontinuous at these points

Where n = any real number

f' x u' x vx v' x u x

2. Find the derivative of the function f x x 3 x 1

Find the derivative f of f x

h(x) = 2(x2 + x + 1)(2x + 1)

2. Find the derivative H of the function : H(x) = (x2 + x + 1)2

3. Differentiate the function : Gx x 2 1

4. Differentiate the function : f x 2x 3 8 3x 2

1. The derivative of the Trigonometric function

2. The derivative of the exponential function

c. f(x) = x2ex d. y = xe-2x

3. The derivative of the logarithmic function

INCREASING AND DECREASING FUNCTION

First derivative test

Mr. Blue is moving up if the slope (derivative) is positive

Mr. Blue is moving down if the slope is negative

Theorem: Let f be differentiable on an open interval (a,b).

Step 2 : Find the stationary points

Step 3 : Solving inequalities

(-,-1) (-1,1) (1,+)

f(x) Number line Interval f(x) Conclusion

LOCAL EXTREMUM POINT

Function f(x) is defined on I

From the figure above;

Critical points are stationary points and cusps.

From the figures above;

The First Derivative test for Local Extrema

Point x (a,c) c (c,b)

Step 3 : Solving inequalities

(-,0) (0,4) (4,+)

Therefore, Local maximum point = (0, 37)

Local minimum point = (4, 5)

f(x) Number line Interval f(x) Conclusion

Second derivative test for Local Extrema

The derivative can also determine the direction of concavity of a graph.

Keeps water concave up

Spills water concave down

Second Derivative Test for Concavity

Let a function f be twice differentiable on (a,b)

From the above graph:

NOTE: Not every function has maximum or minimum value on an interval.

Obviously absolute maximum value is 1, but

2. Consider the function f(x) = ln x, in the interval I = (0, +)

There is no absolute extreme values on (0, +)