Journal of Cleaner Production 101 (2015) 387e394

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Cleaner Production

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jclepro

Operational and environmental assessment on the use of charcoal

in iron ore sinter production
~o Andrade de Carvalho Jr. a, *,
Guilherme Correa Abreu a, b, Joa
Bernardo Enne Correa da Silva b, Rinaldo Henrique Pedrini c
a ~o Paulo State University, Faculty of Engineering, Guaratingueta
Sa , SP, Brazil
b ~o, Environment Management, Serra, ES, Brazil
ArcelorMittal Tubara
c ~o, Sinter Production Management, Serra, ES, Brazil
ArcelorMittal Tubara

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: A study was carried out into the use of charcoal as a supplementary fuel in the iron-ore sintering process.
Received 14 October 2014 The primary fuel was coke breeze and anthracite with 0, 10, 25, 50 and 100% replacement of the energy
Received in revised form input with charcoal to produce sinter. This was achieved by considering the carbon content of each fuel
6 April 2015
and its corresponding participation on fuel blending, in order to have the same carbon input in each test
Accepted 6 April 2015
Available online 15 April 2015
run. An extensive analysis of the environmental impact was carried out regarding the atmospheric
pollutants characterization (dust, sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide,
methane, total hydrocarbons, and dioxins and furans). Experimental results indicate that fuel blending
Keywords:
Sintering
where 50% of the heat input was provided by charcoal may be comparable with those using 100% coke,
Iron ore under normal sintering conditions, and may result in a 50% reduction on greenhouse gas emission. It was
Charcoal also observed that while dust, methane and hydrocarbons emissions increased, the total dioxins and
Environmental impact furans, expressed as polychlorinated dibenzodioxins/furans, decreased approximately 50% when
compared with operation with 100% coke.
2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction plants), sinter (continuous sinter plant), hot metal (conventional

According to the IEA (2011), greenhouse gases (GHG) emissions
from anthropic actions amounted to approximately 29.4 Gt in 2008
(20% of which from the industrial sector, that is, approximately
5.9 Gt). It is also estimated that the steel industry contributes nearly
5e7 % of the total global emissions, which means around 25e30 %
of the industry share e whose main polluters also include the
cement and petrochemical production sectors.
Brazil is included in this world scenario despite its peculiar
characteristics, as a large portion of its greenhouse gas emission
comes from the soil use and forest res (MCT, 2009). The industrial
sector, steel making included, is also partially responsible and has
peculiarities inherent to Brazil as the production matrix includes
solid renewable bio fuel and the largest part of the power pro-
duction is done by hydroelectric plants.
The GHG emissions from an integrated steel production process,
typically comprising the production of coke (by-products coke
* Corresponding author. Tel.: 55 12 31232838.
E-mail address: joao@feg.unesp.br (J.A. Carvalho).
blast furnaces) and crude steel (basic oxygen furnaces e BOF),
produce approximately 2.045 t of GHG per ton of steel (Fruehan
et al., 2000). Coal combustion contributes with approximately
90% of the total energy related to GHG emissions by the steel in-
dustry (Jing et al., 2014). The combustion of gases generated in the
blast furnaces and steel making correspond to 81% of total GHG
emissions and are inherent to the current state-of the-art produc-
tion of steel, i.e., these emissions are unavoidable unless there are
signicant technological changes in the routes of production, which
is estimated to be under industrial tests in 15e20 years (Birat, 2012;
Cornelissen et al., 2012).
Recent research on CO2 mitigation in the iron and steel industry
includes the works by Yu et al. (2015), Wen et al. (2014) and
Hasanbeigi et al. (2013) (for China), Morrow III et al. (2014) (for
India), Moya and Pardo (2013) and Pardo and Moya (2013) (for
EU27), Sodsai and Rachdawong (2012) (for Thailand), and
Kuramochi (2015) (for Japan). Their scenarios go up to 2030. Their
general evaluation was that energy conservation technologies can
aid signicantly in promoting CO2 reduction.
Approximately 12% of GHG emissions from a steel making plant
come from sintering process; thus, it is reasonable to investigate

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2015.04.015
0959-6526/ 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
388 G.C. Abreu et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 101 (2015) 387e394
alternatives for GHG emission reduction with broader evaluation
concerning other pollutants behaviour on different tests conditions.
In this context, it is important to investigate the partial replacement
of the fuel mix used for charcoal produced from sustainable
biomass, i.e., using wood from planted forests so that the process
carbon cycle is neutral. Sodsai and Rachdawong (2012) acknowl-
edge the importance of biomass combustion, which they consider
to be the most attractive option for a country with abundant
biomass supply.
The use of charcoal to produce sinter under specic conditions
and environmental assessments involving the emission of sulphur
dioxide, nitrous oxide and dioxins/furans has been investigated in
previous works (DellAmico et al., 2004; Lovel et al., 2007; Ooi et al.,
2011). The use of other types of biomass in iron ore sintering has
also been studied experimentally (Zandi et al., 2010). The conclu-
sion was that the replacement is possible from a technical and
environmental point of view.
In general it can be stated that there is still a lack of previous
research in the area, and this paper discloses results of an investi-
gation on pilot-scale tests of replacing coke and anthracite with
charcoal to reduce GHG emissions in sinter production. An exten-
sive environmental assessment of its atmospheric emissions (dust,
sulphur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen oxides (NOx), carbon monoxide
(CO), carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), total hydrocarbons
(CHt), and dioxins and furans) is also reported. Up to 50% charcoal
substitution showed to be viable, which means that, under normal
sintering conditions, this may result in a 50% reduction on green-
house gas emission. Also, the total dioxins and furans decreased
approximately 50% when compared with operation with 100%
coke.
2. The sinter production process
The sintering process is a well-established process in use at
integrated steel making plants. It consists of an agglomeration
through an oxidizing/reducing fusion of iron ore nes (sinter feed)
and uxing agents (lime, limestone, etc.) as well as re-circulated
materials (dust, sludge, etc.) at temperatures between 1200  C to

1400 C. A carbon based solid fuel is added to this mix to supply the
necessary energy to make process reactions happen. A scheme of
the sinter production process is shown in Fig. 1.
The process is complex and involves several physical and
chemical phenomena. The raw materials used can vary to a wide
extent, from iron ore to dust recycling (Castro et al., 2005). The
process takes place in a moving strand with such conguration to
Fig. 1. Scheme of the sinter production process.
transport the mix to the upper part until the end of the process, and
returning in sequence to the lower part. The mix and water are
continuously charged to form a thick bed of approximately
400 mme600 mm, positioned over a pre-layer of sintered material
of 30 mme50 mm high. This pre-layer helps to keep the mix from
going above the grooves between the grates and also to protect
them from the heat generated in the process.
The combustion of solid fuel begins at the top of the layers, and,
as it moves, a relative narrow band of ignition zone moves down
through the bed. Several chemical reactions and phase trans-
formations take place within the bed, part of the materials melts
when the local temperature reaches the melting temperature and
as it moves, the solidication process occurs. The partial melting
and diffusion within the materials causes the particle to agglom-
erate forming a continuous porous sinter cake.
The sinter, the nal product in the sintering process of
agglomerating iron ore, is mainly used as part of the metallic charge
to be reduced in the blast furnaces. The sinter for blast furnaces is a
porous product whose granulometry varies from 5 mm to 50 mm
and must have the desired properties for its use associated to an
adequate production cost for the business.
As process fuel, coke nes (<5 mm) are largely used; the partial
use of anthracite in the coke mix also brings good results. The
economic factor, resulting from the oscillation in the prices of coke
and anthracite are the strongest determinants of the use of one
instead of the other, or even the fraction of each one to be used.
Based on the results found at the pilot scale tests, the use of char-
coal is possible and it is the scope of this paper.
3. Materials and methods
3.1. Sinter pilot unit
The pilot-scale tests were carried out in a sinter pilot unit that
includes an ignition furnace, a sinter pot and ancillary equipment as
shown in Fig. 2.
The sinter pot has a height of 400 mm high and a diameter of
300 mm. Two thermocouples are installed, one at the sintering
layer height of 150 mm (T1) and the other at 250 mm (T2). There is
a third thermocouple at the exhaust gases outlet (T3). The tests
were carried out using a mixture for the bed of approximately 60 kg
(wet basis) and 2 kg used in the lining layer made of < 5 mm sinter.
The aimed moisture in the mix was 6.5%. Mix average granulometry
varied between 2.28 mm and 3.32 mm, while the average
fraction >1 mm was 63%.
 G.C. Abreu et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 101 (2015) 387e394 389

Fig. 2. Sintering pilot scale furnace.


3.2. Mix preparation e raw materials and fuels range of 1300 C, which virtually eliminates all volatile matter
(Pinheiro and Sampaio, 2001). Charcoal demands extra attention
The raw materials used in the tests were prepared under the especially regarding possible future use on an industrial scale,
same procedures of those used in the blending bed for industrial whose sinter units are usually equipped with electrostatic pre-
scale production. The sample of charcoal was obtained through ne cipitators to control the particulate matter present in exhaust gases,
material generated during charge screening in small blast furnaces which can lead to operational safety problems. In modern sinter
in the region. The charcoal was produced from carbonization of plants, the use of lter bags as a complementary gas cleaning sys-
eucalyptus (Pinheiro and Sampaio, 2001). tem after electrostatic precipitators is one of the most effective
The mix was a composition of sinter feed and correctives CaCO3, technologies to achieve low dust emissions; therefore, the volatile
CaO, MnO to ensure a basicity (% CaO/% SiO2) of 1.8% and 5.3% of matter due to charcoal use has to be extensively analysed before
SiO3 at the mix. The sinter feed was from the state of Minas Gerais taking a decision on using it. It is worthwhile to mention that the
(Pires and Concei~ao mines) and their share in the mix, in mass percentage of volatile matter in charcoal is highly linked to the
basis, ranged from 27 % to 44 %, as required. Fuels used in the tests carbonization quality control and an average value of 23.5% can be
were coke nes (granulometry < 5 mm), anthracite considered as normal result (Pinheiro and Sampaio, 2001).
(granulometry < 5 mm), and charcoal (granulometry between Another point of concern refers to higher contents of ash, which
0 and 10 mm). Table 1 shows results of the proximate and ash should be taken into consideration in the chemical balance when
analyses of the fuels. preparing the mix, once the composites such as SiO2 and Al2O3 have
Charcoal possesses a high content of volatile matter compared a signicant interference in sinter basicity.
to the other fuels (coke and anthracite), once its carbonization is Once the tests carried out were performed using charcoal nes

performed at 400 C. Coke production temperatures are in the considered as by-products in the production of charcoal for small
blast furnaces consumption, the xed carbon content found in the
samples were lower than those described for charcoal consumed in
Table 1
Proximate and ash analyses of fuels used in tests.
blast furnaces (70%e75%) (Pinheiro and Sampaio, 2001), and well
below those found in a study where xed carbon varied between
Parameter Coke Anthracite Charcoal 72.7% and 94.3% (Lovel et al., 2007). Ooi et al. (2011) used a sample
(wt%) (wt%) (wt%)
much closer to the values found on the tests of this paper, 58.2%.
Proximate analysis Fixed carbon 86.1 85.3 56.2 The charcoal xed carbon can vary over a wide range, from 25% up
Volatile matter 1.6 3.1 21.5
to 80%, which is fundamentally related to the carbonization process
Ash 12.3 11.6 22.3
S 0.6 1.0 0.03 efciency (Silva, 2007).
Fe Total 7.0 7.6 38.8 The approach proposed in this study, i.e., the use of ne char-
SiO2 56.0 54.3 26.9 coal, is aligned with regional aspects in Brazil regarding supply and
Al2O3 24.8 22.5 4.5 demand when considering charcoal on an industrial scale for sin-
CaO 3.7 6.4 14.0
Ash analysis MgO 1.1 1.7 2.8
tering purposes. This situation is supported by the fact that, in short
TiO2 1.8 0.8 0.3 and medium future, there are no perspectives for supplying de-
Mn 0.2 0.3 0.5 mands of small blast furnaces charcoal consumptions (Calais,
P 0.3 0.07 0.8 2009). Studies based on image data considered Brazil as the rst
S 0.6 0.14 0.03
ranked country with the largest technical potential land area for
390 G.C. Abreu et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 101 (2015) 387e394
plantations worldwide (1.11 Mm2 out of 4.07 Mm2), but inherent
risks, like institutional factors, land rights and economic factors,
must be taken into account before establishing the possibility for
charcoal production (Piketti et al., 2009). It means that the feasi-
bility of sintering with charcoal necessarily involves the use of ne
charcoal; otherwise, the costs arising from the preparation of a
mass of ideal fuel would necessarily be incorporated into the sinter
product, increasing the nal cost of the process.
3.3. Characterization of atmospheric emissions
Gas samples were taken at specic points along the exhaust gas
pipeline network. The tests were conducted in accordance with the
technical standards from ABNT (Brazilian Technical Standard As-
sociation) or EPA (Environmental Protection Agency) applied to
each situation for the parameters dust (ABNT, 1989a, 1989b, 1989c,
1989d, 1989e, 1990, 1993); gases - sulphur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen
oxides (NOx), carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO2), total
hydrocarbons (CHt), and methane (CH4) (EPA, 1990a, 1990b, 1990c,
2000); and dioxins and furans (EPA, 1995). Calibration procedures
for sampling equipment were conducted according to the Brazilian
technical standard ABNT NBR 12020 (ABNT, 1992).
3.4. Characterization of sinter product
After carrying out the tests on a pilot-scale, physical and
chemical analysis at the samples of the produced sinter for each
test condition were performed.
Shatter, reducibility (RDI e Reducibility Degradation Index and
RI e Reducibility Index) and screening tests were performed.
Granulometry lower than 5 mm was considered the most impor-
tant for the interpretation of the sinter degradation levels. Such
tests are performed in order to check the quality of the produced
sinter as well as the nal sintering yield.
3.5. Experimental plan
An experimental plan was established where the sinter mix
composition remained unchanged while the amounts of fuels var-
ied to allow the best possible assessment of the use of charcoal and
its results, keeping the mass participation in the total mix between
Fig. 3. Thermal prole for 100% coke fuel blending sinter test.
3 % and 6 %. The sinter tests were carried out in triplicate for each
mix condition.
The objective was to produce sinter with charcoal percentages
in the fuel mix of 10, 20, 25, 50 and 100%. These percentages refer to
the input energy for each fuel mix, based on its carbon content.
Charcoal was tested in two different sizes (2.51 and 5.34 mm). The
average size was obtained on two charcoal screening runs with size
from 0 mm up to 10 mm, resulting in 2.51 mm, and 5 mm up to
10 mm, resulting in 5.34 mm.
It was not possible to carry out sinter tests with 100% of charcoal
at 2.51 mm average size because it did not allow minimum con-
ditions for sintering the mix, i.e., it was not possible to achieve
ignition and sintering temperature along the pot tests and, conse-
quently, to sustain the smouldering wave.
The measured parameters were classied in three levels: charge
preparation, operational and quality. Charge preparation parame-
ters are moisture mass fraction (%), dry mass (kg), and average size
(mm). Operational parameters are productivity (t/(m2 d)), burning

temperature ( C), sintering time (min), and combustion efciency.
The combustion efciency expresses the extension of CO
destruction in the combustion process, that is, the closest to 1.0 the
best the combustion reactions happen, completely leaving CO2 as
nal product. Approximately 25% from the CO2 comes from lime-
stone calcination present in the mix, and the combustion efciency
interpretation should take this into consideration (Ooi et al., 2011).
It is possible to estimate the percentage of CO2 in the tests
performed at 24.8% from the use of limestone (maximum of 33.5%,
and minimum of 13.0%), considering the carbon content of coke,
anthracite, and charcoal, respectively 86, 85 and 56%, also consid-
ering that the purity level of the limestone used is 60% of CaCO3.
These results agree with those of reference (Ooi et al., 2011).
Quality parameters were sinter basicity, RDI, RI, and shatter.
4. Results and discussions
4.1. Operational data analysis
Fig. 3 presents the temperature variations for the mix containing
100% of coke, considered as the base for analysis. It can be observed

that the maximum temperatures recorded were 450 C up to
500  C, which are lower than the front burn temperatures observed

in industrial scale production, normally around 1300 C. The main
 G.C. Abreu et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 101 (2015) 387e394 391

Fig. 4. Thermal prole e thermocouple T1 and T2 (50% charcoal participation).

reason for that is related to the position of the thermocouples in-
side the sinter pot, which was located facing the lateral edge of the
pot for equipment preservation purposes. This is a limitation of this
investigation and data interpretation must be done comparatively
to the data collected for 100% coke and not in absolute values
compared to real results in industrial scale. It should be pointed out,
however, that the mixture was denitely sintered and this can be
assured based on operational data highlighted next in this paper.
More important than the absolute value of sintering temperature it
is the shape of the temperature prole, compared with the refer-
ence case.
Fig. 4 illustrates the inuence of average size of the fuel on the
temperature prole, considering the same percentage of charcoal in
the mix, in this case 50%. It is observed that the smaller size mix
(2.5 mm) results in a very different prole than that obtained in the
larger size mix (5.3 mm). One possible explanation can be the fact
that the ner the mix the more inuence it has on the permeability
as well as on the charcoal combustion rate, contributing for not
achieving sintering results as the reference test (100% coke). Based
on these results, the overall results interpretation will take into
account the average size mix 5.3 mm.
Fig. 5 shows the main parameters for data interpretation
regarding physical analysis of sinter produced. It can be veried
that a signicant variation on all selected parameters (RDI, RI,
shatter and particles < 5 mm) is more perceived after 50% charcoal
participation on the fuel mix when compared with reference run
test, 100% coke. It is remarkable how increased the degradation is in
all selected parameters with 100% charcoal.
It is also important to discuss two aspects of the tests: (i) pro-
ductivity, and (ii) sintering time. The shorter the sintering time (t)
the higher the productivity (P) will be. Therefore, the most evident
in terms of process results would be to search for the highest
productivity in the shortest sintering time possible.
Fig. 6 illustrates the results found in the assessment of sintering
time as a function of productivity. It is observed a concentration of
results with charcoal percentages in the range of 10e25 %, having
satisfactory results when compared to the reference (100% coke).
The use of 2.51 mm average size presented low productivity for

Fig. 5. Sinter physical analysis compared to charcoal participation in fuel mix.

392 G.C. Abreu et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 101 (2015) 387e394

Fig. 6. Comparison: productivity and sintering time.

mixes with 50 and 100% charcoal, which was probably a conse-
quence of lower permeability of the bed. The mix with 100%
charcoal for fuel mix average size 5.34 mm presented satisfactory
results, although it is still below acceptable when compared with
the reference case, 100% coke. For 50% charcoal the results were
very close to reference values leading to a real possibility that may
be the object of further detailed studies.
In Fig. 6, the two points of 100% charcoal avg size 5.34 mm
productivity show a difference from 30 to nearly 41 t/(m2 d). Also
the results of 10, 25, 50, and 100% charcoal of average size 5.34 mm
were not in a gradual trend, of which the 100% charcoal is the worst
performance, followed by 10, 25%, while the 50% is the best. The
possible reason, based on the authors' experience, is the charcoal
quality itself e volatile matter and ash. It is somehow explained, in
Section 3.2, that especially the volatile matter due to charcoal use
has to be extensively analysed before taking a decision on really
using it. The aim of the work was to keep the tests as much as
possible close to real industrial challenges. As the volatile matter
increases, the sintering zone opens up, and 100% of charcoal use
produces a large sintering zone with a low average temperature,
which results in low performance.
It should be pointed out that Ooi et al. (2011) reported an op-
timum rate of 20% substitution of coke breeze energy input with
charcoal. However, their tests were conducted under a very
different condition, in other reduced scale. The equipment used in
the present investigation is standard to investigate ore sintering in
steel making plants.
4.2. Environmental data analysis
Table 2 shows the average results for selected parameter for
each percentage of fuel mix during trials conducted at an average
size of 5.34 mm. The results were expressed according to the per-
centage of charcoal in the mix. It was found that particulate matter,
methane, total hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide and dioxins/furans
parameters showed signicant variations. Sulphur dioxide was less
intense with almost no data variations. Nitrogen oxides, carbon
dioxide and oxygen had practically no data variation.
An increase of 32% in particulate matter concentration can be
observed. Such behaviour may be attributed to charcoal nature of
generating more particles. However, as there was a reduction in
combustion efciency, the particle generation increase may be due
to the presence on unburned carbon. It also was found an increase
of methane concentration from 20 to 12,000 mL/L when the char-
coal participation is increased in the mix. This may be consequence
of the high volatile amount in the charcoal. Similar effects are re-
ected in the total hydrocarbons emissions.
A noticeable reduction tendency in dioxins and furans emission
was found, in this case approximately 50%, when the charcoal
concentration is increased in the mix. The reason for such behav-
iour is possibly related to charcoal nature of absorbing dioxins and
furans or even inuencing their formation mechanism. Charcoal
morphology may be the main agent to inhibit formation or even
reduce dioxins and furans emissions. Dioxins and furans are formed
on a sintering bed following the reactions (Castro et al., 2005):

Table 2
Emission monitoring results.

Charcoala Dust SO2 NOx CH4 HCt CO O2 CO2 TCDD/F

(mg/m3)b (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (%) (%) Non dimc

0% 61.7 681 0 12.8 46.3 2719 18.8 1.22 1.0

10% 38.8 66.7 26.6 288 696 4223 18.6 1.33 0.810
25% 69.1 73.8 13.6 803 1578 5975 19.0 1.21 0.513
50% 69.5 104.5 0 11,515 17,810 8735 17.8 1.76 0.441
100% 82.1 59.6 7.9 9218 13,647 6121 18.9 1.15 0.446
a
Results of tests with average size 5.3 mm.
b
STP.
c
Dimensionless values are related to that obtained for 100% coke fuel mix.
 G.C. Abreu et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 101 (2015) 387e394
Fig. 7. GHG emissions as functions of charcoal participation on fuel mix.
48C(s) 2,5O2 16HCl(g) 4H2(g) 4 C12OH
5Cl3(g) C12O2H5Cl3(g) 2C6H3Cl2OH(g) 2C6H3Cl3(g) (1)
2 [C6H3Cl2OH(s)] / C12OH5Cl3(s) HCl(g) H2O(g)
C6H3Cl2OH(s) C6H3Cl3(s) 0.5O2(g) /C12O2H5Cl3(s) 2HCl(g) (3)
Dioxins and furans concentration values were expressed as
PCDD/F (polychlorinated dibenzodioxins and furans), which is a
result equivalent to the total isomers group of compounds tetra-
chloride dibenzodioxins and tetrachloride dibenzofurans. For each
mix condition, a single result was generated and the nal result
was expressed as its equivalent in toxicity relative to the TCDD
(2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin) whose toxicity is classied
as 1.0. For condentiality purposes, the nal results at each sinter
test were expressed as a dimensionless value, related to 100% coke
sinter test.
Finally, it was possible to calculate the total greenhouse gas
emissions based on a mass balance where the participation of
carbon from charcoal is zero regarding CO2 formation. However, the
signicant increase of methane concentration observed with the
participation of charcoal mass in the mix needs to be added to the
amount of total GHG considered in the mass balance, and the nal
result of such consideration is presented in Fig. 7.
A reduction in total GHG specic emissions is observed from 200
to 50 kg/t of sinter, which represents 75% reduction when 100%
charcoal is used in the fuel mix, instead of coke and anthracite.
Thus, using previous data of operation and process results, a 50% of
charcoal in the fuel mix poses a possibility to be explored in in-
dustrial scale, and brings a reduction of 50% in specic GHG
emission.
5. Conclusions
Pilot-scale tests were carried out to investigate the environ-
mental impact of the use of a charcoal in sinter production. Several
sinter tests were carried out varying the amount of charcoal in 0,
10, 25, 50 and 100% in two different granulometry. A 32% increase
in dust concentration and an increase in methane concentration
from 20 ppm to approximately 12,000 ppm were measured. For
50% charcoal participation in the fuel mix, reductions were
observed in dioxins and furans concentrations of approximately
50% and the reasons for such deserves attention in future studies. A
reduction of 50% in greenhouse gas specic emissions was
observed. The blend with 50% charcoal in the fuel mix is possible
from both environmental and operational perspectives, taking into
consideration the possible limitations, due to volatile matter con-
tent, regarding operation of electrostatic precipitators and lter
bags.
393
References
ABNT e Associa~ ao Brasileira de Normas Te cnicas, 1989a. Planning of Sampling in
Ducts and Chimneys of Stationary Sources (in Portuguese), Norm NBR 10700.
(2) ABNT e Associaa ~o Brasileira de Normas Te cnicas, 1989b. Determination of Sam-
pling Points in Ducts and Chimneys of Stationary Sources (in Portuguese), Norm
NBR 10701.
ABNT e Associaa ~o Brasileira de Normas Te cnicas, 1989c. Efuent Gases in Ducts
and Chimneys of Stationary Sources e Determination of Molecular Mass in Dry
Basis (in Portuguese), Norm NBR 10702.
ABNT e Associaa ~o Brasileira de Normas Te cnicas, 1989d. Efuent Gases in Ducts
and Chimneys of Stationary Sources e Determination of Velocity and Flow Rate
(in Portuguese), Norm NBR 11966.
ABNT e Associaa ~o Brasileira de Normas Te cnicas, 1989e. Efuent Gases in Ducts
and Chimneys of Stationary Sources e Determination of Moisture Content (in
Portuguese), Norm NBR 11967.
~o Brasileira de Normas Te cnicas, 1990. Efuent Gases in Ducts and
ABNT e Associaa
Chimneys of Stationary Sources e Determination of Particulate Matter (in
Portuguese), Norm NBR 12019.
ABNT e Associaa ~o Brasileira de Normas Te cnicas, 1992. Efuent Gases in Ducts and
Chimneys of Stationary Sources e Calibration of Equipment Utilized in Sam-
pling (in Portuguese), Norm NBR 12020.
ABNT e Associaa ~o Brasileira de Normas Te cnicas, 1993. Efuent Gases with the
Filtering System inside the Duct (in Portuguese), Norm NBR 12827.
Birat, J.P., 2012. Addressing the Climate Change Challenge: ULCOS Breakthrough
Program. ArcelorMittal Maizie res, France. Available at: http://www.ulcos.org/
en/docs/Ref28%20-%20ISIJ_157_H0053.pdf.
Calais, D., 2009. Energetic Forests in Brazil: Demand and Availability (in Portu-
guese),. Associaa ~o Mineira de Silvicultura. Available at: http://www.silviminas.
com.br/Publicacao/Arquivos/publicacao_585.pdf.
Castro, J.A., Silva, A.J., Nogami, H., Yagi, J.H., 2005. Tridimensional multi-phase
mathematical model for the generation of dioxins in a sintering bed. Tecnol.
em Metal. Mater. 2 (1), 45e49 (in Portuguese).
Cornelissen, S., Koper, M., Deng, Y.Y., 2012. The role of bioenergy in a fully sus-
tainable global energy system. Biomass Bioenergy 41 (0), 21e33.
Dell'Amico, M., Fung, P., Lovel, R., Manuel, J., O'Connor, M., 2004. Green iron ore
sintering. In: Green Processing Conference, Fremantle WA.
EPA e Environmental Protection Agency, 1990a. Determination of Sulfur Dioxide
Emissions from Stationary Sources (Instrumental Analyzer Procedures),
Method 6C.
EPA e Environmental Protection Agency, 1990b. Determination of Nitrogen Oxides
Emissions from Stationary Sources (Instrumental Analyzer Procedures),
Method 7E.
EPA e Environmental Protection Agency, 1990c. Determination of Oxygen and
Carbon Dioxide Emissions from Stationary Sources (Instrumental Analyzer
Procedures), Method 3A.
EPA e Environmental Protection Agency, 1995. Determination of Polychlorinated
Dibenzo-p-dioxins and Polychlorinated Dibenzofurans from Stationary Sources,
Method 23.
EPA e Environmental Protection Agency, 2000. Determination of Total Gaseous
Organic Concentration Using a Flame Ionization Analyzer, Method 25A.
Fruehan, R.J., Fortini, O., Paxton, H.W., Brindle, R., 2000. Theoretical Minimum En-
ergies to Produce Steel for Selected Conditions. Carnegie Mellon University,
Pittsburgh (PA). Report prepared under contract to Energetics, Inc, Columbia,
MD, for the U.S. Department of Energy, Ofce of Industrial Technologies,
Washington, DC.
Hasanbeigi, A., Morrow, W., Sathaye, J., Masanet, E., Xu, T., 2013. A bottom-up model
to estimate the energy efciency improvement and CO2 emission reduction
potentials in the Chinese iron and steel industry. Energy 50, 315e325.
IEA e International Energy Agency, 2011. CO2 emissions from Fuel Combustion e
Highlights, 2011 Edition. International Energy Agency Statistics, Paris.
Jing, R., Cheng, J.C.P., Gan, V.J.L., Woon, K.S., Lo, I.M.C., 2014. Comparison of green-
house gas emission accounting methods for steel production in China. J. Clean.
Prod. 83, 165e172.
394 G.C. Abreu et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 101 (2015) 387e394
Kuramochi, T., 2015. Assessment of midterm CO2 emissions reduction potential in
the iron and steel industry: a case of Japan. J. Clean. Prod. (in press).
Lovel, R., Vining, K., DellAmico, M., 2007. Iron ore sintering with charcoal. Trans.
Inst. Min. Metall. 116, 85e92.
MCT e Ministe rio da Cie^ncia e Tecnologia, 2009. Brazilian Inventory of Anthropo-
genic Emissions by Sources and Removal by Sinks of Greenhouse Gases that Are
Not Controlled by the Montreal Protocol. Part II (in Portuguese), Braslia.
Available at: http://www.mct.gov.br/upd_blob/0004/4199.pdf.
Morrow III, W.R., Hasanbeigi, A., Sathaye, J., Xu, T., 2014. Assessment of energy ef-
ciency improvement and CO2 emission reduction potentials in India's cement
and iron & steel industries. J. Clean. Prod. 65, 131e141.
Moya, J.A., Pardo, N., 2013. The potentials for improvements in energy efciency and
CO2 emissions in the EU27 iron and steel industry under different payback
periods. J. Clean. Prod. 52, 71e83.
Ooi, T.C., Thompson, D., Anderson, D.R., Fischer, R., Fray, T., Zandi, M., 2011. The
effect of charcoal combustion on iron-ore sintering performance and emission
of persistent organic pollutants. Combust. Flame 158, 979e987.
Pardo, N., Moya, J.A., 2013. Prospective scenarios on energy efciency and CO2
emissions in the European irons & steel industry. Energy 54, 113e128.
Piketty, M.G., Wichert, M., Fallot, A., Aimola, L., 2009. Assessing land availability to
produce biomass for energy: the case of Brazilian charcoal for steel making.
Biomass Bioenergy 33 (2), 180e190.
Pinheiro, P.C.C., Sampaio, R.S., 2001. Fundamentals and Practice of Biomass
Carbonization, p. 120 (in Portuguese), Belo Horizonte: Edia ~o dos Autores.
Silva, A.M., 2007. Study of biomass utilization in partial substitution to mineral coal
in blast furnace iron making process (in Portuguese). Doctorate thesis. S~ ao
Paulo State University, Faculdade de Engenharia, Guaratingueta , SP, Brazil.
Sodsai, P., Rachdawong, P., 2012. The current situation on CO2 emissions from the
steel industry in Thailand and mitigation options. Int. J. Greenh. Gas Control 6,
48e55.
Wen, Z., Meng, F., Chen, M., 2014. Estimates of the potential for energy conservation
and CO2 emissions mitigation based on Asian-Pacic integrated model (AIM):
the case of the iron and steel industry in China. J. Clean. Prod. 65, 120e130.
Yu, B., Li, X., Shi, L., Qian, Y., 2015. Quantifying CO2 emission reduction from in-
dustrial symbiosis in integrated steel mills in China. J. Clean. Prod. (in press).
Zandi, M., Martinez-Pacheco, M., Fray, T.A.T., 2010. Biomass for iron ore sintering.
Miner. Eng. 23, 1139e1145.