Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Copyright
KROHNE Messtechnik GmbH
Ludwig-Krohne-Str. 5
47058 Duisburg
info@krohne.de
www.krohne.com
Printed in Germany
Foreword
V
Contents
List of figures....................................................................................................... X
Chapter 1............................................................................................................ 21
The fundamentals of flow measurement
Chapter 2............................................................................................................ 25
The fundamentals of electromagnetic flowmeters
2.1. Introduction................................................................................................. 26
2.2. Measuring principle.................................................................................... 27
2.3. Advantages.................................................................................................. 29
2.4. Primary head............................................................................................... 30
2.5. Signal converter.......................................................................................... 34
Chapter 3............................................................................................................ 37
EMFs for fully filled pipelines
3.1. Advantages.................................................................................................. 40
3.2. Limits.......................................................................................................... 44
3.3. Maintenance................................................................................................ 44
3.4. Testing......................................................................................................... 46
3.4.1. Testing accuracy test with a calibration rig.......................................... 46
3.4.2. Testing and documentation with testing equipment............................ 46
3.4.3. Intelligent self-diagnostics................................................................... 48
Chapter 4............................................................................................................ 53
EMFs in special areas of applications
4.1. Explosion protected versions...................................................................... 55
VI
2 Contents
Chapter 5............................................................................................................ 95
Electromagnetic flowmeters planning
5.1. Analysing the range of application and the operating conditions.............. 96
5.2. Device selection........................................................................................ 103
5.3. Installation................................................................................................ 110
5.3.1. Primary head....................................................................................... 112
5.3.2. Signal converter.................................................................................. 115
5.3.3. Signal cable......................................................................................... 117
5.4. Grounding . ............................................................................................... 118
5.5. Surge Protection....................................................................................... 119
VII
Contents
References....................................................................................................... 186
Index................................................................................................................. 194
VIII
List of figures
X
List of figures
XI
List of figures
XII
List of figures
Fig. 63: Line capacitance and signal distortion in longer signal cables
without single conductor shields...................................................... 154
Fig. 64: Line capacitance and signal distortion for signal cable with
shielding (Bootstrap)......................................................................... 155
Fig. 65: Block diagram of an EMF signal converter (KROHNE, IFC 300)....... 158
Fig. 66: Smoothing the flow profile by reducing
the measuring cross section (PTB Berlin, 1991).............................. 160
Fig. 67: Measurement errors downstream of a partially open
valve in inlet runs of 1D and 5D......................................................... 161
Fig. 68: Distorted flow profile downstream of an elbow................................ 163
Fig. 69: Distorted flow profile downstream of a sudden expansion............... 163
Fig. 70: Swirl flow caused by an out-of-plane double bend........................... 164
Fig. 71: Grounding the process liquid in metal pipelines
not coated on the inside.................................................................... 170
Fig. 72: Grounding the process liquid in pipelines
with electrically insulated walls........................................................ 171
Fig. 73: Virtual grounding via the device electronics when installing
the EMF in pipelines with insulated walls......................................... 173
Fig. 74: Surge Protection in a compact EMF version..................................... 177
Fig. 75: Surge Protection in a remote system EMF version . ........................ 178
XIII
List of tables
XIV
KROHNE The Company
Ludwig Krohne & Sohn in Duisburg From an early stage, KROHNE focused
started manufacturing variable area on measuring devices for industrial use.
flowmeters in 1921. Both the company history and being situ-
ated in one of the most industrialised
The variable area flowmeters that came
regions in Europe justified KROHNE's
later made it possible to adjust the gas/
choice of industrial measurement tech-
air mixture for optimal combustion.
nology as its core business. It all started
The small family business survived the with variable area flow measurement.
world financial crisis from 1928 to 1932
KROHNE was the first manufacturer to
and the Second World War.
successfully calculate and form cylindri-
Kristian Rademacher-Dubbick, a nephew cal glass tubes into tapered measuring
of company founder Ludwig Krohne, tubes. The tolerances were sufficiently
took over the family business in 1948. reduced to make the measuring tubes
At the time the company had only 12 interchangeable. The calculation method
employees. for glass cones developed by KROHNE
went on to form the basis for the VDI/
Subsequent years saw intensive develop-
VDE 3513, Sheet 2 directive. This method
ment in research and sales strategies.
allowed the flow display to be converted
The once small family business grew into
as the properties of the process liquid
one of the world's leading manufactur-
changed.
ers of measuring devices:
In 1962, KROHNE took over the company
KROHNE Messtechnik.
"Alto", previously known as "Tobi", which
was based in Rotterdam and renamed it
KROHNE Altometer. At the time Tobi or
Alto was the world's first manufacturer
of electromagnetic flowmeters (EMF)
for industrial use.
XVI
KROHNE The Company
XVII
KROHNE EMF Highlights, a world's first
1967 The short model EMF features a trodes, allows use with chemicals
modified inhomogeneous mag- and provides superior stability,
netic field, is more reasonably even with small nominal sizes.
priced and easier to install.
1983 The world's largest EMF with a
1968 EMFs for hazardous areas can nominal size of DN 3000 / 120"
also be used in the chemical in- and a measuring range of over
dustry. 100,000 m3/h for drinking water
and wastewater is built.
1974 The introduction of the pulsed dc
field with automatic zero correc- 1984 The first P signal converter fea-
tion means that for the first time turing full digital signal processing
ever, EMFs are stable, mainte- is launched.
nance-free precision measuring
1985 The first P signal converter in
devices.
a flameproof enclosure (Ex-d)
1978 The first EMF with a proper, fully can be adjusted and replaced in
digital measuring range setting hazardous areas.
is developed.
1991 KROHNE becomes the world's first
1979 The largest calibration rig for EMF manufacturer to obtain ISO
nominal sizes up to DN 3000 / 9001 certification.
120" with a measuring uncertainty
1992 The first EMF with an optimised
of less than 0.05% is approved for
flow profile measuring tube is
official calibration.
developed. The high degree of
1980 For the first time, EMFs with pulsed measurement accuracy convinced
dc field replace high-maintenance calibration bodies around the
ac field EMFs even in the pulp and world to install it.
paper industry.
1993 For the first time, an EMF with
1982 The first sandwich EMF, featuring aseptic and modular connection
an Al2O3 ceramic measuring tube adaptors is introduced into the
and fused-in-place platinum elec- food and beverage industry. It is
XVIII
KROHNE EMF Highlights, a world's first
XIX
1. The fundamentals of flow measurement
1 The fundamentals of flow measurement
22
2. The fundamentals of electromagnetic flowmeters
2 The fundamentals of electromagnetic flowmeters
26
The fundamentals of electromagnetic flowmeters 2
2.2. Measuring principle The process liquid in the tube with di-
ameter D flows through a magnetic field
Electromagnetic flow measurement is
positioned perpendicular to the direc-
based on Faraday's Law of Induction.
tion of flow and with a strength of B.
The law states that voltage is induced
The movement through the magnetic
across a conductor moving through a
field causes an electrical voltage to be
magnetic field. The functional principle
induced in the process liquid. This in-
of electromagnetic measuring devices
duced voltage U is proportional to the
is also based on this law of nature.
flow velocity
v and thus also to the vol-
When an electrically conducting liquid ume throughput.
flows through the magnetic field of an
EMF, voltage is induced as shown in
Fig. 2.
1 U
4
2
3
27
2 The fundamentals of electromagnetic flowmeters
The following applies (simplified) for at its outputs for process control, e.g.
the voltage U: active output current of 420 mA.
28
The fundamentals of electromagnetic flowmeters 2
29
2 The fundamentals of electromagnetic flowmeters
30
The fundamentals of electromagnetic flowmeters 2
Designs
With the flanged version, the EMF
The primary heads for electromagnetic
measuring tube is usually made of non-
flowmeters are available in a variety of
ferromagnetic stainless steel. Typical
versions. They include:
materials for the liner include hard
Flanged version; rubber, polypropylene, polyurethane
Sandwich version; and fluoropolymers such as PFA, PTFE
Hygienic version. and ETFE. Ceramic measuring tubes
are also possible up to a nominal size
See below for a more in-depth look at
of 300 mm or 12".
the designs, properties and range of
applications.
Flanged version
This is the most common version for
installing the EMF into a process line.
The flanges are available in a variety
of nominal sizes and pressure ratings
31
2 The fundamentals of electromagnetic flowmeters
Hygienic version
In the food and beverage industry as
well as in pharmaceuticals, all fittings
must be free of crevices to ensure that
no bacteria can grow and multiply. It
must therefore be possible to clean and
sterilise EMFs using chemical processes
(CIP) and steam (SIP).
32
The fundamentals of electromagnetic flowmeters 2
34
The fundamentals of electromagnetic flowmeters 2
35
2
3. EMFs for fully filled pipelines
3 EMFs for fully filled pipelines
EMFs feature properties which clearly set pipelines. Fig. 10 and Fig. 11 contains an
them apart from all other flowmeters. overview of KROHNE's comprehensive
This chapter describes the properties range of EMF products.
of conventional EMFs for fully filled
1 2
3 4 5 6
38
EMFs for fully filled pipelines 3
1 2 3
4 5 6
Fig. 11: KROHNE's modular EMF product line, 4 OPTIFLUX 5000 Sandwich
primary heads pictured here Maximum chemical resistance, abrasion sta-
1 OPTIFLUX 1000 bility and accuracy thanks to high performance
The economical solution with standard func- ceramics
tionality for simple applications 5 OPTIFLUX 5000 flange
2 OPTIFLUX 2000 Maximum chemical resistance, abrasion sta-
The first choice for the water and wastewater bility and accuracy thanks to high performance
industry ceramics
3 OPTIFLUX 4000 6 OPTIFLUX 6000
The standard solution for the process industry The device for the food and pharmaceutical
industry
39
3 EMFs for fully filled pipelines
1.0%
0.8%
0.6%
1
0.4%
0.2%
2
0.0%
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
3
Fig. 12: EMF limits of error at reference condi- 1 Measurement error (% of the measured value)
tions (KROHNE, OPTIFLUX 5300) 2 Limit of error (0.15% +1 mm/s)
3 Flow velocity v [m/s]
40
EMFs for fully filled pipelines 3
41
3 EMFs for fully filled pipelines
Independent of flow profile When the size of the EMF is the same
When flow changes from turbulent to as the nominal size of the pipeline, a
laminar, minor variations in measure- high degree of measuring accuracy can
ment accuracy may occur, depending be guaranteed through a straight and
on the design of the primary head, see unobstructed inlet run, the length of
Section 7.3. which is about five times the internal
diameter of the tube.
Independent tests confirm the minimal
influence of asymmetrically distorted flow This kind of inlet run can lead to in-
profiles and swirl flow on EMF measuring stallation-related problems in isolat-
accuracy, as shown in Fig. 14.
2
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
4
0.2
0.0
1
-0.2 5
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-1.0
42
EMFs for fully filled pipelines 3
43
3 EMFs for fully filled pipelines
44
EMFs for fully filled pipelines 3
45
3 EMFs for fully filled pipelines
46
EMFs for fully filled pipelines 3
47
3 EMFs for fully filled pipelines
This data is then subsequently down- calibration in terms of its electrical and
loaded to a PC. Using the PC software electronic function.
included with delivery, these measure-
3.4.3. Intelligent self-diagnostics
ment results are evaluated in relation
to specified limit values and compared In order to avoid any interruption in
to the current setting data in relation to operation to perform checks, users
the measuring results of the last test. and manufacturers formed a joint
Based on this information, the software NAMUR working group to compile
generates trend analyses of all data for the most frequent error modes in the
each measuring station and advises when VDI/VDE 2650 directive. They are listed
changes are too large. If the changes in Table 1 (see previous page).
are within the tolerance range, a test
The IFC 300 by KROHNE complies with
certificate is issued, certifying that the
and exceeds this directive. It achieves
EMF exhibits a measurement error of
this by using diagnostic tools that go
less than 1% compared to the initial
above and beyond the requirements. For
48
EMFs for fully filled pipelines 3
examples of these tools, please refer to The following error modes can be ob-
Table 2. tained:
Electrode contamination;
Self-diagnostic functions via the
Short circuit or interruption in the
measuring electrodes
electrode connection cable (important
During self-diagnostics, the signal con
in "remote version" EMFs).
verter induces an alternating current IEP
into the process liquid via the electrodes. The measured resistance REI ena-
This current creates a drop in voltage bles the indication of the conductiv-
URE, which is dependent on the resist- ity with the following statements:
ance RE, in other words the electrical conductivity outside of permissible
conductivity of the process liquid, see limit of EMF or process liquid;
Fig. 16. Quality of cleaning processes (e.g.
wastewater);
Change in process liquid (e.g. transition
from process to cleaning liquid or vice
versa with CIP processes).
2
3 3
The status outputs with their adjust-
able switching points or bus connec-
tions signal that the preset conductivity
switching point has been exceeded or
4 1
not attained.
49
3 EMFs for fully filled pipelines
With flow profile measurement, reliable Fig. 18: Measuring the flow profile by reversing
the polarity of the upper and lower field coils
statements can be made about a variety
of states and errors during measure- This means that flow-dependent voltages
ment: with opposite polarities are induced in
the upper and lower half of the meas-
uring tube.
50
EMFs for fully filled pipelines 3
51
4. EMFs in special areas of application
4 EMFs in special areas of application
This chapter introduces additional device Fig. 19 shows a small selection of special
versions for special areas of application solutions that KROHNE can provide in
for electromagnetic flowmeters. these cases.
1 2 3
4 5 6
54
EMFs in special areas of application 4
55
4 EMFs in special areas of application
in which such risks occur is known as and the resulting dangers to life and
an "Ex-area". health. The requirements for operational
explosion protection are regulated by the
To cause an explosion, an effective ignition
European directive 1999/92/EC (ATEX 137,
source must be available. Sometimes
formerly ATEX 118 a) and in Germany by
all it takes is a small spark or a surface
the Ordinance on Industrial Safety and
that is too hot.
Health (BetrSichV). From 1 July 2003
Preconditions for an explosion only equipment (devices, components)
In order for a fire or explosion to take that complies with EC directive 94/9/EC
place, three conditions must be in place (ATEX 95, previously ATEX 100a) may be
at the same time. They are: a flammable used in hazardous areas.
material, a source of oxygen and potential
This directive regulates the design and
ignition sources that could trigger an
testing of explosion-protected systems,
explosion or fire. With the help of the
devices and components. It applies in
examples given in Table 3, it is easy to
the CENELEC (countries in the Euro-
determine when or if these precondi-
pean Community and the EFTA). Unlike
tions are present in a plant or not.
previous explosion protection directives
Explosion protection and ordinances, ATEX for the first time
The explosion protection contains pre- includes mechanical devices and com-
cautionary measures to avoid explosions ponents.
56
EMFs in special areas of application 4
57
4 EMFs in special areas of application
conditions that fall within the limits of the determine which areas are hazardous
information given, e.g. range of applica- and select the equipment suitable for
tion, equipment category, temperature use in this area. The operator alone un-
class and any additional conditions. dertakes to meet all organisational and
technical measures to protect against
Non-compliance with the information
explosion and in particular to carry out or
contained in the installation guidelines
have carried out the required testing in a
results in termination of the approval for
timely manner. In addition, all equipment
the measuring device installed.
in hazardous areas that may contain an
Operation in hazardous areas ignition source must be marked as such in
Areas in which a hazardous, potentially accordance with directive 94/9/EC (ATEX).
explosive atmosphere may occur are The plant operator must then issue an
divided into zones depending on the prob- explosion protection document.
ability of the occurrence of this explosive
atmosphere, as shown in Table 5.
58
EMFs in special areas of application 4
4.2. EMFs for custody transfer EMFs can be used, for example, as wa-
ter meters, or as a component of heat
There is an obligation to have measuring
meters or measuring systems for all
devices and systems officially calibrated
quantities of liquids other than water.
if that equipment is used to measure
If the EMF measurement results are
quantities commercially between inde-
used for billing purposes, the EMFs
pendent partners and where the result
are subject to mandatory calibration.
of the reading affects the amount of an
In other words, they must be officially
invoice.
calibrated by a notified body.
The legal basis for these devices is the
The prerequisite for this official calibra-
"Directive 2004/22/EC of the European
tion is previous approval of the device
Parliament and the Council of 31st March
design type for custody transfer. This
2004", also known as the "Measuring In-
approval for custody transfer consists
struments Directive" (MID). This directive
of a type examination, also known as
supersedes any previous, national and
conformity assessment. The conformity
EEC directives. It regulates the require-
assessment is a test of how the device,
ments that the device under test must
its accompanying documentation and
comply with during the type certification
the manufacturer's QA system conform
test, from the manufacturer and from
to the requirements of EU Directive
the notified bodies. Approvals based on
2004 /22/EC of 31 March 2004. The con-
older directives expire on 29.03.2016
formity assessment is performed by
at the latest. In the area of liquid flow
an accredited body (e.g. the National
measurement, the directive applies to
Metrology Institute) on a sample device
the following devices or systems:
and the accompanying documents. This
Water meter (Appendix MI-001);
approval describes or limits the range of
Heat meter (Appendix MI-004);
application, as well as the conditions of
Measuring systems for the continuous
use and installation. Here, for example,
and dynamic measurement of quantities
a longer unobstructed inlet run can be
of liquids other than water (Appendix
prescribed for use in custody transfer.
MI-005).
59
4 EMFs in special areas of application
Once the test has been successfully com- 4.3. EMFs in environments with
pleted, the approval for custody trans- strong magnetic fields
fer is granted for the approved design.
EMFs can also be used, for example, in the
An EMF may not be calibrated without
vicinity of electrode feeder lines for elec-
this approval for custody transfer.
tric furnaces and in electrolysis plants in
The first, easily recognisable sign that which current strengths well in excess of
a device has been calibrated is the CE 10 kA generate strong magnetic fields.
and metrology markings, as pictured The flow indication of an EMF can be
in Fig. 20. affected by strong dc or ac field cur-
rents.
Strong dc fields
If the external magnetic field is caused
1 2 3 by very strong direct currents, such as
in electrolysis plants, the following may
Fig. 20: XY metrology marking
1 CE marking occur.
2 Metrology marking
3 Number of notified body
EMFs have a ferromagnetic magnetic
field feedback circuit. This return circuit
affects the field strength of the magnetic
field generated by the EMF field coils.
If the external interference field has a
strong effect on the magnetic circuit of
the EMF, its magnetic resistance in-
creases. The magnetic field strength
B and the signal voltage U of the EMF
become weaker. This can result in large
measurement errors.
60
EMFs in special areas of application 4
In principle, this effect can also occur of an electrolysis plant still has a ripple
when magnetic fields are generated by that is expressed as an alternating cur-
alternating current. But in this case this rent component. In the case of electric
would only happen if the currents were arc furnaces, additional disruptions may
much higher. occur if the electrodes short circuit via
the melted goods or the electric arc is
Strong external alternating fields
interrupted. As a result, current fluctua-
With external magnetic fields generated
tions of a few kA can be caused which in
by strong alternating currents, in alter-
turn induce currents and voltages which
nating current furnaces for example, a
can then cause interference.
further effect can be seen.
The suitability of the EMF for this ap-
These magnetic fields can induce such
plication thus depends on the manufac-
high currents in the pipelines in the vicin-
turer and the type. The prerequisite for
ity of the transformers or the electrode
smooth functioning is first and foremost
feeders for the furnace, that ground
the correct choice of EMF type. To make
conductors and ground connections
the correct choice, a variety of informa-
from the EMF to the pipeline can melt.
tion is required in the planning stages.
The pipelines and grounding connec-
This includes the nominal size, type of
tions function like secondary windings
pipeline, strength of the magnetic field
of a transformer. The currents induced
at the installation site of the EMF and the
therein and the coupled voltages are
distance to the cables carrying the cur-
transferred via the process liquid to the
rent and their current strength, as well
EMF electrodes and can noticeably dis-
as the type of current (direct, alternating
rupt measurement.
or three-phase), etc., see Section 5.
Effects of strong magnetic field
fluctuations
Both effects (interference with the mag-
netic circuit and induced currents and
voltages) can be superimposed on one
another. For example, the direct current
61
4 EMFs in special areas of application
700
3
600
500
400
300
1 4
200
100
-100
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400
2
62
EMFs in special areas of application 4
63
4 EMFs in special areas of application
64
EMFs in special areas of application 4
65
4 EMFs in special areas of application
66
EMFs in special areas of application 4
1 2
dR2
dR1
Fig. 22: Wear on pipe connections during 1 Wear in the case of varying pipe diameters
hydraulic transport and edges protruding into the (dR2 < dR1)
pipeline 2 Wear in the case of unevenly matched pipelines
3 Zones attacked by abrasion
67
4 EMFs in special areas of application
In a horizontal pipeline, the solids sink stay in motion. This kind of distorted
towards the bottom of the pipe. The flow flow profile does not, however, notice-
keeps the particles in motion. The speed ably affect the measuring accuracy of
of the particles is slower at the bottom the EMF and rarely becomes a problem
of the pipe, resulting in an increase in practice.
in concentration of solids towards
When the pipeline is in a vertical position,
the bottom of the tube, as shown in
the behaviour is different, see Fig. 25.
Fig. 24.
When the flow velocity is relatively low,
a constant flow in which the solids are
evenly distributed develops, as shown
1 in Fig. 25 on the left. However, when the
flow velocity is high and the inlet run is
sufficiently long and unobstructed, the
solid particles concentrate more in the
middle of the pipe. This results in the car-
2 rier medium flowing around the "solids
column" in a circular pattern towards
Fig. 24: Flow and concentration profile when hy-
draulically transported in a horizontal pipeline the top. Fig. 25 on the right illustrates
1 c : Concentration of solids
2 v : Flow velocity just such a flow. The dark core in the
middle marks the flow velocity of the
The result is distortion of the normal
solids, whereas the light area represents
symmetrical flow profile. When the flow
the flow profile of the carrier liquid in
is low, the solids settle on the bottom.
the ring between the solids column and
The unobstructed cross-sectional area
the wall of the pipe.
above the layer of deposits then becomes
smaller. This happens until the flow veloc-
ity increases enough for all of the other
particles above the layer of deposits to
68
EMFs in special areas of application 4
1 2
Fig. 25: Flow patterns during hydraulic 1 Flow profile at low flow velocity
transport in long, perpendicular pipelines 2 Flow profile at high flow velocity
Extremely high flow velocities can occur transport the product. Increasing the
in the ring between the solids column flow velocity does not further increase
and the wall of the pipe. This results the solids transport.
in a flow profile featuring a slow solids
EMFs register higher flow velocity in the
column in the middle of the pipe (e.g.
vicinity of the electrodes, which means
vS = 5 m/s) and a much faster ring of the
that such extremely distorted flow pro-
carrier liquid (e.g. vF 15 m/s). In this
files result in a flow value indication that
case, only the sheer stress between the
is too high.
liquid and the solids column is used to
69
4 EMFs in special areas of application
It makes, therefore, more sense to in- 4.6. EMFs without electrodes with
stall the EMF in a horizontal section of capacitive signal pick-up
the pipeline or at a distance of 10xDN
For process liquids with extremely low
downstream from an elbow where a
electrical conductivity and for those that
solids suspension is not yet completely
form insulating deposits on the wall of the
separated.
tube, interrupting the contact between
EMFs have also been successful in ex- the process liquid and the electrode,
tremely harsh applications in hydraulic there is an EMF featuring non-contacting
transport. To ensure smooth function- capacitive signal pick-up.
ing and a long service life, a detailed
Fig. 26 shows the structure of an EMF
discussion with the EMF supplier is
with capacitive signal pick-up.
necessary.
cost-effective.
70
EMFs in special areas of application 4
With these EMFs, the electrodes are at- EMFs with capacitive signal pick-up
tached as large area condenser plates provides outstanding performance with
to the outside of the liner or to the non- products that deposit insulating layers
conducting measuring tube. The signal on the walls of the pipe e.g. latex or
voltage from the process liquid is capaci- bitumen suspensions. These layers can
tively picked up and without contact to insulate the electrodes of conventional
the liquid. These signals pick-ups and EMFs, resulting in measurement failure.
the associated projecting surfaces are With capacitive EMFs, such thin layers
fused-in-place to the outside of the ce- do not lead to failure. Instead, the lay-
ramic measuring tube by using methods ers have only a minimal influence on
in microsystem technology. This ensures measuring accuracy.
that vibrations and impacts cannot cause
The flow indicator of a capacitive EMF is
any interference voltages through piezo-
steadier than that of the classic EMF with
electric effects and that the EMF display
inhomogeneous products. This applies,
remains steady.
for example, to products containing a high
EMFs with capacitive signal pick-up offer degree of solids content, products that
a variety of advantages compared to con- have been poorly mixed or that exhibit as
ventional EMFs with classic electrodes yet incomplete chemical reactions, e.g.
in contact with the product. downstream from a neutralising point.
The capacitive signal pick-ups integrate
Thus, a minimum conductivity of just
spatial interferences across their large
0.05 S/cm is sufficient for measure-
electrode area.
ment. However, for conductivities less
than 0.3 S/cm, consult the EMF manu- With conventional EMFs it is possible
facturer prior to selecting a device as that there is no electrode material that is
some products prove to be completely compatible with all of the various process
non-conductive in the actual process liquids that flow through a pipeline. With
even if they show a laboratory value of, capacitive EMFs, on the other hand, it
e.g., 0.2 S/cm. is enough that the material of the pipe
is compatible.
71
4 EMFs in special areas of application
72
EMFs in special areas of application 4
the signal voltage U and thus the flow tube is known. Using the average flow
velocity
v even when the level in the v and the flow cross section A,
velocity
pipeline is very low. In addition, these the volume flow q can be calculated:
KROHNE EMFs feature patented capaci-
tive level sensors embedded into the
(7) q=
vA
wall of the tube. This setup allows the
filling height h to be measured in the
measuring tube itself. Based on the filling Fig. 28 illustrates once again the measur-
height, the flow cross section A can be ing principle of EMFs for partially filled
calculated because the diameter of the pipelines.
2
1
73
4 EMFs in special areas of application
Prior to using an EMF for partially filled 4.8. Battery-operated EMFs for
pipelines, note that these EMFs start remote measuring points
measuring only when the minimum fill-
In many drinking water, untreated water
ing level has been reached. This level
and tap water systems, as well as in
generally corresponds to 10% of the
agricultural irrigation systems, water
tube diameter. The minimum flowrate
meters are installed in lines located in
at which measurement begins depends
remote measuring points. There is of-
on the pipe gradient and roughness of
ten no available power supply in these
the pipeline wall but is typically ap-
areas and the meter must work without
prox. 2.5% of the flowrate in a fully filled
power.
measuring tube.
Mechanical water meters have always
The inflow conditions for EMFs for par-
been used in such situations. However,
tially filled pipelines in open channels
their measuring accuracy frequently
are much more difficult to control than
suffered due to incrustations occur-
in fully filled pipelines. This is mainly
ring with the use of hard water as well
because the exposed surface of the
as contamination from untreated water.
flow, depending on the kind of distur-
The use of filters makes these measur-
bance, becomes calm only after very
ing points expensive and maintenance
long stretches. In such cases, the user
intensive.
should seek advice from the appropriate
manufacturer. While EMFs are not plagued with these
disadvantages, they do require a power
supply. Vandalism and theft made
the use of solar panels impractical. In
battery mode, the high power demand
of conventional EMFs reduces long
battery life.
74
EMFs in special areas of application 4
for standard applications in the water measuring points with large nominal
and wastewater industry, see Fig. 29. sizes. Any additional costs for spare
filters, flow straighteners as well as
maintenance and cleaning work are
eliminated.
75
4 EMFs in special areas of application
When investigating the influence of the The large electrode spacing D, the strong
flow profile, J. A. Shercliff discovered magnetic field B and the increased
the valence function for circular cross flow velocity
v result in a higher signal
sections, see Section 8.2. He also dem- voltage, even in the presence of a low
onstrated that the accuracy of EMFs with flowrate. The optimised wall thickness
a rectangular measuring tube cross sec- of the measuring tube minimises elec-
tion, homogeneous magnetic field and trical eddy currents.
surface electrodes are barely affected,
The measuring tube itself is cast from
even with a distorted flow profile. That
aluminium alloy using patented rein-
means that the WATERFLUX 3070 re-
forcements to ensure maximum form
quires only short inlet and outlet runs
and pressure stability. The tube is fitted
and can be installed in very narrow
with a smooth, low-friction coating made
standpipes and shafts.
of Rilsan. This polyamide coating has
The minimal height of the measuring been successfully used for over 30 years,
tube decreases the distance between especially in the water supply industry.
the field coils, thereby increasing the Rilsan is created from biomass and has
field strength B of the magnetic field. In been approved by the world's leading
addition, the flow velocity
v increases industrial countries for use with drink-
significantly due to the rectangular ing water. Rilsan can withstand all of
reducer. the chemicals generally used to treat
drinking water including ozone, chlorine
Note:
compounds and flocculants and lasts
The following applies to signal voltage
longer than, for example, some high
U:
quality stainless steels in sea water.
(8) U=KB
vD
76
EMFs in special areas of application 4
77
4 EMFs in special areas of application
5.0
Q1 Q2
4.0
1
3.0 Q1 Q2
4 2
3
2.0 Q3 Q4
1.0 Q3 Q4
0.0
0.1 1 10 100 5 1000
Fig. 32: Error limits for water meters in ac- 3 Error curve KROHNE WATERFLUX 3070,
cordance with measuring instrument directive DN 100, Example
2004/22/EC, Appendix MI-001 and OIML R49 4 Absolute error (%)
1 Directive 2004/22/EC MI-001, Q3 / Q1 = 400 5 Flowrate (m3/h)
2 OIML R49 Class 1, Span Q3 / Q1 = 250
The new primary head for the WATER- The WATERFLUX 3070 is available in
FLUX 3070 is also compatible with the all common variants. This includes the
line-operated signal converters by compact version as well as the remote
KROHNE, the IFC 100 and the IFC 300. version with a primary head featuring
Therefore, even those industries that a protection category of IP68 or even a
usually have a power supply at every version in which the primary head can
measuring point can still benefit from be installed in the ground.
the advantages provided by the unique
design.
78
EMFs in special areas of application 4
79
4 EMFs in special areas of application
1
2
3 4
+ IF
- IF
6
v
+ U
i
- 7
5
Ui
80
EMFs in special areas of application 4
1
2
3 4
+ IF
- IF
+ U
i
-
5 6
Ui
81
4 EMFs in special areas of application
82
EMFs in special areas of application 4
However, PET bottles require a special the sturdy, only 50 mm wide stainless
volumetric filling technique because steel housing produced by way of in-
they expand differently when being vestment casting;
filled with carbonated beverages un- the inherently stable, vapour diffusion
der pressure. resistant ceramic measuring tube;
CIP and SIP resistance;
The shape of reusable PET bottles
the internal device bus;
changes over time due to mechani-
low energy consumption;
cal and thermal loads such as those
placed on the bottles during cleaning
processes. When this happens, there
is no longer a clear relation between
the filling height and the filled volume,
meaning that the accuracy of the filled
volume can no longer be guaranteed
using the classic fill level method with
PET bottles.
83
4 EMFs in special areas of application
the possibility of recording filling pro the outside, fully approved for use in the
cesses; food and beverage industry as well as
maximum repeatability. the fulfillment of additional customer
requirements.
A BATCHFLUX EMF measures the volume
flow at every filling point. This process
continues throughout the entire filling
process.
1
9 4
The EMFs transmit volume pulses (e.g.
t
10 pulses for every millilitre that flows
10
through) to a batch controller in the cen-
tral computer of the filling machine. The 2
With filling times of a few seconds, this Fig. 37: Volumetric filling with
KROHNE BATCHFLUX EMF
application requires repeatability of, for 1 Start command, when container is ready to be
filled, Batch Controller (Batch Computer)
example, 0.2%. This includes the flow- 2 Valve control signal
3 External communication (volume preselection,
meter uncertainty, the time response statistics)
4 Pulses / volume e.g. 10 pulses per ml
of the valves and other uncertainties in 5 Filling time tF
6 On / Off
the filling process. 7 Valve opens
8 Valve closes
9 Storage vessel (pressurized if
Additionally, there are further require- liquid contains CO2)
10 Flowmeter BATCHFLUX
ments such as full CIP and SIP capability 11 Valve
12 Container Bottle, can, keg, paper or plastic
(e.g. superheated steam cleaning fol- container (pressurized if liquid contains CO2)
84
EMFs in special areas of application 4
Filling start;
Binary input for the bus;
Emergency off;
Off (no function).
85
4 EMFs in special areas of application
Each one of these outputs and valve cir- To avoid having to guide all these con-
cuits is connected to the correspond- nections via loops from the rotating car-
ing interfaces of the process control ousel to a stationary process computer,
system. the computers with the interfaces are
usually mounted directly on the rotat-
This means that in the case of valves with
ing carousel.
five controllable channels, the number
of control lines can be increased by a
factor of 5.
1
8
3
3
7
5
86
EMFs in special areas of application 4
The right side of the figure also shows BATCHFLUX and BATCHCONTROL
eight filling stations. In this case, All measuring and operating data are
however, the filling stations feature transferred to the BATCHFLUX and
BATCHCONTROL EMFs equipped with BATCHCONTROL via the internal de-
integrated batch computers and CAN- vice bus BatchMon.
bus. This makes it possible to install
From this information, precise documen-
the computer in a stationary position
tation regarding device settings and all of
next to the carousel filler and to con-
the filling processes is created on external
nect the data bus to the computer in a
PCs. This gives the manufacturer of the
different way. The benefit to this is the
filling machine information about, for
considerable reduction in the amount
example, the dynamic behaviour of the
of wiring required and the elimination
valves, the flowrate during filling, the
of interfaces.
machine output and the repeatability of
The integrated batch controller automati- the filling quantity. The filling process
cally performs the overfill correction. This can then be optimised. Fig. 40 shows an
process is made possible by a special, example for this recording option.
patented start procedure when a new
At KROHNE, the filling machine manu-
device, machine or a new package size
facturer's optimum setting parameters
is introduced for the first time. This way,
can then be taken and the EMF can be
the first packages are already within the
set to these parameters prior to being
required tolerances. This is an advantage
delivered.
that prevents filling losses that occur
when using other EMFs during the first
incorrect filling processes.
87
4 EMFs in special areas of application
1
1.80E-04
2
1.60E-04
1.40E-04
1.20E-04
1.00E-04
8.00E-05
6.00E-05
4.00E-05
2.00E-05
0.00E+00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 3
88
EMFs in special areas of application 4
89
4 EMFs in special areas of application
1 2
0.30%
0.25%
4
0.20% 7
322 l/h
644 l/h
0.15% 1307 l/h
0.10%
4
0.05%
5
6
0.00%
3 F E D C B A
Fig. 41: Results of an independent test 3 Maximum difference (% of the measured value)
investigating the long-term stability of EMFs with of 10 measurements with each device for 1 h
PTFE and ceramic measuring tubes, size DN 15, each at the specified flowrate
after continuous stress (e.g. 600 changes 18C / 4 Average of the maximum error at 322 l/h
80C + hot acid 80C + superheated steam 140C) 5 Average of the maximum error at 644 l/h
1 EMF with PFA liner 6 Average of the maximum error at 1307 l/h
2 EMF with ceramic measuring tube 7 Flowrate AF: EMF flowmeters - test setup
90
EMFs in special areas of application 4
91
4 EMFs in special areas of application
Installation in pipeline
To keep the Reynolds number depend-
ence, even at turbulent flow profiles,
to a minimum, it is recommended to
position the probe tips at a distance of
an eighth of the inside diameter of the
tube from the inside wall of the tube.
92
5. Electromagnetic flowmeters planning
5 Electromagnetic flowmeters planning
The use of EMFs should be planned in 5.1. Analysing the range of applica-
detail in advance. Both the field of ap- tion and the operating conditions
plication and the operating conditions
Process liquid
for the EMF should be analysed prior
EMFs are used in many industries.
to selecting a device. Important aspects
There is a wide spectrum of liquid media
including EMF installation, grounding
whose flow parameters can be measured
and surge protection as well as impor-
using electromagnetic flowmeters.
tant standards that must be taken into
Table 7 illustrates a few examples of
consideration when using EMFs must
possible process liquids in a variety of
be considered.
industries.
96
Electromagnetic flowmeters planning 5
97
5 Electromagnetic flowmeters planning
enough to prevent any solid deposits, Air can be drawn in if the suction pieces
installation in a horizontal pipeline is in a container or tank are too close to
also possible. However, when selecting the surface;
the material, the heavy wear placed on Stirring devices do not only mix the
the bottom of the tube by the abrasive product, they also draw air down at its
particles must be taken into account. shafts and the air enters the pipeline
along with the product and gets into
Gas content
the EMF;
EMFs are first and foremost volume
Gases can escape from the process
measuring devices, see Chapter 2. Un-
liquid when the pressure is not suffi-
wanted gas content is thus one of the
ciently high or in the case of cavitation,
most common causes of measurement
as with carbonated beverages, beer,
error. This topic is discussed in more
wastewater;
detail below.
In the case of biosolids, ridges of welded
As with almost all volumetric flowmeters, seams or the edges of fittings can cause
EMFs include any gas dispersed in the outgassing;
liquid as part of the volume measure- Air can remain on fibres and be
ment. The EMF flow indicator displays transported into the liquids. An
a value that is too high by exactly the example: In the pulp and paper industry,
same value as the gas volume. The display the air sticks to the pulp fibres intro-
may also become very unstable. duced. At standard pressure, the volume
content of the air is often as high as
The entrainment of gas in liquids is usu-
the fibre content. e.g. the air content
ally unintentional. It can happen for a
can be as much as 10% at standard
variety of reasons. Here are some ex-
pressure with pulp containing 10%
amples:
suspended solids.
Air can be drawn in through pump shaft
seals;
98
Electromagnetic flowmeters planning 5
Usually, when using EMFs, only the In addition, if an EMF must be installed
volumetric flow of the liquid phase is in the vicinity of a pump, it should be
measured. EMFs, however, measure installed on the delivery side and not on
the volumetric flow of the total of the the suction side. The entrained gas is
process liquid including the entrained heavily compressed on the delivery side,
gas volume. So, the reading is too high causing the real volumetric proportion of
when compared to the expected meas- the gas and the difference between the
ured value of the volumetric flow of the measured and the actual transported
gas-free liquid or the volume of water liquid volume of the liquid to be very
including solids. The EMF thus displays small. When an EMF is installed on the
a positive measurement deviation. suction side of a pump, the pressure in the
product is low, even causing a vacuum.
If the diameter of the entrained gas reach-
The gas volume in the process liquid, its
es a size similar to that of the diameter
total volume and thus also the indicated
of the EMF electrodes, the flow indicator
error is accordingly higher.
may stop working for a short period of
time or become extremely unsteady. In Fig. 43 illustrates this effect. When a
horizontal pipelines, the gas can collect pump is initially started the pressure
in the top of the pipe, which can in turn on the suction side can decrease from
lead to measurement errors. 1 bar to 0.1 bar and the gas volume can
increase by a factor of 10. The amount
Such effects can be avoided or at least
of entrained gas becomes much larger.
reduced by using gas separators, bleeder
The EMF indicator does not only indi-
valves or vents installed upstream of
cate a seemingly significantly greater
the EMF. It is important to ensure that
error, it can also become very unsteady
the minimum filling height in tanks or
as the large amount of entrained gas
containers is sufficiently high so that no
briefly isolates the electrodes from the
air can be drawn in through discharge
liquid.
connections or the blades of the stirring
unit, see Section 5.3.
99
5 Electromagnetic flowmeters planning
10
1
5
3
1
0.5
0.2
2
0.1
0.1 0.2 0.5 1 2 5 10
Fig. 43: Reduction of the gas volume by 1 Relative gas-volume content dependent on
increasing pressure, relative gas-volume con- operating pressure, gas content
tent standardised to 1 at pabs = 1 bar 2 Absolute pressure (bar)
3 Relative gas-volume content
100
Electromagnetic flowmeters planning 5
With vertical installation, the entrained contains gas, the sonic velocity and
gas may briefly interrupt its connection possibly also the signal strength will
to the process liquid when passing the be significantly lower.
electrodes. This made lead to a fluctu-
Diagnosis via signal converter:
ating reading.
Entrained gas flowing through an EMF,
Methods to test for gas content in causes irregular fluctuations of the
media without solids electrode voltages, so-called electrical
A variety of methods are suitable for noise. The EMF signal converters IFC
testing for gas content in media without 300 and 100 by KROHNE can measure
solids. this noise and output a value for the
noise level as well as indicate if the
Listen to the pipeline:
adjustable limit value is exceeded.
Hold the tip of a screwdriver on the
pipeline to serve as an acoustic coupler. Methods to test for gas content in
A trained ear can hear the noise and products containing solids
recognise whether or not there is gas With fibrous solids as e.g. pulp and sheep's
in the liquid. wool, the air is attached so densely to
the fibres that it is difficult to separate
Using clamp-on ultrasonic
them. In such cases, determining the
flowmeters:
gas content in suspensions or pulps is
Clamp-on ultrasonic flowmeters such
not that easy. Electrical noise caused by
as KROHNE's OPTISONIC 6300 enable
the gas content disappears in the heavy
the detection of gas content in homo-
electrical noise of such suspensions due
geneous liquids. This gas content can
to the zeta potential of the fibres and
lead to a significant reduction in the swirl
added additives. The noise measurement
velocity and the strength of the signal
in the diagnosis range of the KROHNE
received. A process liquid free of gas,
IFC 300 and 100 signal converters can-
e.g. after a long period of downtime,
not provide clear information here.
will display a high sonic velocity and
signal strength. When the medium
101
5 Electromagnetic flowmeters planning
So-called anti-foaming agents or de- When dealing with products that have a
foamers have been successful in sup- tendency towards outgassing, a reducer
pressing gases and helping to prevent (which otherwise offers many improve-
the measurement errors caused by those ments to measuring accuracy) can actu-
gases. They are added to the suspension ally cause outgassing.
at the same time as the pulp is added.
Adhering to these tips can help avoid
Observing the mass balance in the pro
faulty measurements caused by high
cess both before and after indicates if
gas content.
and how much gas was removed by using
the additive. Nominal sizes
The range of application of conventional
However, the entrapment of air in the
EMFs now goes from DN 1 with an inte-
process liquids can be prevented at an
rior diameter of 1 mm to over DN 3000
earlier stage. Some points can be taken
with an inside diameter of more than
into account as early as the plant plan-
3 m. This means flowrates from approx.
ning stages.
1 l/h to well over 100,000 m3/h can be
The most important thing to take into measured.
consideration is the correct installation
Pressure ratings
of the EMF on the delivery side of the
Pressure ratings are based on the flange
pump.
standards. The standard used is the most
Next, the suction intake points on con- common pressure rating for each nomi-
tainers, tanks or even lakes must be nal size, for example, nominal pressure
located far beneath the surface so that PN 40 for nominal sizes up to DN 50.
no air can be drawn into the supply line.
Special EMF versions with nominal pres-
Stirring units must be in a deep enough
sures of over 1,500 bar are possible.
position so that no air is drawn into the
shaft of the unit and down into the sup-
ply line.
102
Electromagnetic flowmeters planning 5
V1 V2 V1
/2 < 8
d1 d2 d2 d1
103
5 Electromagnetic flowmeters planning
104
Electromagnetic flowmeters planning 5
105
5 Electromagnetic flowmeters planning
106
Electromagnetic flowmeters planning 5
107
5 Electromagnetic flowmeters planning
In all cases where the user does not If the risk of longer lasting or higher
have adequate experience, the chemi- submersion cannot be excluded, a
cal resistance of the electrode material remote version with a primary head
and its contact reliability to the pro- featuring protection category IP 68 (pro-
cess liquid must be tested with respect tection against lasting submersion in
to the composition, concentration and water) must be selected. With this type
temperature of the process liquid. Most of protection, manufacturers and users
EMF suppliers will provide assistance must agree on the typical submersion
in this respect. depth and guaranteed submersion time
on a case by case basis. In this case, the
Protection category
signal converter must be installed above
Modern EMF primary heads and compact
the highest possible submersion level,
devices generally comply with protec-
otherwise there is a risk of irreparable
tion category IP 67 for protection against
damage to the device.
temporary submersion (max. 30 min.
up to a hydrostatic head of 1m). 19 rack signal converters which gen-
erally only have IP 20 protection, are
Remote signal converters comply with
protected from dust and water because
protection category IP 65 (protection
they are installed in central cabinets with
against water spray) or IP 67, depend-
higher protection categories.
ing on the housing design.
108
Electromagnetic flowmeters planning 5
EMFs with remote and compact signal Fig. 46 shows the same IFC 300 signal
converters converter by KROHNE, this time in the
Most EMFs are available in either remote version and in protection category
remote or compact versions. Both ver- IP 65. An IP 67 version is also available
sions often have the same primary head (see Fig. 11, IFC 300F).
and signal converter electronics, in other
Always select a remote version if the use
words, the same metrological properties.
of the compact version is not recom-
However, different operating conditions
mended, even if only according to one
and limits of use must be taken into
of the operating conditions outlined in
account when selecting. Fig. 45 shows
Table 11.
KROHNE's OPTIFLUX 4000 with the
IFC 300 signal converter in the compact
version.
Fig. 45: Compact version of a signal converter Fig. 46: Wall-mount version of a signal converter
(KROHNE, IFC 300C) (KROHNE, IFC 300W)
109
5 Electromagnetic flowmeters planning
When installing the remote version of Table 12 illustrates some typical installa-
an EMF, note the difference between the tion situations. This includes suggestions
installation instructions for the primary as to the selection of the installation
head and for the signal converter. site for the primary head that have been
proven as optimal in practice.
For details and required regulations
to be observed when selecting the in-
stallation site for the primary head as
well as the installation process in the
pipeline, consult the planning guidelines
110
Electromagnetic flowmeters planning 5
Downpipe
Avoid installation!
(Open discharge.)
Long pipeline
Always install control and shutoff
valves downstream of the flowmeter.
Pumps
Do not install flowmeter on suction
side of pump.
Table 12: Suggestions for selecting a suitable in- 1 Automatic vent and air valve
stallation site for the primary head 2 >5m
111
5 Electromagnetic flowmeters planning
10
1 5
0
0 1 2 3 4 5
2
Fig. 47: Possible measurement errors when inlet 1 Measurement error in % of measured value
runs are too short 2 Distance of the interfering element from the
EMF in nominal tube sizes (DN)
112
Electromagnetic flowmeters planning 5
113
5 Electromagnetic flowmeters planning
114
Electromagnetic flowmeters planning 5
115
5 Electromagnetic flowmeters planning
200 40
150 30
1 100 20 2
50 10
0 0
20C 30C 40C 50C 60C 70C 80C
3
Fig. 50: Service life of electronics depending on 1 MTBF (average service life in years)
the temperature 2 Number of failures per year for 100 devices
3 Temperature of the signal converter housing
116
Electromagnetic flowmeters planning 5
117
5 Electromagnetic flowmeters planning
118
Electromagnetic flowmeters planning 5
119
6. Quality assurance at KROHNE
6 Quality assurance at KROHNE
122
Quality assurance at KROHNE 6
123
6 Quality assurance at KROHNE
124
Quality assurance at KROHNE 6
1 7
6
12
3 9
10
5
11 13
4
The flow calibration system at KROHNE The uncertainty is less than 0.04% at
Altometer is the largest and most ac- flowrates of 18 m3/h to 18,000 m3/h. The
curate in the world. Here, EMFs and uncertainty of the KROHNE calibration
ultrasonic flowmeters up to DN 3000 or rigs is considerably less than the error
120 can be calibrated. The maximum limits of the measuring devices to be
3
flowrate is more than 30,000 m /h tested.
3
(approx. 10 m /s).
125
6 Quality assurance at KROHNE
126
Quality assurance at KROHNE 6
127
7. The fundamental principles of fluid mechanics
7 The fundamental principles of fluid mechanics
130
The fundamental principles of fluid mechanics 7
Many flowmeters are equipped with 7.2. Basic laws of fluid mechanics
totalisers. These can be set as preset
The basic laws of fluid mechanics ap-
counters in order to automatically con-
ply to flow in pipelines. However, they
trol filling processes. For volume flow
only apply under the assumption that
counting, the flowrate q is integrated
we are dealing with the ideal process
from time t1 to t2:
liquid, which
is incompressible;
(10) V = t2 qv(t) dt
t1
has a constant density;
creates no friction losses.
131
7 The fundamental principles of fluid mechanics
7.2.2. Principle of energy conservation Based on the law of flow from Section
7.2.1, the process liquid is acceler-
Two types of pressure exist in every flow.
ated when the cross section narrows
They are known as static pressure Ps and
and slowed when the cross section ex-
dynamic pressure Pd. Static pressure Ps
pands. For this, working pressure W is
acts in all directions. Dynamic pressure
required. Working pressure is generally
Pd, also known as back pressure, acts
defined as:
only in the direction of flow.
As the flow velocity v increases, so too
(14) W = Fs = PAs = PV
does the dynamic pressure Pd, while the
static pressure Ps drops. The principle
of energy conservation, also known as where
Bernoulli's Law, applies to the total
F Force
pressure P. This law states that in a
P Pressure
stationary flow, the sum of the static and
A Cross-sectional area
dynamic pressure remains constant at
s Path
any point. The principle of energy con-
V Volume
servation looks like this:
Following a change in the cross section
between, for example, pos. 1 and pos. 2 in
(13) P = Ps + Pd = const.
Fig. 55, the working pressure is thus:
132
The fundamental principles of fluid mechanics 7
Ps1 Ps3
Ps2
A1 A2 A3
v1 v2 v3
1 2 1
2 1 2 2
(16) Wkin = /2mv = /2Vv (19) (Ps1-Ps2)V = /2 V (v2 - v1 )
Following a change in the cross section, and thus:
for instance, between pos. 1 and pos. 2
in Fig. 55, the addition of kinetic energy 1 2 1
2
(20) Ps1+ /2 v1 = Ps2+ /2 v2
results in:
This means that the total pressure at
(17)
Wkin = Wkin2-Wkin1
both positions always remains con-
stant. Bernoulli's Law can thus be taken
and thus to: from equation (13) and formulated as
follows:
1 2 2
(18) Wkin = /2 V (v2 - v1 )
1 2
(21) P = Ps+ /2 v = constant
133
7 The fundamental principles of fluid mechanics
134
The fundamental principles of fluid mechanics 7
1
v0
(23) F ~ A; F ~ v; F ~ 1
v1 x
v2
v3 x
v4 The following is valid:
v
2 v
(24) F ~ A v
Fig. 56: Example for layers of fluids x
1 permanent plate v = 0 m/s
2 moving plate
v
(28) =
x
135
7 The fundamental principles of fluid mechanics
136
The fundamental principles of fluid mechanics 7
(29) Re = v D
where
137
7 The fundamental principles of fluid mechanics
r (32) R = 8 l
. r2
(33) P = R qV = 8 l
P1 P2
.r 2
138
The fundamental principles of fluid mechanics 7
Pressure loss and pipe friction co This results in a pressure loss coefficient
efficient in turbulent flows , which can be defined as:
Mathematical laws cannot be analytically
determined in a turbulent flow. Of par-
(35) = k Re k
7/8
k
(34) = f (Re, )
D
where
139
7 The fundamental principles of fluid mechanics
Pipeline coefficient :
-2 k 18.7 D -2
= [2lg (Re ) - 0.8] = [1.74 - 2lg (2 + )] = [2lg ( ) + 1.138]
D Re . k
5
for 2320 < Re <10 (according to Pham):
(according to Blasius):
0.3164 k 4.52 7 k
= = [2lg ( - lg + . )]
4
Re 3.7 . D Re Re 7D
5 8
for 10 <Re <10
(according to Herrmann):
-0.237
= 0.0032 + 0.221 Re
2
(36) P = l v
D 2
140
8. The theory of electromagnetic flowmeters
8 The theory of electromagnetic flowmeters
144
The theory of electromagnetic flowmeters 8
1 U
4
2
3
With k as the dimensionless device con- The following applies to a circular tube
stant, the voltage U is: cross section:
2
(37) U = k B
vD (38) q =
v D / 4
k device constant
B magnetic field strength (39) q = U D
4.k.B
v mean flow velocity
D tube diameter
The induced voltage signal is then picked
up via two electrodes in conducting con-
tact with the process liquid and supplied
to a signal converter.
145
8 The theory of electromagnetic flowmeters
146
The theory of electromagnetic flowmeters 8
147
8 The theory of electromagnetic flowmeters
0.5
0.65
0.85
0.85
0.65
Designs following this Shercliff theory In order to simulate the basic condition
have the advantage that the rotationally of having an "infinitely long and homo-
symmetrical changes of the flow profile geneous magnetic field", extremely long
such as the transition from a laminar to field coils were used. These were simi-
turbulent flow profile, have no influence lar in design to the windings of large
on the measuring accuracy. electric motors.
Interest in the EMF grew in the industry in However, in some respects this design
the years following 1960. The basic condi- proved impractical for industrial use.
tions of the Shercliff theory determined These included the extremely long
the practical design of electromagnetic length of the EMF needed for large
flowmeters until approx. 1967. nominal sizes (more than five times
148
The theory of electromagnetic flowmeters 8
the inside diameter of the tube), the Many of the literary sources contain in-
great weight and especially the high vestigations into inhomogeneous mag-
manufacturing costs which increased netic field patterns with the objective of
significantly for the larger nominal sizes reducing the effect of asymmetrical flow
needed for this field of application. In profiles on the measuring accuracy of
addition, this version exhibited noticeable the EMF. They also offer a more detailed
measurement errors in the asymmetri- overview of the theory of electromagnetic
cally distorted flow profiles due to the flowmeters and its practical versions.
high valence near the electrodes. The
EMFs with inhomogeneous magnetic
considerably higher sensitivity close to
fields have been on the market since
the electrodes is the result of the basic
around 1967 but work on the theory
conditions of the Shercliff theory.
and testing of properties continued for
Inhomogeneous magnetic field many years.
The idea of using inhomogeneous mag-
netic fields to reduce the induction B near
the electrodes was one thing that led to
this development. The result is a smaller
term near the electrodes, reducing the
influence of asymmetrically distorted
flow profiles on measuring accuracy.
149
8 The theory of electromagnetic flowmeters
150
The theory of electromagnetic flowmeters 8
The line-frequency and sinusoidal field the signal voltage U, making it erroneous.
current generates a line-frequency and This results in faulty measuring results.
sinusoidal magnetic field which means The signal converter cannot distinguish
that the following applies: between the interference voltage and
the signal voltage because both voltages
have the same frequency and waveform
(43) B(t) = B sin( t)
but no rigid phase relation.
151
8 The theory of electromagnetic flowmeters
This thus leads to errors of the display voltages on the measuring accuracy is
and makes it periodically necessary eliminated.
to calibrate the zero point with line-
Line-frequency interference voltages
frequency ac field EMFs. To do this,
are easier to suppress because the
the flow must be shut off.
field and signal frequencies of EMFs
AC field EMFs are now rarely used in with pulsed dc fields have been defined
new plants. They have been replaced as deliberately deviating from the line
almost completely by EMFs with pulsed frequency. The signal converter's signal
dc fields. processing system can therefore readily
distinguish the signal voltage with its
EMF with pulsed dc field
other frequency from the line-frequency
It was only with the introduction of the
interferences.
pulsed dc field in 1973 that EMFs became
sturdy, maintenance-free process and The electrochemical interference dc
precision measuring devices. voltage can be suppressed by using
a high pass capacitor coupling or by
For EMFs with pulsed dc fields, the field
calculating the difference between a
coils of the primary head, as shown in
succession of sampled values or by
Fig. 62, are supplied with a precisely
using more complex techniques such
controlled current that has an ap-
as the interpolation method introduced
proximate trapezoidal waveform. The
by KROHNE in 1973.
interference voltage peaks that occur
briefly due to changeover of the field This completely avoids side effects such
current are simply suppressed. This is as those experienced with EMFs with
described below. ac fields.
152
The theory of electromagnetic flowmeters 8
1
2
0 1
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
-1
2 4
1
3
0 1
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
-1
-2
1
5
0 1
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
-1
153
8 The theory of electromagnetic flowmeters
8.3.3. Signal cables with bootstrap Therefore, if the signal cable is very long,
the line capacitances C1, C2 are in turn
The electrode circuit of an EMF, as shown
very great. The almost rectangular sig-
in Fig. 63, provides signal voltages with
nal voltage Ui must periodically reload
the source impedance Zi. The size of Zi
these line capacitances via the source
can be roughly estimated at:
impedance Zi (e.g. the resistance of the
liquid and also that of the deposits on
6
(45) Zi 10 the electrodes). The shape of the signal
.d
voltage Ui is rounded in the process. The
rounded voltage US then arrives at the
where
signal converter. This can lead to a no-
Zi source impedance [Ohm]
ticeable loss in measuring accuracy.
conductivity [S/cm]
d electrode diameter [cm]
2
+Us/2 +
C1
Z/2 Z/2
Ui C2 ZE
C1
-Us/2 -
(S/cm) 3
Ui Us
t t
154
The theory of electromagnetic flowmeters 8
For this reason, most EMF manufacturers When there is a great distance between
provide detailed information about per- the primary head and the signal converter,
missible cable lengths depending on the when conductivity is low or when conduc-
conductivity of the process liquid as well tivity decreases strongly or in the event
as on the type of device and cable. of high-impedance electrode contamina-
tion, the so-called "bootstrap" technique
In the scope of its diagnostics, the
must be used, see Fig. 64.
KROHNE IFC 300 signal converter moni-
tors whether the signal voltage in the
signal converter has properly engaged.
If not, an error message is output.
1 2
C1 +1.0
3
C2 +
+Us/2
Z/2 Z/2
Ui ZE
-Us/2
C1 -
C2 +1.0
(S/cm)
Ui Us
t t
Fig. 64: Line capacitance and signal distortion for 3 Input amplifier
signal cable with shielding (Bootstrap) 4 Signal converter
1 Primary head 5 Sampling interval
2 Impedance converter
155
8 The theory of electromagnetic flowmeters
This also applies to remote version EMFs This "bootstrap" wiring costs more than
with very small nominal sizes. The elec- wiring with a common shield for both
trodes on an EMF with a DN 2.5 mm signal conductors. However, the boot-
have a diameter of approx. 1 mm. The strap method ensures high measurement
source impedance of the signal circuit stability and measuring accuracy, even
is thus naturally high. with unfavourable process liquid condi-
tions and with high-resistance electrode
For this reason, signal cables as depicted
contamination.
in Fig. 64 are recommended for these
nominal sizes. The additional total outer
shield is not shown here. Each signal con-
ductor has its own shield that is brought
to the potential of its signal conductor
using an impedance converter at low
resistance with the amplification V= 1.
Because there is no longer a voltage dif-
ference between the signal conductors
and their shields, no current flows via the
line capacitance C1 between conductors
and shields. These capacitances are then
virtually zero. The currents that flow
via C2 to the total shield have no effect
because they do not have any retroactive
effect on the low resistance outputs of
the impedance converter.
156
The theory of electromagnetic flowmeters 8
8.4. Signal converter in detail span of the mA output, etc.) and converts
the scaled digital values into suitable
When it comes to electromagnetic flow
standard signals for the process (e.g.
measurement technology, signal convert-
420 mA, pulses scaled in volumetric
ers have different functions to perform,
units for volume flow counting or also
as outlined below.
digital values directly transferable via
For EMFs with bipolar pulsed dc fields, computer interfaces to process control
the signal converter also functions as a systems). These values can also be shown
supply device to generate the magnetic on the local display.
field in the field coils through an active
Since 1995, signal converters with an
current, see Section 8.3.
internal device bus (such as IMoCom =
However, the main function of the signal Internal Modular Communication) have
converter is to process the signal volt- been used, see Fig. 65. Following conver-
age. It is the signal converter's task to sion, the induced signal voltage is digit-
amplify the signal voltage without feed- ally filtered by the first microprocessor
back. The input amplifier of the signal into digital values, scaled in accordance
converter must thus be of extremely with the set operating parameters and
high impedance so that the internal transferred to an internal device bus
resistance of the electrode circuit has with different output units.
no effect on the measuring accuracy.
The amplified electrode voltage is then
converted into digital values. Filters are
then used to free the signal voltage of
any superimposed interference which
may be exponentially higher than the
measured value itself. Complex digital
filter techniques are used to do this.
The signal converter then scales the
digital values in accordance with the
specified operating parameters (such
as full scale range, size of the sensor,
157
8 The theory of electromagnetic flowmeters
1
4 3
19
8D
9C
10 B
2 6
A
7
158
The theory of electromagnetic flowmeters 8
The central communication of the sig- The P filters the measurement and
nal converter is the internal device bus. diagnostic values and scales them
Supported by bus and data managers, it based on the calibration data which,
connects the functional units and com- like all other settings, is also stored
municates settings, calibration data, on a backplane.
measurement and diagnostic values,
The device bus transfers all of the meas-
etc. All of the data can also be called
urement and diagnostic data to the display
up, recorded and set online via the two
on the operating unit as well as to the
device bus interfaces.
selected outputs of the I/O unit.
The microprocessor (P) of the primary
The display and operating unit also
signal processing system controls the
serves to set the measuring ranges
switching of the field current supply. It
as well as measuring and diagnostic
supplies the field coils of the primary
functions in other areas. Settings can
head with an active, periodically pulsed
be made using the menu and optical
dc current.
keys or with a PC and adaptor via the
The signal voltage induced in the proc- device bus interfaces or via HART and
ess liquid and the voltages generated fieldbus systems. During operation, the
through diagnostic functions are trans- graphics display indicates measuring
ferred via a shielded signal cable from and diagnostic data as well as totaliser
the electrodes of the primary head to values.
the input amplifier in the signal process-
Due to its modular design, the I/O unit
ing system. This instrumentation am-
allows for simple integration into opera-
plifier with extremely high-impedance
tional infrastructures through flexible
inputs amplifies the electrode voltage
selectable features and functions of the
and supplies it to the A/D converter. This
inputs and outputs down to bus interfaces
converter then samples the electrode
and intrinsically safe Ex-i outputs.
voltage synchronously to the field cycle
and converts it into digital values.
159
8 The theory of electromagnetic flowmeters
160
The theory of electromagnetic flowmeters 8
Below are a few examples of situations with a nominal size of DN 500 down-
where distorted flow profiles occur. stream of a partially open valve. It was
installed at a distance of just one tube
Flow profiles downstream of partially
diameter (i.e. 500 mm) upstream of the
opened gate valves
inlet flange and then at a distance of
The flow profile of the process liquid
five diameters (i.e. 5xDN or 2500 mm)
can be severely distorted by a partially
downstream of the EMF. The results are
open valve.
shown in Fig. 67.
As early as 1980, the SIREP WIB took
profile influence measurements of EMFs
%12%
%10%
3
% 8%
% 6%
1 % 4%
% 2%
5
% 0%
6
%-2% 4
%-4%
0% 25% 50% 75% 100%
2
161
8 The theory of electromagnetic flowmeters
Here it can be clearly seen that the valve Table 14 documents the smoothing effect
must be at least 5xDN away from the inlet of a reducer on the flow profile using
flange so that the measurement remains laser Doppler measurements. In this test,
accurate even when there is intense flow the peak velocity vmax at the nose of the
restriction through the valve. profile downstream of a valve was some
200% higher than the mean velocity v.
In 1991, PTB Berlin conducted a test
The extreme values of the flow velocity
in cooperation with KROHNE to show
in the reduced measuring cross section
how well a flow profile distorted by a
of the EMF deviate only approx. 4%
partially open valve can be smoothed
from the mean value. This corresponds
by a reducer (see Fig. 66). The following
to smoothing by a factor of approx. 50.
test conditions applied:
For this reason, KROHNE recommends
3
Water at 20C, DN 100, 85 m /h installing an EMF in a reducer when-
(v = 3 m/s); ever there is not enough space for the
1st Flow profile measurement 3xDN specified unimpeded straight inlet run,
downstream of 25% open valve; which must be equal to about five times
2nd Flow profile measurement 5xDN the nominal size.
downstream of this valve in the meas-
uring cross section of the EMF with a
reduction from DN 100 to DN 80
162
The theory of electromagnetic flowmeters 8
163
8 The theory of electromagnetic flowmeters
164
The theory of electromagnetic flowmeters 8
165
8 The theory of electromagnetic flowmeters
166
The theory of electromagnetic flowmeters 8
When the measuring tube of a mechani- Empty pipe detection via the
cal flowmeter is empty, its flow indicator measuring electrodes;
indicates the value "0" and flow totalis- Full tube detection via a full tube
ing stops. electrode;
Full tube detection via the flow
This is not the case with an EMF. The
profile test;
electrodes are no longer in contact
Empty pipe shut off via external
with the process liquid and are open.
control signals.
The electrode circuit has an extremely
high impedance when the tube is empty. Empty pipe detection via the
Electrical interferences and couplings measuring electrodes and the
from the surroundings can then lead to electrode resistance
error flow readings and totalised values. When the measuring tube is completely
This is another reason why the instal- filled, the measuring electrodes are
lation site of an EMF must generally be connected to each other and against
selected so that the measuring tube is the reference point of the EMF via the
always completely filled with the process process liquid.
liquid, even when the flowrate is "zero",
The resistance between the measur-
refer to Section 5.3.
ing electrodes or from one electrode
If the EMF measuring tube is still empty, to a reference point is a factor of the
the flow outputs and indicator as well as conductivity of the process liquid. This
volume totalising via functions such as resistance is lower with a completely
empty pipe detection, empty pipe shut filled measuring tube than with an empty
off and full pipe detection must be set measuring tube. So, if the resistance is
to zero to avoid errors. low, the empty pipe detection indicates:
"pipe filled" and when the resistance is
high it indicates "pipe empty".
167
8 The theory of electromagnetic flowmeters
The switching point must be set in such Full pipe detection via a
a way that even at the lowest conductivity full pipe electrode
occurring in the process, in other words This additional electrode is attached in
at the highest occurring resistance with the top of the measuring tube. When the
a full pipe, the message "pipe filled" is EMF is installed in a horizontal pipe-
definitely indicated. Otherwise, the sig- line, this electrode indicates partial
nal converter may indicate "pipe empty" filling even if the process liquid level
when the measuring tube is still filled decreases only slightly. Here too, the
and then wrongly set the outputs and switching point must be set below the
the display to "0" and stop the totalising. lowest electrical conductivity that can
For this reason, proceed with caution occur in the process.
when setting this option to avoid incor-
The advantage of an additional full pipe
rect messages.
electrode is the early indication of a par-
The advantage of this method is that no tially filled measuring tube.
additional hardware expense is neces-
When filling or emptying the pipeline,
sary for the primary head.
large volumes of the process liquid are
The disadvantage, however, is that the not measured and totalised before the
switching process only takes place when pipeline has been fully filled or emptied
the liquid level drops below the electrode again. In addition, the full pipe electrode
axis. Therefore, when the measuring does not respond at all or only very slowly
tube becomes coated, this method no in the case of highly viscous process liq-
longer functions reliably. It also becomes uids, incrustations and coatings sludge.
problematic with vertical and long pipe- The full pipe electrode indicates "pipe
lines in which the process liquid runs not full" even if only minimal gas content
down the tube walls for an extended has collected at the top of the tube.
period of time.
In the case of long, vertical pipelines
in which the process liquid runs down
the pipe walls for an extended period
168
The theory of electromagnetic flowmeters 8
of time even when the pipe is empty, Empty pipe shutoff via external control
the full pipe detection function may still signals
indicate "pipe filled". This is the simplest and most reliable
method of empty pipe shutoff. It uses
Full pipe detection via the
information and control signals for pumps
flow profile test
and valves which exist in most plants.
When a pipeline is partially filled, the
flow profile is asymmetrical. There is Almost all EMF signal converters feature
less process liquid flowing in the upper binary control inputs. This allows the
part of the measuring tube than in the outputs to be set to "0" and the counter
lower part. to be stopped. Only the control signals
of the pumps or valves must be applied
The KROHNE IFC 300 signal converter
to the control input of the signal con-
can monitor the measuring tube for
verter.
complete filling using its diagnostic
function "flow profile test", regardless This method is simple and reasonable.
of electrical conductivity, viscosity and In addition, the empty pipe shutoff is
incrustations. Generally, the flow profile guaranteed regardless of the process
test only responds when the liquid level liquid properties such as conductiv-
has sunk below a value of approx. 75%. ity, viscosity and contamination in the
The empty pipe detector must then be measuring tube.
activated as well.
However, there is the risk that any vol-
ume that comes after the pumps have
been switched off, or while the valve was
closed, may not be measured. In addition,
the empty pipe detection must be slightly
delayed in relation to the starting of the
pump and opening of the valve so that
the pipeline is sufficiently filled before
measurement can start again.
169
8 The theory of electromagnetic flowmeters
170
The theory of electromagnetic flowmeters 8
liquid to a known fixed potential. To do This method is technically reliable and has
this, metal grounding rings or grounding been successfully used for decades.
discs where the inside face is in con-
The disadvantage to this method is that
tact with the process liquid are usually
costs are higher, for example, if special
used. These grounding rings are gener-
materials are required for aggressive
ally fitted between the pipeline and the
process liquids or when grounding rings
EMF flanges. Then, they are grounded
for extremely large sizes must be used.
along with the EMF sensor, as shown in
With larger potential differences between
Fig. 72.
the process liquid and earth in a system,
2 equalising currents run via the grounding
rings and earthing conductor.
1
Grounding the process liquid using
6 a grounding electrode
In this case, a grounding electrode lo-
cated in the base of the tube is directly
4
connected to the grounded housing of
the primary head.
3
5
7 The advantage of this method is that
FE
the grounding electrode generally costs
Fig. 72: Grounding the process liquid in pipelines less than the grounding ring.
with electrically insulated walls
171
8 The theory of electromagnetic flowmeters
destruction of the EMF primary head is The crucial advantage of this method
to be expected. In some circumstances, over the classical grounding electrode is
the process liquid may even leak out. that the reference electrode is no longer
exposed to electrolytic destruction by
8.7.2. Newer grounding methods way of potential differences in the sys-
without grounding the process liquid tem. In addition, with this method it is
also possible to use ungrounded EMFs
Newer methods for grounding process
in systems where voltages and currents
liquids include
are present in the pipelines. This is the
Floating grounding electrode to transfer case with, for example, electrolysis and
the reference potential of the process electroplating plants and systems with
liquid; cathodic protection.
Virtual grounding.
Virtual grounding
These newer grounding methods are The term "virtual grounding" may sound
described below. Of particular note is like this patented method does not re-
the virtual grounding method developed ally involve grounding. That is why the
by KROHNE. more technically precise term of "virtual
reference" is often used. Problems with
Floating grounding electrode
the conventional grounding of EMFs are
With this method, the grounding electrode
what triggered the development of virtual
in the base of the tube is no longer in
grounding by KROHNE. These problems
direct contact with the grounded housing
can be summarised as follows:
on the functional grounding of the primary
head. In this case, a floating electrode When it comes to extremely aggressive
transfers the potential of the process fluids, the grounding rings used with
liquid as reference potential to a high- conventional methods must usually be
impedance input at the signal converter. manufactured using expensive special
No measurable current runs through materials.
the floating reference electrode. In extreme cases, such as grounding
rings made of tantalum, costs may
equal those of the EMF itself.
172
The theory of electromagnetic flowmeters 8
173
8 The theory of electromagnetic flowmeters
For one thing, virtual grounding elimi- So, getting rid of grounding rings com-
nates the need for additional wetted pletely and instead using EMFs with vir-
grounding equipment such as grounding tual grounding is the most economical
rings and grounding electrodes. This solution in this case.
results in lower costs and an EMF that
EMFs with virtual grounding can also be
is much easier to install. This advan-
installed ungrounded in systems with
tage is not to be undervalued. It is often
cathodic protection, without running the
faulty or a lack of grounding altogether
risk of degrading the cathodic protection
that is the cause of errors when start-
through error currents.
ing up EMFs.
Virtual grounding facilitates and makes
In addition, potential differences in sys-
installing an EMF cheaper. The need
tems with virtual grounding do not run
for additional gaskets between ground-
the risk of destruction due to electrolytic
ing rings and flanges, as required with
action, as is often the case with ground-
the classic installation using grounding
ing electrodes. No equalising current
rings, is eliminated. The risk of leakage
runs through process liquid and ground
is also smaller.
conductor.
As a general rule, virtual grounding is
EMFs with virtual grounding can also
possible starting at DN 10 and at a con-
be used in systems in which voltages
ductivity of more than 200 S/cm. The
and currents are present in the pipeline,
conductivity of aggressive process liquids
as with, for example, electrolysis and
such as inorganic acids and caustics is
galvanic plants. Otherwise, due to the
exponentially higher.
highly aggressive media, special materi-
als such as tantalum, nickel or titanium EMFs with virtual grounding in the
must be used for the grounding rings or KROHNE IFC 300 signal converter can
grounding electrodes in such systems. be used in almost all systems in which
Grounding rings made of these special classical grounding with grounding rings
materials result in considerably higher is problematic in terms of the techno
costs for the measuring system. logy or cost.
174
The theory of electromagnetic flowmeters 8
175
8 The theory of electromagnetic flowmeters
176
The theory of electromagnetic flowmeters 8
9 6
7 10
2
8
3 3
1
4
177
8 The theory of electromagnetic flowmeters
Fig. 75 shows an example of surge pro- For pipelines with insulated walls, the
tection measures using the remote ver- appropriate grounding methods outlined
sion of KROHNE's OPTIFLUX 2300W with in Section 8.7.2 are to be used.
pipelines with non-coated inside walls.
.
8 14 15
6
9 10
11
4
13 1
5
12
7
3 3
179
8 The theory of electromagnetic flowmeters
- OIML R49-1
(for both cold and hot water);
180
The theory of electromagnetic flowmeters 8
181
9. Summary and outlook
9 Summary and outlook
In 2009, there were more than 3 million The wide range of use, high accuracy and
EMFs in use around the world. EMFs reliability of EMFs was made possible
play an important role, from water sup- by progress in a wide range of areas in
ply to the food and beverage industry technology.
right down to wastewater treatment.
One of these areas is, for example, coat-
The pipelines and sewer pipes of some
ing materials. The successful progress
mega-cities feature EMFs up to 3000
of EMFs in the chemical and food and
mm in size, measuring and totalising
beverage industries started when fluoro-
up to 100,000 m3/h.
plastics like PTFE and later PFA became
In steel mills, more than 100 EMFs available at reasonable prices. Only
monitor the cooling water circuits to when measuring tubes made of highly
furnaces and in strong magnetic fields dense engineered ceramics with their
to electric furnaces. appropriate stability became available
could EMFs be used in calibration rigs
Large chemical factories run several
and as flowmeters in volumetric filling
thousand EMFs around the clock. They
machines.
measure hot concentrated inorganic ac-
ids and caustics and are responsible Highly integrated switching circuits make
for mixing many products in the proper the P signal converters extremely stable,
proportions. user-friendly and provided them with a
variety of functions and interfaces.
In every pulp and paper factory, many
EMFs ensure that paper is produced in As with all measuring devices, KROHNE
an environmentally friendly manner, in will continue to take advantage of all
high quality and in sufficient quantity. of the technical trends as well as set
One large paper machine alone uses their own trends to constantly expand
up to 200 EMFs. the range of application of EMFs.
184
References
186
References
187
References
188
References
Magnetisch-induktiver Durch-
flussmesser mit strmungsopti-
mierendem Messrohr.
In: Chemietechnik, No. 5, p. 142f.
189
References
190
References
191
References
192
Alphabetical index
A C
B chemical 105ff.
resistance
back pressure 132ff.
(dynamic pres- communication 29, 34, 86, 157ff.
sure) (interface)
194
Alphabetical index
DVGW W420 79, 179 error (measure 29, 40ff., 114, 124
(= ISO 13359) ment error,
measuring
Dynamic 132ff. accuracy)
pressure (back
pressure) error modes 48
Flow probes 91
195
Alphabetical index
196
Alphabetical index
M N
197
Alphabetical index
198
Alphabetical index
start-up thresh- 43 W
old (low flow WIB-SIREP 42, 161
cutoff)
testing 46
equipment
199