LGBT+ MEDIA REPRESENTATION 1

Running Head: LGBT+ MEDIA REPRESENTATION

Adverse Psychosocial Effects of LGBT+ Underrepresentation in Movies and TV

Elizabeth C. Snyder

Glen Allen High School

 LGBT+ MEDIA REPRESENTATION 2

Abstract

Researchers have identified and analyzed specific adverse psychosocial developments

among LGBT+ individuals, such as internalized homophobia, as being particularly harmful to

LGBT+ youth. The extent to which media representation, or lack thereof, contributes to this self-

hate phenomenon has been established through behaviors and concepts researchers are already

familiar with. These include self-efficacy, self-confidence, as well as maladaptive and self-

destructive behaviors. The connection between media underrepresentation and higher mental

distress is a lack of positive role models LGBT+ youth can identify with. This paper explores

that connection in relation to Americas heteronormative society.

Introduction

Media has been dominated by white, straight, cis-gender men since its creation. Over

time, gender demographics in TV shows and movies have come close to accurately representing

United States gender percentages. Racial representation is also on the rise as producers gain

consciousness of the racial divide among television and film characters. But sexual orientation

representation is commonly overlooked by both producers and consumers. This occurs despite

empirical data proving time and time again the extent of LGBT+ underrepresentation.

LGBT+ media representation negatively affects the gay community in two distinct

manners: misrepresentation and underrepresentation. Misrepresentation contributes to and

reinforces a heteronormative society which feeds into internalized homophobia.

Underrepresentation manifests itself through an absence of positive role models for LGBT+

youth, therefore decreasing self-efficacy and self-confidence. A lack of media representation of

LGBT+ characters spurs on both societal and individual phenomena that encourage maladaptive

behaviors among LGBT+ individuals.

 LGBT+ MEDIA REPRESENTATION 3

Societal Causes

Cultural and societal phenomena -- including heteronormative societies, gender and

sexuality binaries, and the stigmatization of homosexuality as a mental illness -- encourage

LGBT+ mistreatment in the media and the community.

The root of representation problems is our continually reinforced heteronormative

society. A heteronormative society is when a society or culture promotes same-sex relationships

both consciously and subconsciously in connection to the gender and sexuality binary

(Williamson, 2000). It promotes homophobia, homonegativism, and heterosexism, all of which

contribute to the alienation of LGBT+ individuals from a collective, societal schema (Wilde,

2014). When LGBT+ individuals cannot see evidence of their normality or function in society it

is, not surprisingly, easy to start down a path towards self-hate. This society is continually

reinforced and defined by pop-culture, but can be redefined by proper media representation of

marginalized groups.

Along with a heteronormative society, the LGBT+ community suffers from a strict

gender and sexuality binary. The gender binary is built on the foundation that femininity and

masculinity can only exist in the context of their respective opposites (Kronz, 2015). It is

reinforced by bathroom iconography, while gendered bathrooms normalize the gender binary

(Ingrey, 2012). Due to this strict and pervasive gender binary, there are very few transgender

characters in TV shows and movies. For example, of the 17.5% of LGBT+ characters featured in

2016 major studio releases, only 5% were transgender; in total, 0.875% of characters were

transgender (Bradford et. al., 2016). The gender binary promotes the erasure of many individuals

within the LGBT+ community, specifically transgender and other gender nonconforming people,

which has resulted in a decreased media presence.

 LGBT+ MEDIA REPRESENTATION 4

Sexuality is similarly measured on an either/or scale: an individual is either attracted to

the same or opposite gender. Despite this societal misconception, the majority of LGBT+

individuals identify as bisexual rather than strictly homosexual (Ellis, 2016). As gender and

sexuality are commonly thought of as binary, bisexuality and gender fluidity are erased from our

societal schema for gender and sexuality. There is a resulting disparity among existing LGBT+

characters; of the 17.5% of LGBT+ characters in major motion pictures, 77% of characters were

gay men, 23% were lesbians, and only 9% were bisexuals (Bradford et. al., 2016).

Conversion therapy serves as a concrete indication of a heteronormative and homophobic

societal schema of the LGBT+ community. When efforts are made toreverse an individuals

sexuality, those individuals begin to perceive their sexual orientation as something akin to mental

illness (Ellis, 2016). Many times, anti-LGBT+ activists believe people should be allowed to enter

into conversion therapy so they can live according to their religious beliefs, all the while

overlooking the fact that many participants are minors forced into the program.

It has been over forty years since homosexuality was removed from the DSM. In 2013,

the APA condemned the treatment of homosexuality. They cited depression, anxiety, and self-

destructive behaviors as potential risks because the so-called therapy resulted in reinforcing a

patients self-hatred (Ellis, 2016). Despite denouncement from renowned child psychologists,

only six states are actively taking steps to ban the harmful practice on anyone under 18 years of

age. Conversion therapys continual existence implies Americas disregard for the collective

mental well-being of the LGBT+ community.

The Medias Role

The current lack of LGBT+ characters in films and TV is a result of the societal factors

discussed above; and the media has a distinct effect on individuals and society at large. This
 LGBT+ MEDIA REPRESENTATION 5

means that poor media representation of any one minority group contributes to that groups self-

perception of otherness.

A good deal of statistical evidence proves LGBT+ individuals underrepresentation in all

types of media. In a 2016 surveying of major motion pictures, only 17.5% of major studio

releases featured LGBT+ characters (Bradford et. al., 2016). On primetime scripted broadcast

television, 4.8% of repeating characters were LGBT+ in the 2016-2017 season (Carranza et. al.,

2016). On top of this, 73%, of LGBT+ characters had less than ten minutes total on screen

(Bradford et. al., 2016).

Gender nonconformity is also extremely underrepresented in media. Out of the 4% of

LGBT+ characters on cable television, only 2% were transgender; this means a total of 0.08% of

cable TV characters were transgender in 2015 (Kane et. al., 2015). Also, 44% of gender

nonconformity in films can be attributed to cross-dressing, with a limited amount of transgender

and gender variant characters. But the main purpose of nonconforming and cross-dressing

characters was humor rather than self or identity exploration. Most humor was at the expense of

femininity, therefore perpetuating the existing stereotypes of the gender binary by giving power

to masculinity (Kronz, 2015).

Similar to masculinity and femininity, homosexuality and heterosexuality can only exist

in relation with one another as they serve as interdependent opposites in which ones absence

defines the other (Kronz, 2015). Because our United States societal framework of sexuality

currently consists of same-sex and opposite-sex relationships, it makes it difficult to see and

understand an individuals desire for both, neither, or other genders (Wilde, 2014). Following the

Obergefell Supreme Court decision legalizing gay marriage a Time article used the phrases

same-sex couples and lesbian and gay frequently without once using bisexual or
 LGBT+ MEDIA REPRESENTATION 6

acknowledging that not all LGBT+ individuals identify as lesbian or gay. This effectively frames

bisexuality outside of the social and political frame of thought (Wilde, 2014).

The resulting bisexual erasure is reflected in LGBT+ representation. Of the overall 4% of

regular LGBT+ characters on broadcast television, only 20% of them were bisexual (Kane et. al.,

2015). The percentage of LGBT+ characters who were bisexual in major studio releases, 9%, is

far lower than the 51% of the LGBT+ community who self-identify as bisexual (Ellis, 2016). As

a subheading of underrepresentation, bisexual erasure is an example of inaccurate representation

within the few existing LGBT+ characters. A majority of LGBT+ individuals self-identify as

bisexual, yet the vast majority of LGBT+ characters are gay men (Ellis, 2016). This results in

stereotypes and general misunderstanding of what is a very large community.

Researchers call the previously discussed underrepresentation absolute invisibility

meaning there is a total absence of representation (Gomillion et. al., 2015). Absolute

invisibility limits the groups identity by limiting the available schematic representations of

possible selves (Gomillion et. al., 2015). Misrepresentation, or relative invisibility, is an

absence of rich, positive representation (Gomillion et. al., 2015). Relative invisibility limits

schematic representation and causesnegatively represented group members to question their

individual and societal value (Gomillion et. al., 2015). Misrepresentation of LGBT+ individuals

in the media is equally damaging to the gay community as it promotes self-hatred and breeds

contempt from non-LGBT+ media consumers.

Many times LGBT+ characters are portrayed as shallow, sexually promiscuous,

villainous, and deceitful. These characters are regularly defined by their sexuality, and lack depth

and proper character development (Bradford et. al., 2016). Bisexual characters are typically

depicted as being untrustworthy, lacking morality, manipulative, self-destructive, and unable to

 LGBT+ MEDIA REPRESENTATION 7

form long-lasting relationships (Kane et. al., 2015). Bisexuals are also often stereotyped as

confused and inauthentic: either a precursor to settling on one sexual identity or oscillating

between the two in a way that suggests promiscuity, untrustworthiness, and indecisiveness

(Wilde, 2014). Possibly related to high levels of misrepresentation, bisexual individuals are more

likely to adapt self-destructive behaviors. Studies have shown that bisexual people are more

likely to binge drink, self-harm, and have suicidal ideation than gay, lesbian, or heterosexual

people (Ellis, 2016).

The GLAAD organization, formerly called the Gay and Lesbian Alliance Against

Defamation, developed the Vito Russo Test to help filmmakers create representative,

multidimensional LGBT+ characters. The most important qualification is that these characters

must be important enough to the film or TV show that their removal would have a significant

effect on the plot (Bradford et. al., 2016). In 2016, just 36% of the 17.5% of films with LGBT+

characters passed the test; that is only 6.3% of all films (Bradford et. al., 2016). Improper

representation of LGBT+ characters has its own problems as it shapes and reshapes negative

stereotypes about LGBT+ individuals. This then contributes to both internal and external

homophobic sources, as many times heterosexual viewers form their sole impression of the

LGBT+ community through figures in the media.

In a survey taken during a Pride march, LGBT+ community members frequently noted

stereotyping and negative portrayals of LGBT+ characters even in media designed for an

LGBT+ audience (Gomillion et. al., 2015). Stereotypical media portrayals isolate LGBT+

individuals from their identity and the gay community if they themselves do not match a

specified stereotype. Also, negative LGBT+ portrayals create a lasting impression on

heterosexuals. Only 16% of people know someone who is transgender, meaning stereotypical
 LGBT+ MEDIA REPRESENTATION 8

and/or defamatory media portrayals of transgender people is the only image most people have

(Ellis, 2016). Therefore, misrepresentation and underrepresentation contribute to multiple

sources of discomfort and distress in LGBT+ peoples lives.

Adverse Psychosocial Effects

Statistically proven underrepresentation and misrepresentation of LGBT+ individuals

does not occur without negatively affecting the LGBT+ community. A negative media presence

diminishes peoples mental health and lends itself to maladaptive and self-injurious behaviors.

The connection between media representation and poor mental health can be concretely

explained by past psychological research conducted in regards to role models. Role models set

children up for higher self-efficacy and self-confidence. But in order to capitalize on role

models positive effects, children must relate to their role models through common identifiers

(Gomillion et. al., 2015).

Studies show that people are more likely to have high self-esteem if they share many

character traits with their role models, and that exposing children to same-sex storybook

characters who are strong, positive role models enhanced childrens positive self-concepts

(Gomillion et. al., 2015). Similar studies discovered an increase in self-efficacy and self-

confidence among individuals with strong role models. LGBT+ study participants felt as if their

identity expression was being limited and consequently viewed themselves as less valuable

(Gomillion et. al., 2015). Therefore, a lack of positive LGBT+ role models in TV and film

contributes to higher mental distress in the gay community by not providing LGBT+ youth with

the opportunity to increase their self-efficacy and self-confidence.

Internalized homophobia is the most prevalent effect of a heteronormative society and

poor media representation. Most define internalized homophobia as an individuals direction of

 LGBT+ MEDIA REPRESENTATION 9

negative social attitudes (homophobia) towards the self, leading to poor self-image and internal

conflicts (Williamson, 2000). Internalization aligns with Allports theory of Traits Due to

Victimization. Allport suggested that stigmatized individuals portray either introverted or

extroverted defense mechanisms. Introverted defense mechanisms, such as self-denigration and

identification with the aggressor, fall in line with todays perception of internalized homophobia

(Allport, 1954). Internalized homophobia manifests itself in poor mental health, high mental

distress, and low self-esteem. This in turn causes lower quality of life and maladaptive behaviors

among LGBT+ individuals.

As a contemporary psychological concept, researchers needed to design tests to

qualitatively measure internalized homophobia. The most popular current texts are the Martin

and Dean Test, the Nungesser Homosexuality Attitudes Inventory, and the Ross and Rosser

Scale. (Williamson, 2000). Following the tests implementation, research uncovered a

statistically significant relationship between scaled internalized homophobia and

demoralization, guilt, sex difficulties, suicide ideation and/or behavior, and AIDs related

traumatic stress response as well as depression and alcohol consumption (Williamson, 2000).

This proves internalized homophobias existence and begins to unravel the extent to which

internal and external homophobia affect LGBT+ peoples lives.

Minority stress is a component of internalized homophobia and is just as common, if not

more so, among the LGBT+ community. Minority stress is defined as a psychosocial stress

derived from membership of a low status minority group (Williamson, 2000). It is a heightened

vulnerability stemming from subjection to unique stressors caused by a real or perceived

minority status (Shilo et. al., 2014). Its effects are additive to the commonly adverse

psychosocial effects associated with internalized homophobia. Coupled with internalized

 LGBT+ MEDIA REPRESENTATION 10

homophobia, minority stress creates a constant state of panic, fear, and anxiety that is crippling

to an individuals psyche.

Internalized homophobia manifests itself in maladaptive and self-injurious behaviors

such as substance abuse, eating disorders, self-mutilation, and suicidality (Williamson, 2000).

Researchers discovered a statistically significant link between poor mental health (e.g. suicide

ideation/behavior) and stressors (e.g. violence, bullying, harassment) due to sexual-orientation

(Shilo et. al., 2014). These are dangerous behaviors that are much more common among LGBT+

individuals than the general population. LGBT+ youth experience higher levels of violence,

victimization, and bullying which lead to lower self-esteem as well as social and academic

competencies. LGBT+ youth also have significantly lower average confidence than heterosexual

youth. (Coulter et. al., 2016). As a result young lesbians and gay men are at a greater risk for

attempted suicide if they discover their sexuality in early adolescence, experience a negative

coming out reactions, or sexuality-orientated victimization (Williamson, 2000).

High-risk behaviors are also much more common in LGBT+ spheres. LGBT+ individuals

are 1.5x more likely to engage in physical risk behavior and 1.2x more likely to engage in sexual

risk behavior (Shilo et. al., 2014). These behaviors are another side-effect of media

representation, heteronormativity, and internalized homophobia. Allowing the media and society

as a whole to put LGBT+ individuals in a position that promotes poor mental health proves the

undervalued status of the LGBT+ community.

Possible Solutions

There are feasible practices that have the potential to minimize the mental health effects

of poor media representation and a heteronormative society that devalues LGBT+ individuals.

Certain coping mechanisms have been proven to help LGBT+ youth experience less mental
 LGBT+ MEDIA REPRESENTATION 11

distress. Teaching and encouraging people to participate in these resources would eventually

develop a more accepting and positive environment for LGBT+ youth to grow up in.

Environmental and societal factors such as familial support and increased visibility of

LGB role models and access to LGB-affirming media would allow LGBT+ individuals to

healthily develop in a way similar to heterosexual youth (Shepler et. al., 2014). Minority

stressors and internalized homophobia can be alleviated by strong support systems and

connectedness to the LGBT+ community. These coping resources have been shown to be

significantly correlated with mental distress and well-being (Shilo et. al., 2014).

Local, state, and federal legislative action must also be taken to protect the LGBT+

community and set a precedent of LGBT+ acceptance. Currently, only 18 states protect LGBT+

individuals in employment, housing, and public accommodations. In total, only 48% of the

American LGBT+ population is protected. A vast majority, 86%, of transgender people reported

facing either serious or catastrophic discrimination. Transgender people and transgender people

of color are disproportionately affected by hate violence, face high levels of discrimination and

poverty (Ellis, 2016).

Many defense attorneys use gay panic or transgender panic to alleviate the

responsibility of hate crime perpetrators. The gay panic and transgender panic defenses blame

the victims sexual orientation or gender identity for the defendant's violent reaction. In 2013

American bar association issued a statement urging judges to curtail the availability and

effectiveness of such defenses, but they continue (Ellis, 2016). Legislation to protect the

LGBT+ community is currently lacking. Promoting the protection of LGBT+ individuals on an

administrative level would encourage a culture and society that accepts the LGBT+ community
 LGBT+ MEDIA REPRESENTATION 12

more openly. The normalization of LGBT+ acceptance could in turn lead to less mental distress

and more media representation.

The public can hold the media accountable by quantifying LGBT+ representation in

movies and TV shows. A simultaneous popularization of the Vito Russo Test, as well as other

tests that measure the quality of LGBT+ characters, would counteract misrepresentation. LGBT+

media presence normalizes self-identity and creates a positive public perception therefore

affecting an individuals idea about how their coming out will be taken (Gomillion et. al., 2015).

By holding the media accountable for proper representation and publishing the findings, the

media (both TV and film) would have a higher incentive for representing the LGBT+ community

appropriately.

Conclusion

LGBT+ media representation negatively affects the gay community in two distinct

manners: misrepresentation and underrepresentation. Misrepresentation contributes to and

reinforces a heteronormative society which feeds into internalized homophobia.

Underrepresentation manifests itself through an absence of positive role models for LGBT+

youth, therefore decreasing self-efficacy and self-confidence. A lack of media representation of

LGBT+ characters spurs on both societal and individual phenomena that encourage maladaptive

behaviors among LGBT+ individuals.

 LGBT+ MEDIA REPRESENTATION 13

References

Allport, G. W., & Mazal Holocaust Collection. (1954). The nature of prejudice. Cambridge,

Mass: Addison-Wesley Pub. Co.

Bradford, R., Stokes, Z., & Townsend, M. (2016). Studio responsibility index 2016. GLAAD.

Brooks, D. E., & Hbert, L. P. (2006). Gender, race, and media representation. The SAGE

handbook of gender and communication (16).

Carranza, A., Garcia, I., Shivkumar, T. (2016). Where we are on TV 2016. GLAAD.

Coulter, R. S., Herrick, A. L., Friedman, M. R., & Ron D. Stall, R. D. (2016). Sexual-orientation

differences in positive youth development: the mediational role of bullying victimization.

American journal of public health, 106(4), 691-197.

Ellis, K. S. (2016). GLAAD media reference guide 10th edition. GLAAD.

Gomillion, S. C., Giuliano, T. A. (2015). The influence of media role models on gay, lesbian,

and bisexual identity. Journal of homosexuality, 58, 330-354.

Ingrey, J. C. (2012). The public school washroom as analytic space for troubling gender:

investigating the spatiality of gender through students self-knowledge. Routledge, 24(7),

799-817.

Kane, M., Stokes, Z., & Townsend, M. (2015). Where we are on TV 2015. GLAAD.

Kronz, V. (2015). Women with beards and men in frocks: gender nonconformity in modern

American film. Sexuality & culture, 20, 85-110.

Santos, A. C. (2016). In the old days, there were no gays - democracy, social change and media

representation of sexual diversity. International journal of Iberian studies, 29(2), 157-

172.
 LGBT+ MEDIA REPRESENTATION 14

Shepler, D., & Perrone-McGovern, K. (2014). Differences in psychological distress and esteem

based on sexual identity development. Project innovation, inc., 579-589.

Shilo, G., & Mor, Z. (2014). The impact of minority stressors on mental and physical health of

lesbian, gay, and bisexual youths and young adults. Health and social work, 39(3), 161-

171.

Wilde, J. (2014). Dimensional sexuality: exploring new frameworks for bisexual desires. Sexual

and relationship therapy, 29(3), 320-338.

Williamson, I. R. (2000). Internalized homophobia and health issues affecting lesbians and gay

men. Health education research, 15(1), 91-107.