MOTION
CONTROL A Design World Resource
MOTION CONTROL TIPS
GETTING DOWN TO THE BASICS OF
MOTION CONTROL
The editors of Design World present
some of the most commonly asked
questions about motion control
components in this exclusive white
paper covering issues such as the
difference between PC-based and
stand-alone controllers and the basics
of absolute and incremental encoders.
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TA B L E O F C O N T E N T S
What are gearmotors and what do they do? ......... 2
What are hardware and software parts
of a PC-based motion controller?........................... 3
What are stepper drives and how do they work?... 6
What is the difference between
absolute and incremental encoders?...................... 8
How do linear stepper motors
compare to familiar rotary types?......................... 10
What types of linear encoders are there
and how do I choose?.......................................... 12
How are servo motors physically
different from motors that run open loop?........... 14
What is settling time in a
motor-driven servo system?.................................. 16
How do PC-based controls differ
from traditional motion controls?......................... 18
Whats the difference between
contouring and point-to-point motion?................ 21
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What are gearmotors and what do they do?

A gearmotor is a single component that integrates a gear application because certain combinations are more
reducer with either an ac or dc electric motor. Thanks to efficient and cost-effective than others. This is why
its gearset, a gearmotor can deliver high torque at low knowing the application and getting an accurate
horsepower or low speed. estimation of its required
torque and operating
Gearmotors are most speeds is the foundation for
common in applications successfully integrating a
that need a lot of force gearmotor into a system.
to move heavy objects.
Most industrial gearmotors Typically, gearmotors
incorporate fixed-speed outperform other motor-
ac motors. However, some gear combinations.
gearmotors use dc motors, More importantly,
which are common in gearmotors simplify design
automotive applications implementation because
in adjustable side-view they save engineers from
mirrors and automatic seat integrating motors with
adjustments. gears, which in turn reduces
engineering costs. If the
Gearmotor designs can application requirements
mix and match motors and are known, engineers can
gears as needed to best fit order the right gearmotor
These gearmotors from Baldor illustrate the variety of
application requirements. from a supplier directly.
options available to engineers, such as inline designs
However, housing design, and right-angle gearmotors with different types of
assembly gearings, gear integrated gearing. Whats more, if a
lubrication, and the specific gearmotor is sized
mode of integration properly, having the right
all affect gearmotor performance. Motor and gear- combination of motor and gearing can prolong design
reducer combinations abound: For example, right-angle life and boost overall design efficiency. Gearmotors
wormgear, planetary and parallel shaft gears can be can also eliminate the need for couplings and potential
combined with permanent-magnet dc, ac induction, or alignment problems that come with those components.
brushless dc motors to form a gearmotor unit. Such problems are common when a design includes the
connection of a separate motor and gear reducer
Though its possible to combine many different motors which in turn increases the potential for misalignment
and gearsets, not just any one will work for every and bearing failure.

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What are the hardware and software parts

of a PC-based motion controller?

Physically, a PC-based controller

is made up the same kinds of
hardware components as most
personal computers a processor,
some memory and an interface bus.

The interface bus is a high-speed

dedicated bus that provides all
types of information to and from
the processor.

In personal computing, the

hardware I/O consists of a keyboard
and monitor.

The keyboard is an array of low

voltage mechanical switches with
an encoder to convert the switch
inputs to data that the PC can deal
Some PC-based controllers take traditional industrial forms. This
with as symbols and alpha-numeric CX9000 embedded PC from Beckhoff is a high-performance but
characters. The monitor is an array of pixels with color cost-effective PLC and motion control for DIN rail installation.
and brightness attributes.

PCs communicate through a variety of networks
and can import and display various types of data,
including audio and video information.
Various types of memory in the personal computer
supports program execution, for video support and short
term storage needs for other tasks.
Using an industrial computer for control applications
requires the same inputs and outputs as a personal
computer with the addition of interfacing to the
various device types found on the factory floor.
switches, various types of sensors, electric motors, hydraulic
actuators, and so on. Hard-disk memory stores long-term
values such as recipes values or production metrics. Whats
more, like the personal computer, industrial computers have
sophisticated communications capabilities with multiple ports
that can host standard Ethernet or proprietary protocols.
PC-based controller software has two major
components:
The operating system (OS), which manages the
internal processing and resources of the PC

Typical inputs and outputs found in manufacturing include The user application software, which creates the target
discrete sensors, pushbuttons, pilot lights, mechanical behavior in a particular machine or process control system.

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This APC820 from B&R Automation integrates a drive and PC with Core 2 Duo
processors and a Smart Display Link to connect up to four HMIs.
Control programming languages vary from the various
computer science disciplines (C, C+, Visual Basic, and so
on) to more application-specific languages such
as the five classic languages recognized in IEC 61131
Ladder Diagram, Instruction List, Function Block Diagram,
Structured Texas and Sequential Function Chart languages.
There are major differences between industrial PCs
and desktop PCs that are the result of the industrial
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CONTROL A Design World Resource
environment. Plant floor conditions
vary from location to location, but
for vendors who want to sell control
products to industry, high standards of
environmental resistance are required.
Factory floor frequently means high
operating temperatures, dirt and dust
in the environment, electrical noise and
shock and vibration.
As part of the effort to make
PC hardware rugged enough
for industrial control, some
equipment manufacturers thermally
engineer their control boards to
safely operate without fans in
environments to 50 C.
Control equipment manufacturers have
had to migrate operating systems for
reliability and stable operation. Past
versions of Windows were not suitable
to host control software which
created the need for a realtime operating
system (RTOS). With the widespread
deployment of Linux and other stable
operating systems, programming
industrial control solutions is extremely
stable. More after the jump.
Because PC-based controls generally involve high volume
chip sets and fewer custom or proprietary structures,
they tend to be very cost effective. With the increased
compute power of PC based platforms, even the most
demanding control systems can be implemented using
PCs. Coordinated motion control like robots, which are
usually extremely demanding, have been hosted on PC
based controls very successfully.
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Some background on PC controls in plain English
Traditional industrial controls have evolved with the
availability of electronic hardware and programming
environments. The first were CNCs in the 1950s and
then PLCs in the 1960s. Once electronics capabilities
expanded, the controls-hardware landscape got really
messy. So today, engineers can program any application
on a PC.
he main challenge for PC-controls engineers was to
first get a stable operating system, as Windows was
not robust enough. Today, Linux and newer Windows
iterations fit the bill.
Next, PC-controls engineers had to get hardware
environmentally stable enough to survive the industrial
environment. Typical conditions include temperatures from
-40 to 100 F, high humidity, lots of shock and vibration,
dust and dirt, and chemical contamination. It wasnt
possible to bring desktops of that generation to the factory
floor, especially if they used the floppy disks of the day.
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CONTROL A Design World Resource
In fact, both hardware and software have
progressed together over the last 20 years, so that
new iterations of both have slowly changed the
rules of PC-controls engineering.
For OEMs and end users, thats meant ever-increasing
performance at ever-falling cost. In most cases,
consumer-grade electronics has accelerated industrial-PC
advancements.
Industrial PCs have been around for a long time. In fact,
the entirety of Beckhoffs PLC line uses Intel dual-core
processors.
Whats more, in todays PC-based control technology,
any processor can process any number of tasks, whether
its a PLC, motion, CNC, or DCS task as the hardware
doesnt care. In contrast, end users do care, as they need
programming tools that are familiar. Thats the main
reason why ladder logic continues to exist though in
truth, todays average cellphone has more computing
power than the biggest Contrologix 5000.
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What are stepper drives and how do they work?

A stepper drive is the driver circuit that controls how the Two-phase-on driving gets no finer resolution than one-
stepper motor operates. Stepper drives work by sending phase on, but it does produce more torque.
current through various phases in pulses to the stepper
motor. There are four types: wave drives (also called one- One-two phase-on driving has its name for the way the
phase-on drives), two-phase on, one-two phase-on drives drive energizes either 1 or 2 phases at any specific time. In
and microstepping drives. this driving method, also known as half-stepping, the drive
energizes pole A (shown in green) then energizes poles
Wave or one-phase-on A and B then energizes pole B and so forth.
drives work with only one
phase turned on at a time.
Consider the illustration
below. When the drive
energizes pole A (a south
pole) shown in green, it
attracts the north pole
of the rotor. Then when
the drive energizes B and
switches A off, the rotor rotates 90 and this continues
as the drive energizes each pole one at a time.

Engineers rarely use wave driving: it is inefficient and

provides little torque, because only one phase of the motor
engages at a time.

Two-phase-on driving
has its name because
two phases are on One-two phase-on driving delivers finer motion
at a time. If the drive resolutions. When two phases are on, the motor
energizes both A and produces more torque. One caveat here: torque ripple is
B poles as south poles a concern because it may cause resonance and vibration.
(shown in green), then
the rotors north pole Related to one-two phase-on driving is microstepping.
attracts to both equally
and aligns in the Microstepping delivers very fine motion resolutions.
middle of the two. As Here, the drive uses current regulation to prevent torque
the energizing sequence continues on like this, the rotor oscillations. With this technique, engineers can use
continuously ends up aligning in-between two poles. stepper motors in more applications.

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In sort, a drive that is microstepping increases and
decreases current along a sine wave, so no pole is fully on
or off. Here is a sample microstepping sine-wave current:
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Note the subtle jagged contour of the sine-wave
current. While microstepping doesnt necessarily improve
accuracy, it does get higher resolution than other driving
modeswhich is particularly
helpful for applications in which
the motor goes through no-load
situations. During operation,
motors can miss steps. However,
microstepping spreads energy
out instead of delivering it to
the motor all at once, which can
cause ringing and overshoot.
For all of these forms of driving, the
motors can have different windings.
Unipolar motors only accept positive
voltage. Unipolar requires an extra
wire in the middle of every coil to
let current flow from one end to the
other. Bipolar stepper motors use
both positive and negative voltage.
Bipolar stepper motors have more
torque because they produce a
stronger magnetic field, but their
construction also requires more wire.
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What is the difference between absolute
and incremental encoders?
Rotary encoders track speed and
position. Absolute and incremental
encoders both do this, but operate
differently and have different
methods of implementation.
Rotary incremental encoders work
by generating a series of pulses
during movement. The encoder disc
(sporting marks or slots) attaches
to a power-transmission shaft, and
a stationary pickup device mounts
nearby. When the shaft and disc
turn, the pickup tracks the motion
to output the relative position. Such
encoders generally supply square-
wave signals in two channels that are
offset from each other by 90 in
other words, out of phase by 90.
Each increment of rotation spurs an
output signal.
Note that rotary incremental
encoders begin counting from zero
each time the encoder powers
up, and electronics store the data
in an external buffer or counter.
This is true regardless of where
the shaft actually is radially. As
such, incremental encoders must
always come back to a reference
point. This must occur both when
the machine initially starts and
whenever something interrupts
its power supply. Here, battery
backups can help eliminate the need
for re-homing after shutdowns.
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This representation of an incremental
encoder disc shows how the
openings (or marks) on the code
wheel lets a pickup track its angular
position. Any rotation spurs an
output signal.
This disc is typical for an absolute
encoder. Image courtesy Danaher
Industrial ControlsDynapar.
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CONTROL A Design World Resource
Incremental encoders are generally
simpler and cheaper than absolute
encoders.
Absolute encoders have an encoder
disc (sporting marks or slots) on
a power-transmission shaft and a
stationary pickup, but the disc marks
output a unique code for each
shaft position. Absolute encoders
are either single-turn or multi turn
encoders. Single turn absolute
encoders can verify position within a
single turn of the encoder shaft. This
makes them useful for short travel
situations. In contrast, multiple-turn
absolute encoders are better for
more complex or longer positioning
situations.
Engineers generally classify absolute
encoders by the number of their
output bits, which correlates to the
number of the discs tracksand the
maximum rotary angle the encoder
registers. More after the jump.
Absolute rotary encoders have the
advantage of non-volatile memory.
That is, they do not lose track of
positioning even when power fails.
So even if something moves the
machine shaft when power is off,
an absolute encoder keeps track of
the rotary-position change when the
machine powers on again. Usually,
electronics store this information as
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binary code, ideally Gray binary code. Absolute rotary

encoders can operate point-to-point as well. They are
useful in situations where safety is a concern, because
they position whenever machines power on. Immunity to
electoral noise is another benefit. One caveat: absolute
rotary encoders are generally more expensive than
incremental encoders. However, the cost of absolute
encoders has steadily decreased over the last decade, and
thats driven steady increase of their use.

This encoder from US Digital

has a hollow-bore design for
easier mounting in industrial
applications. Single-turn
absolute encoders repeat
output every revolution
of the encoders shaft. In
contrast, multi-turn absolute
encoders output a different
signal for each shaft
position through thousands
of shaft rotations.

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How do linear stepper motors compare
to familiar rotary types?
Stepper motors go into linear actuators in two different ways:
Stepper motors that are traditional rotary motors couple
to mechanical rotary-to-linear motion devices (often in
the form of a threaded shaft that mates with traversing
nut or carriage) to produce linear motion. In this actuator
setup, the motor output shaft usually couples to the
screw to turn it and advance the nut (or carriage) and
attached load. These are usually small designs that go
into consumer products or small-stroke applications in
industrial machines.
In contrast, true linear stepper motorswhich this FAQ
covers in more depthfunction much like linear-motor
types but leverage the same mode of operation as
rotary stepper motors to produce linear motion. More
specifically, traditional linear-stepper motors (using
variable-reluctance operation) have a moving carriage
called a forcer with a permanent magnet, laminated
steel cores (which the manufacturer cuts into teeth) and
coils around the laminated cores. This forcer engages
Linear stepper motors are stiff and
reliable linear actuators that output
smooth motion. Putting platens
end-to-end makes for potentially
unlimited stroke.
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a straight and stationary track called a platen. This
linear-stepper part is mostly steel bar cores (which the
manufacturer cuts into teeth and plates with nickel). For
super-long strokes, installers can put multiple platens
end-to-end and have the forcer ride on all of them.
Summary of linear stepper motors
Engineers most commonly use these linear actuators
in larger installations; on axes that move heavier
loads; and in high-end medical or material-handling
applications such as pick-and-place machinery that
require extremely high precision. Like rotary equivalents,
linear stepper motors either use a variable reluctance
(just described) or a hybrid mode of operation. A hybrid
linear-stepper platen is like that of a variable-reluctance
linear stepper. In contrast, the forcer has multiple
permanent magnets, magnetic U-shaped cores (with
coils around them) and a steel yoke.
Whether run open or closed loop, linear stepper motors
output motion with repeatability and resolution. Whats
more, linear steppers arent subject to wear. Nor does
stalling damage them. The attractive force from the
magnet preloads the assembly and lets engineers use
these in myriad orientations. Linear stepper motors can
also use changes in switched excitation (in one more
phases) to get precise steps.
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Summary of rotary-stepper-driven axes
When engineers use rotary-stepper-driven axes instead
of linear stepper motors, they face a different set of
design considerations. For starters, the engineer must
pick the leadscrews lead and pitch. Lead defines the
distance a screw thread advances in one revolution. Pitch
is the distance between adjacent threads. A small lead
with more threads per inch outputs higher force and
resolution; large leads (or fewer threads) output lower
force but higher speed.
Screws also have their own inertia. In setups where the
motor body houses the screw-engaging nut, this inertia
increases as the screw extends which in turn reduces
maximum design speed. In fact, its fairly common for
stepper-driven leadscrews to have embedded drive
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CONTROL A Design World Resource
nuts. Even where the setup takes a more traditional
arrangementwith the nut outside the motor, and
fixed to rails that bear the loads the axis advances
nut material selection is another design consideration.
Engineers must ask: will this axis experience heat and the
effects of friction? Plastic exhibits low friction but cannot
withstand high heat; bronze nuts resist heat but have a
high coefficient of friction.
One final note on rotary-stepper-driven axes: Because
these actuators incorporate mechanical components,
they exhibit wear and life limitations. That said, when
engineers properly size for the load and create a
forgiving operating environment (with low humidity,
protection from harsh chemicals and dirt, and controlled
temperature) rotary-stepper-driven exhibit long lifeto
millions of cycles.
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What types of linear encoders are

there and how do I choose?

Linear encoders monitor linear movement and provide The output for absolute and incremental encoders
position feedback in the form of electrical signals. In differs and is also a consideration for integration into
servo driven systems, linear encoders supply the precise the systems control scheme. Absolute linear encoders
position of the load, typically in addition to the speed produce a digital output, or word, that signifies the
and direction feedback provided by the motors rotary units actual position. Resolution for an absolute encoder
encoder. For stepper driven systems, which typically is determined by the number of bits in the word.
operate in open-loop mode with no position feedback,
adding a linear encoder increases the accuracy and Incremental encoders produce quadrature output, with
reliability of the positioning system without the cost and two channels that are 90 degrees out of phase. (The two
complexity of a servo motor. channel output allows both position and direction to
be monitored. If only position is needed, then only one
Linear encoder feedback: Absolute or incremental channel is used.) Some incremental encoders produce
a third channel with a single pulse, to be used as the
When selecting a linear encoder, the first thing to index or reference position for homing. The number
consider is what type of feedback is needed for the of pulses per distance (inch or millimeter) determines
applicationabsolute or incremental. Absolute encoders the resolution of an incremental encoder. However,
assign a unique digital value to each position, which resolution can be doubled by counting both the leading
allows them to maintain precise position information, and trailing edges of the pulse from one channel, or it
even when power is lost. can be quadrupled by counting the leading and trailing
edges of the pulses from both channels.
Incremental encoders work by generating a specific
number of pulses per unit of travel and counting those
pulses as the load moves. Because they are simply
counting pulses, incremental encoders will lose their
position reference if the power supply is interrupted.
In order to determine the loads actual position upon
startup or re-start, a homing sequence is required.
This means that the sensor (and the load) must move
to a reference position, and from there it can begin
to determine the loads position. Keep in mind that
even if the loads actual position at startup or re-start
is not critical, performing a homing sequence may be
undesirable from a time and productivity standpoint. This
is especially important in applications with long strokes
Quadrature output for an incremental encoder. Channels A and
and slow speeds, such as machine tools, where homing B are out of phase by 90 degrees. Channel Z has one pulse,
can be a time-consuming process. used as a reference for homing.

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Linear encoder technology: Optical or magnetic

Once the decision has been made regarding incremental

or absolute feedback, the next consideration is whether
the sensing technology should be optical or magnetic.
While optical encoders have historically been the only
option for resolutions below 5 microns, improvements in
magnetic scale technology now allow them to achieve
resolutions down to 1 micron.

Optical encoders use a light source and a photo-detector

to determine position, but their use of light makes
them sensitive to dirt and debris, which can disrupt the
signal. The performance of optical encoders is highly
influenced by the gap between the sensor and the scale, Optical linear encoder with absolute feedback.
Image credit: Heidenhain
which must be properly set and maintained to ensure
that signal integrity is not compromised. This means
that mounting must be done carefully, and shocks and
vibrations should be avoided.

Magnetic encoders use a magnetic reader head and a

magnetic scale to determine position. Unlike optical
encoders, magnetic encoders are mostly unaffected
by dirt, debris, or liquid contamination. Shocks and
vibrations are also less likely to affect magnetic
encoders. They are, however, sensitive to magnetic
chips, such as steel or iron, as they may interfere with
the magnetic field.

While linear encoders are often an add-on component

to a system, in many cases their benefits outweigh the
additional labor and cost. For example, in ball screw
driven applications, a lower accuracy screw can be
chosen if a linear encoder is used, since the encoder
feedback allows the controller to compensate for Magnetic linear encoder with incremental feedback.
positioning errors introduced by the screw. Image credit: Balluff Inc.

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How are servo motors physically different

from motors that run open loop?

A servo motor is, by definition, one that runs closed-loop, encoder or resolverto close the loop, comparing the
with feedback to control the motors position, speed, or motors intended position with its actual position and
torque. Of motors that run open-loop, with no feedback ensuring that the intended position is reached. Stepper
device, stepper motors are motors, on the other hand,
the most common type. do not include a device
Despite their different for providing feedback.
control mechanisms, (Note that a stepper motor
stepper and servo motors can run in closed-loop
have a few characteristics mode, with the addition of
in common. First, they external feedback, such as
both have a rotor with a linear encoder.)
permanent magnets and a
stator with coil windings. Running in open-loop
Second, both motor types mode means that stepper
are synchronous, which motors draw full current
means that the rotor at all timeseven when
turns at the same speed idleand generate heat
as the magnetic field of that must be accounted
the stator. Despite these Image credit: Ikalogic S.A.S. for and mitigated in some
similarities, however, there applications. But drawing
are two physical differences continuous current allows
between servo and stepper motors that give them vastly them to produce a higher holding torque than servo
different operating properties. motors. Conversely, because servo motors operate in
response to feedback, they draw only the current needed
Control scheme to execute the given move. The lower heat generated
during continuous operation also allows servos to provide
The main distinction between servo and stepper motors a short-term torque levelknown as peak torque
is that servos are closed-loop devices and steppers run thats much higher than their continuous rating, which
open-loop. This means that servo motors have some facilitates quick accelerations or short-duration pressing
sort of physical feedback mechanismtypically a rotary or holding forces.

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Pole count

Another physical difference between servo and stepper

motors is their number of magnetic poles used in each
motor type. Servo motors have just a few polestypically
between 2 and 8while stepper motors commonly have
50 or 100 poles. The higher pole count found in stepper
motors allows them to accurately move to a given
position without the need for feedback (see above).
Servos, on the other hand, are unable to control their
position accurately without using a feedback device.

Stepper motors typically have between 50

and 100 magnetic poles.
Image credit: allaboutcircuits.com

With fewer poles and less inductance in their windings,

servo motors can maintain their torque output as motor
speed increases better than stepper motors can. This also
gives servo motors higher dynamics and the ability to
execute quick movements. On the other hand, the high
number of poles found in stepper motors allows them to
Typical torque-speed curves of stepper motors (top) and
run very smoothly at low speeds, making them best for servo motors (bottom),
low-speed, high-torque applications. Image credit: Cross Company Automation

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What is settling time in a motor-

driven servo system?

One of the unique characteristics

of servo systems is that they
operate in closed-loop mode.
This means they use feedback
from a resolver or encoder on
the motor, and sometimes from
an encoder on the loadto
compare the commanded value
(typically position, speed, or
torque) with the value that
was actually reached. Based on
this feedback, the controller
initiates movements to correct
any deviation between the
commanded and actual values.

Feedback is necessary because the motor doesnt always
(in fact, rarely) reach the intended position on execution
of the initial command. This is due to the fact that
mechanical systems are not perfectly stiffthey will
always have some springiness to them. Belts are not
perfectly rigid, ball screws have compliance, and even
couplings and gearboxes experience windup. Because
of these mechanical inaccuracies and compliance, the
system requires time to hunt for and settle on the
correct position. The time the system takes to achieve
and maintain a specified range (typically 2 5%) around
the commanded value is known as settling time.
Settling time is the time required by the system to achieve and
maintain a specified range around the commanded value.
Image credit: Parker Hannifin Corporation
To control settling time, one of the parameters that is
adjusted during servo drive tuning is the damping ratio.
The damping ratio influences the systems approach to
the commanded value and its response to correction
or compensation commands. There are several types
of damping, with the three most common being over-
damped, under-damped, and critically damped.

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Over-damped systems take a conservative view of motion

control, approaching the commanded value slowly to
avoid overshoot and minimize settling time. However, an
over-damped system exhibits slow response and is not
suitable for highly dynamic applications.

An under-damped system gives a faster response time,

approaching the commanded value quickly. However, this
results in a large overshoot and oscillations around the
commanded position. These oscillations are known as
ringing, and decrease over time until the target value is
reached (within the specified error).

Critically damped systems are a hybrid between over- and

under-damped systems, achieving a balance between fast
response and short settling times. A critically-damped
system approaches the commanded value with a slight
overshoot, which minimizes ringing and reduces settling
A servo system can be over-damped, under-damped, or critically
time. In most applications, the goal is to achieve critically damped.
damped response. Image credit: Adept Technology, Inc.

Servo tuning affects settling time through electronic

manipulation of the system, but settling time can also
be reduced through mechanical considerations, by using
components with high stiffness, by reducing the moved
mass as much as possible, and by using design and
construction methods that provide structural dampening
to the system.

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How do PC-based controls differ from
traditional motion controls?
Recently, our regular contributor Steve Meyer spoke to us
about the history of motion control and how PC-based
controls came about. Heres what he said.
Traditional motion controllers are the result of decades of
slowly evolving electronics hardware and custom software
libraries dedicated to performing motion-control
tasks. PC-based control systems are relatively recent, and
their performance is more consistent with state-of-the-
art computing. Ironically, while the tools have changed
dramatically, the fundamental task is still the same.
Defining the electronics required for motion control
comes down to this question:
How fast is fast enough? in this case, to manage a
mechanical (analog) load using digital control?
One example: Controlling a ballscrew-driven motion axis
Controlling a 500-step-per-revolution stepping motor
moving a 5:1 leadscrew is not as easy as it appears.
One step is equal to .001 in. of linear motion, and one
inch of travel is equal to 2,500 steps. Moving one inch in
one second from standing start to stop means the output
pulse rate to the stepping motor drive can peak at 5 kHz
or higher, depending on the trajectory. Evaluating the
commanded versus actual position on every step, and
executing control algorithms to adjust on the fly and
manage following error at 0.001 in. requires processor
speeds of 100 kHz or higher.
www.motioncontroltips.com
MOTION
CONTROL A Design World Resource
The general problem of managing a single-axis motion
task becomes much more complex when multiple axes
are considered. For a motion system to play tic-tac-toe,
it is possible to create a mechanism with two linear
actuators that require no actual coordination between
them. In applications like automated storage and
retrieval, the axes usually operate sequentially, with no
coordination at all.
Upping the ante: Controlling multi-axis systems
For the same two linear axes to draw a circle, the
position of the two axes must be updated every clock
cycle of the processor or every time the feedback
device or position register changes value whichever is
faster. As speed increases, control-system performance
must be orders of magnitude faster in order to correct
for overshoot in the axes, or circularity error.
To this day, the standard test for controller performance
is to draw a circle at speed.
Control systems 50 years ago were limited in solving
math problems quickly enough. Complex architectures of
digital signal processors and dedicated microcontrollers
were needed. Dedicated I/O for end-of-travel switches
and encoder signals were directly coupled to main.
Custom code environments were created that were
unique to each control system vendor. Users created
programs that were compiled directly on the processor
with no operating systems between the user code and
the real world.
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 MOTION
CONTROL
A Design World Resource

Over time, the realtime operating systems or RTOSs

emerged as an alternative to the dedicated processor
architecture. Many customized RTOSs were created,
marketed

and fell by the wayside as more powerful solutions

like Linux became available.

Linux has emerged as the most popular of RTOS due

to its shareware approach and massive working group
support. Complex CNC and robot applications exist
that are inexpensive, robust, and run on very low cost
hardware.

PC-based controllers have benefitted from the

increasing performance of consumer and mobile
computing processors. Todays PCs have virtually
unlimited processing power and can run the most
complex motion requirements with standard operating
systems managing the hardware resources.

Compared to the dedicated processor approaches of

the past, PC-based motion is an economical option to
traditional controllers.

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 MOTION
CONTROL A Design World Resource

Whats the difference between

contouring and point-to-point motion?

The purpose of motion control is to move an axis,
or multiple axes, to a specified position or through a
predefined path. For the first case, some form of point-
to-point positioning is used. For motion that must pass
through a predetermined set of points, a method known
as contouring is used. The choice between point-to-point
or contoured motion depends on the application and
process. The smooth shapes generated by contouring are
important for CNC applications such as cutting, welding,
and routing, as well as for dispensing applications
where a specific path must be followed. Point-to-point
motion is used in pick-and-place, assembly, and discrete
dispensing applications.
matter, only the end point. (As well discuss later, this
is a major distinction between point-to-point multi-axis
motion and linear interpolation.)
Another type of multi-axis movement that falls under the
point-to-point category is blended motion. With blended
motion, the end of one move profile is joined with, or
overlapped by, the beginning of the next move profile to
create continuous motion between the two profiles. An
example of blending is a 90 degree X-Y move in which
the Y axis starts to move at a specified time before the X
axis completes its move, resulting in a radius instead of a
sharp corner.

Point-to-point motion As mentioned

earlier, point-
In point-to-point motion, the end position is designated, to-point moves
but the path used to reach the end position is irrelevant. can be made
Velocity, time, and acceleration can be defined for point- with either a
to-point moves, allowing the controller to construct trapezoidal
either a trapezoidal or an s-curve move profile. or an S-curve
move profile. A
The simplest form of point-to-point motion, referred trapezoidal move
to as axial or single-axis motion, moves each axis profile consists of 1. Starting position
individually. For example, to move from point 0,0 (X,Y) an acceleration 2. End point
to point 120, 300 (X,Y), the X axis would move 120 phase, a constant 3. Corner rounded by blending
Image credit: National Instruments
mm. Then, once the X axis reached its position, the Y velocity phase,
axis would move 300 mm. Because this is the slowest and a deceleration
method, it is often replaced by multi-axis motion. phase. Because of the sudden end of the acceleration
phase, and the sudden beginning of the deceleration
In multi-axis motion (also known as vector motion), phase, trapezoidal profiles can create theoretically
two or more axes are coordinated to move at the same infinite jerk (rate of change of acceleration), which
time in order to achieve the shortest path between the causes vibrations, increased settling time, and a loss of
starting and ending points. Again, the path does not positioning accuracy.

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 MOTION
CONTROL A Design World Resource

When a trapezoidal move profile

has a constant velocity time of
zero (all the move time is spent
accelerating and decelerating), it
becomes a triangular move profile.

The S-curve move profile reduces

jerk by incorporating seven phases
of motion, which smooths the
An S-curve move profile (left) and a trapezoidal move profile (right).
transitions between changes in Image credit: Performance Motion Devices, Inc.
acceleration rates. A graph of
acceleration during an S curve
move shows that the changes in acceleration follow
a trapezoidal path, with ramps between each phase,
whereas the changes in acceleration for a trapezoidal
move are instant. of contouring, linear interpolation (unlike multi-axis
motion) ensures that the axes pass through each of the
Contouring specified points.

To achieve contoured motion, a series of points is Circular interpolation works much the same way as
provided during programming, and the motion controller linear interpolation, but also requires the specification
extrapolates a smooth line or curve from these points. of a center point, radius, and direction (clockwise or
Unlike point-to-point motion, contouring guarantees that counterclockwise) so that the motion created is circular
the system passes through each point, using either linear rather than linear. In either type of interpolation, the
or circular interpolation. In a contoured speed of the movement (linear
move, a time to complete the move is or circular) is also defined.
specified, but the actual move profile is
determined by the motion controller. Because the motion path is
critical for creating accurate
Linear interpolation is used when the contours, servo controllers
desired move is a straight line involving for contouring applications
two axes of motion. The controller typically use PID algorithms and
synchronizes the motion of both axes, incorporate advanced features,
In a contoured move, the axes pass through
calculating a series of very small moves such as feedforward control,
each of the prescribed points, but the
along each axis that result in a straight line output is a smooth curve. acceleration control, and high-
when executed. Keeping with the premise Image credit: National Instruments speed processing capabilities.

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