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Upon completion of this module, you should be able to:

Explain the characteristics of role-playing simulations
Justify the use of role-playing simulations in teaching & learning
Elaborate on the theoretical foundation of role-playing simulation
Identify the generic steps in using role-playing simulations in the classroom
Discuss the role of online role-playing simulations in teaching

Module Outline

8.1 What is role-playing simulations?

8.2 Why use role-playing simulations?
8.3 Theoretical foundations of role-playing simulations
8.4 Generic steps in implementing role-playing
simulations
8.5 Some examples of role-playing simulations
8.6 Online role-playing simulation

Summary
Key Terms
References

This module discusses the use of role-playing and simulations in teaching and learning.
Teaching continues to be teacher-centred and one of the strategies adopted by teachers to
engage students in the teaching-learning process is the use of role-playing simulation.
The module discusses the theoretical foundations of role-playing simulation and steps in
implementing the instructional strategy. There are many advantages of using the strategy
because it promoted the development of language and social skills. Learners are able to
see the application of concepts and principles in real-world situations.

1
8.1 WHAT IS ROLE-PLAYING SIMULATION?

In the aviation industry, it would be very

dangerous for any airline to attempt to train pilot
on regular commercial flights. However, it is
extremely important that all pilots gain regular
experience of the many different conditions they
are likely to face when transporting passengers
across the world. Hence was born the flight
simulator to provide risk-free training to trainee
pilots. Flight simulators are replicas of aircraft
cockpits with all the gauges, switches, controls
and levers one would find on a real plane. In the
flight simulator, the pilot can be subjected to a
variety of flight conditions with the accompanying
sights and sounds. Each trainee pilots procedures
and reactions are carefully monitored and if
mistakes are made, he or she is able to learn from
them at no risk to life or aircraft.

Role playing and simulation have been adopted in primary and secondary
school teaching but its usage has not be extensive even though it promises to be an
effective pedagogical strategy. It encourages thinking and creativity, lets students
develop and practice language and behavioural skills in a relatively nonthreatening
setting, and can create the motivation and involvement necessary for learning to occur
(Tompkins, 1998).
There is a lack of consensus on the terms used in the role playing and
simulation literature. Just a few of the terms which are used, often interchangeably,
are "simulation," "game," "role-play," "simulation-game," "role-play simulation," and
"role-playing game" (Crookall and Oxford, 1990). There does seem to be some
agreement, however, that simulation is a broader concept than role playing. Ladousse
(1987), for example, views simulations as complex, lengthy and relatively inflexible,
but role playing as quite simple, brief and flexible.

Simulations simulate real life situations, while in role playing the participant is
representing and experiencing some character type known in everyday life
(Scarcella and Oxford, 1992).
Simulations always include an element of role play (Ladousse, 1987).
In most role-playing and simulation exercises, each student takes the role of a
person affected by an issue and studies the impact of the issues on human life
and/or the effects of human activities on the world around from the
perspective of that person (Teed, 2008).
A simulation accurately reflects some part(s) of reality. Therefore when
students are involved in a simulation, they are manipulating a model or
playing roles which assist them to develop an understanding of, and a feeling
for, the reality being presented. (Fien, Gerber and Wilson, 1990).

2
In this module, role-playing and simulation would be taken together and hence termed
role-playing simulation to incorporate elements of both instructional strategies.

8.2 WHY USE ROLE-PLAYING SIMULATION?

Increasingly, instructors are aware of the need to use a wide range of teaching
strategies and are selecting to use role-playing and simulations to supplement
traditional methods of inquiry and investigation.
Role playing simulation promote effective interpersonal relations and social
transactions among participants. In order for a simulation to occur the
participants must accept the duties and responsibilities of their roles and
functions, and do the best they can in the situation in which they find
themselves (Jones, 1982). To fulfill their role responsibilities, students must
relate to others in the simulation, utilising effective social skills.
Role playing simulation facilitate the development of language skills. Role
playing and simulation create a safe environment which encourages genuine
communication and active involvement. Students engage in genuine
communication when playing their role and are so absorbed in the activity that
they forget about their fears about using language wrongly.
In addition to encouraging genuine communication, active involvement, and a
positive attitude, the simulated "real life" problems help students develop their
critical thinking and problem solving skills.

Christopher and Smith (1990) identified two models of role-playing

simulations depending on whether role-playing simulation is either specified or left
unspecified, i.e. convergent or divergent model (see Figure 8.1).

CONVERGENT MODEL DIVERGENT MODEL

This is the problem, how
shall we solve it?
The action has a past.
Roles are given in detail.
Steps or sequences are
specified.
Focus on what will happen
This is the situation, what will
we do?
The action takes place on stage.
Roles have no constraints
No formal steps or sequences
specified.
Focus on what the players do.

Figure 8.1 Convergent and divergent role-playing and simulations

In the convergent model the patterns of language exchange in the simulation is

specified. In the divergent model, the patterns of language exchange are left
unspecified. In the convergent model focus is on what will happen whereas in the
divergent model, focus is on what the players or actors will do.

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 8.1 ACTIVITY
a) What is role-playing or a simulation?
b) Identify the difference between the convergent and
divergent models of role-playing and simulation/

8.3 THEORECTIAL FOUNDATIONS OF ROLE-PLAYING

SIMULATION

Few would disagree that learning is most efficient and effective when it is
situated in realistic settings. In such an environment, insight, perception and reflection
on the part of learners play an important role in learning besides learning facts,
concepts, principles and procedures (Bower & Hilgard, 1981).

One of the most harmful misconception people

have about that learning is that being able and
smart comes from knowing a lot of rules. Behind
this notion is the belief that reading a lot of
textbooks, articles and resources, and absorbing
what these say will lead one to acquire the
knowledge and understanding. While it makes
sense to say that learning comes from content
knowledge, most of that knowledge in practice
looks quite a bit different than what you find in
textbooks (Naidu, Ip & Linser, 2000. p.191).

SITUATED COGNITION: Hence, the need for a shift from content-centred

teaching method towards a problem-based approach based on the principles of
situated cognition (Seely, Brown, Collins & Duguid, 1989) if we are to prepare
learners for the challenges of the workplace. In such a learning environment, learners
gain understanding through interactions in authentic situations. The role-play
simulation provides a means for a student to directly experience problem solving
episodes takes advantage of the way people naturally learn.

COGNITIVE CONFLICT: In role-playing simulations, learners are required to

explain, elaborate or defend their positions to others cognitive conflict is likely to
occur. Cognitive conflict occurs when the learner encounters disagreement between
his or her prior knowledge and new information. While the design of role-play
simulation does not explicitly solicit cognitive conflict, the interactions among the
roles challenges the theoretical basis of various actions that students take in the
simulation. When the students are engaged in the role-play, a level of cognitive
conflict is evident, for example, in defending a situation or a position in the pursuit of
goals as required.

4
MAKING MISTAKES WITHOUT SERIOUS CONSEQUENCES: It is a well-
know fact that people learn from having to explain. Since the need to explain arises
only when something unexpected happens, a good learning-by-doing environment
would put students into situations where they can possibly encounter failure and
encounter these failures in a safe and protected environment. The role-play simulation
offers students exactly that opportunity, that is the benefit of making mistakes without
serious consequences. The requirement at the end of the simulation for the preparation
of "role summaries" also forces students to engage in explanation and internalization
of the learning activities.

REFLECTION AND TRANSFER OF LEARNING: Role-play simulation

encourages reflection by learners in which they re-evaluate their actions and
behaviour. Also, this teaching-learning method facilitates transfer of learning to
different situations and settings.

8.2 ACTIVITY
a) Discuss the theoretical foundations of using role-playing
simulation in the classroom?
b) Propose other theories of learning underlying the use of
role-playing simulation in the classroom.

8.4 GENERIC STEPS IN USING ROLE-PLAYING SIMULATION IN

THE CLASSROOM

SELECTION OF ACTIVITY:

When selecting a role-playing simulation

activity, you should ask yourself the
following questions:
Do the objectives of the activity
conform to the objectives of the
section of the course being studied?
Is the activity appropriate for
students level of skills and cognitive
development? [Be careful not to
introduce a simulation that is too simple which may appear childish for most
students!].
Is the activity interesting? [Compared to sophisticated simulations (video
games) students are familiar with, your simulation may be boring!].
Is the activity workable in a classroom situation?
Does the activity have a sound knowledge base?

5
 What is the central problem theme or issue presented in the activity? Will
students identify with it?
What are the choices available to the participants? What are the different
moves or activities provided for the participants?
How is the activity to be organised in the classroom?
Does the instructors guide provide adequate advice on procedures for
conducting the activity with a class?
What summary and debriefing exercises conclude the activity?

DECIDE WHEN TO INTRODUCE THE ACTIVITY:

Decide when it is appropriate to introduce the role-playing simulation

activity. Some role-playing simulation activities are most suitable for use as
introductory activities. Others are more suitable for use throughout an entire
learning sequence. Still others can used as generalising and concluding
activities.
Decide if you want to use role-playing simulation alongside other teaching
methods as a means of supplementing or striking a balance in student
involvement in learning. For example, role playing simulation may be used
after a presentation of essential concepts and principles.
Do not overuse role-playing simulations to the point of students saying; Oh
no, not another simulation! Rather incorporate such activities into the overall
structure of the course or learning unit.

BEFORE COMMENCING:

Before commencing a role-playing simulation:

Ensure that students have had adequate experience with reality being
represented to be able to appreciate the activity as a simulation;
Ensure that students see the activity as part of an overall unit of work;
Discuss the purpose of the activity with students, itemise learning objectives to
form an evaluation checklist, and
Keep all rules and directions to a minimum, especially at the start of an
activity.

These suggestions are designed to focus the attention of students on the educational
dimension of role-playing and simulation.

DURING THE ACTIVITY:

During the activity, accept a reasonable level of noise and movement from
students as valuable.
Move around the room with them, and help the students to become fully
involved in the processes of the role-playing and simulations

FOLLOW-UP ACTIVITY:

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 After the role-playing simulation, both students and the teacher may evaluate
what has been learned from the session:
o Discuss what happened during the role-play simulation.
o Students may question individual role-players to ask why they took a
particular position, made a certain statement, or undertook an action.
o What are the concepts and principles learned?
o How well have these concepts and principles been explained?
o To what extent is the role-playing simulation relevant to the topic
being learned?
It is important for all the participants to The explanation and the resulting
discussion is important for the participants to obtain a greater understanding of
the social dynamics related to a particular "real life" situation.
Sometimes a role-play session may generate strong emotions (anger, dismay,
disagreement), especially if some role-players take the play too seriously, and
take extreme positions. The follow-up discussions offer the facilitators an
opening to explain that these reactions were caused by the structure of the
situation, not by the stubbornness of the individuals playing the roles.
It is not necessary to avoid strong emotions; rather, it is an opportunity to
reveal the nature of some "real-life" situations, and to encourage participants
to be sensitive to the different assumptions, values, goals and positions that
may be taken by different persons actually in "real life". (Adapted from Role
Playing and Simulation Games: A Training Technique, by Phil Bartle).

8.3 ACTIVITY
a) Explain the steps involved when implementing role-
playing simulation.
b) Why do you need a follow-up activity when
Implementing role-playing simulation?

8.4 SOME EXAMPLES OF ROLE-PLAYING SIMULATION

The following are some examples of role-playing activities that may be appropriate in
a language class: [source: TESOL.Direct]

Example 1:
Person A is selling advertising space in a magazine. Person B is interested, but
reluctant to buy space at the price suggested. However, she is interested and is
willing to negotiate.

7
Example 2:
Person A is the designer of a new style of cordless iron for the home and he is
looking for a manufacturer; B is the managing director of a manufacturing
company but is sceptical about this product.

Example 3:
A is the managing director of a small company; B is the advertising director
and wants to advertise the products on television. The MD is keen on
advertising in newspapers and is unconvinced about the value of television
advertising (in terms of costs and returns) so B has to try to persuade the MD.

Example 4:
A sells clothes but doesnt like products made of fur. However, her company
is losing money. B produces products such as short jackets, stoles, gloves and
belts made of fur. B has to try to persuade A to sell his products. There are
high profit margins in fur products

Example 5:
Neighbours: may I borrow? Students practice making polite requests. They
are given picture cards showing cooking ingredients that they either need or
have a lot of. They explain what they are cooking, and must borrow
ingredients from each other.

Example 6:
Role switching: Students role play persons in a conflict. On the teacher's
signal, roles are switched. Discussion can center on how strong emotions are
expressed in different cultures.

8
 8.4 ACTIVITY
Design and develop three role-playing simulation activities
for the teaching of your subject area.

8.5 ONLINE ROLE-PLAYING SIMULATION

Online role-play simulation is modeled

on the assumption that human interactions are
communicative events. It is especially suitable
for teaching subjects like politics, history,
geography, law, commerce, management and
so on. In role-play simulation, learners interact
using persona, chase "game goals," try out
various strategies and build the experience
collectively. Online simulation adds to face-to-
face sessions two ways: anonymity and
asynchronicity (Wikipedia, 2009).
Anonymity enables players to role-play
so that external power relationship does not get into the role-playing. (External
power relationship can be considered as "how the way you play golf with your
boss is different from that with your best friend".)
The asynchronous nature of online role play provides time for players to
consider and research alternatives and use out of role discussions before
making a move.

Online role-play simulations simulate a chosen aspect of economic, social,

political and organizational context. Learners are immersed in situated contexts that
highlight learning objectives and both demand and encourage active and collaborative
knowledge construction. The effect is a dynamic experience of the concepts and
principles in which participants act out their roles subject to the privileges and
constraints designed into the simulation. The following are three examples of online
role-playing simulation.

Example 1: RIM SIM: A Role-Play Simulation

Rim Sim is a 6-hour, eight-party negotiation that focuses on creating a

framework for the long-term disaster-recovery efforts. It involves a range of players
from five countries affected by two natural disasters: a typhoon about a year ago and
an earthquake about 6 months ago. The players are members of an International
Disaster Working Group (IDWG) that has been created by an international
commission. The IDWG has been charged with drawing up a framework for
managing two issues: the reconstruction of regionally significant infrastructure and
the design of a mechanism for allocating funding to each country for reconstruction of

9
local infrastructure and ongoing humanitarian needs. The first issue will involve
making choices among five options (two harbour options, two airport options, and one
rail-line option), each of which will have three levels at which to rebuild. The second
issue will involve five starting-point options. Participants are encouraged to invent
other options for both issues.
The goal of Rim Sim is to raise questions about traditional approaches to
disaster-preparedness planning and reconstruction efforts in an international setting, in
this case the Pacific Rim. Players must confront the reverberating effects of disasters
and the problems of using science and technical information in decision making, and
are introduced to a consensus-building approach emphasizing face-to-face dialog and
multinational cooperation in dealing with humanitarian concerns, as well as long-term
efforts to reconstruct local and regional infrastructure. The Rim Sim simulation raises
four key points: ripple effects of disasters, role of science, multiparty negotiation, and
building personal relationships.
[source: U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 2212, by R.C. Barrett, S.L. Frew, D.G.
Howell, H.K.& E.B. Rudin, 2004]

Example 2: Mekong e-Sim: A Cross-Disciplinary Online Role-Play Simulation

The Mekong e-Sim is an online learning environment that uses simulation and
role-playing to immerse students in the complexities of authentic decision making,
helping them develop the communication, collaboration, and leadership skills they
will need to be successful practitioners in their fields of expertise. By asking students
to assume the identities of stakeholders in the Mekong River Basin of Southeast Asia
and debate the merits of a proposed development project, the Mekong e-Sim offers a
structured method of exposing students to the wide range of social, political,
economic, and scientific conflicts that affect complex engineering projects,
particularly those that may be multinational in scope. Engineering students from a
range of fields (including civil, environmental, telecommunications, software, and
mechanical) have used this learning tool to collaborate with students from different
disciplinary backgrounds on authentic problems of global importance.
Team-based learn-by-doing design: The Mekong e-Sim provides an
authentic learning and assessment environment in which students hone their
problem-solving abilities and develop communication, collaboration, and
leadership skills.
Flexible approach: Designed to run on a commonly available platform,
Mekong e-Sim is easily transferable and can accommodate geographically
distributed students from different disciplines and institutions. The e-Sim can
be adapted to emphasize different learning outcomes by modifying the
scenarios, the stakeholder groups involved, and the events that lead to student
interaction.
Learning effectiveness: Randomly administered surveys indicate that
students believe the Mekong e-Sim experience has achieved its learning goals
of developing student awareness of sustainability issues, the multidisciplinary
and multicultural dimensions of engineering issues, and the importance of
teamwork, particularly in an international environment. The e-Sim has
received several national and international awards.
[source: Innovations and Implementation, Educause Learning Initiative,
University of Adelaide, 2006)

10
Example 2: Stock Market Simulation Game

Most students are curious about topics that are consistently in the news, and
would like to understand how these events relate to their lives now and in the future.
The Stock Market Game is designed to involve students in the world of finance and
investing. Teachers and students begin with a simulated $100,000 portfolio which
they manage over the course of a 10-week competition. The simulation can be used
by students in primary and secondary school. It is an online educational programme
that serves as an excellent introduction to the financial markets. This online
simulation teaches students about investments, research, and risk by using a real
time stock trading.
The game teach and reinforce the teaching of such subjects such as
mathematics, social studies, economics, technology and business. Each teacher
structures the game to fit their classroom needs. Students learn about the role
of todays market in the economy, and are placed in decision-making roles that
require research, judgment, analysis, mathematical ability and collaborative work. All
materials needed to play are available online.
To play the simulation, classes are typically divided into teams of 4-5
students. Each team receives $100,000 funds to trade common stocks on the New
York, American and NASDAQ exchanges. Each team is allowed a limited number of
transactions, over a 10-week period, and can choose to buy or sell shares based on
both quantitative and qualitative evaluations of companies and corresponding stocks
from a variety of sources. Stock trades made during market hours (9:30 am to 4:00
pm) will receive 20-minute delayed prices. Trades made after the markets close will
receive the next business days opening price. Daily portfolio results are available
online. At the end of the simulation, each team leader will be required to present a
brief overview of their teams strategy.
[source: The Center for Economic Education, Wayne State University, Dayton, Ohio.
2009].
Bos and Shami (2006) presents the following challenges when using online
role-playing simulations in teaching and learning:
1. Sustaining Engagement: One of the first and foremost challenges for online
learning environments is keeping the energy and focus of the class from
dissipating over time. When face-to-face, skilled instructors have many
techniques for capturing and holding attention and directing engagement.
However, online activities are more vulnerable, especially asynchronous
activities that are dependent on students voluntarily logging in and
contributing to an ongoing, structured activity. Studies have shown that energy
can quickly dissipate when a few members of an online group disappear,
even temporarily. Groups that succeeded were resilient enough to press
forward in the face of unequal member participation.

2. Promoting Content-Focused Discussion: The second challenge of online

role-playing simulation is to promote content-focused collaboration between
students. Online discussion enables students to discuss across borders and shy
students are more willing to participate. However, there is the difficulty of
getting students to focus discussion on the content and not stray. Group
decision making is more difficult online than face-to-face. Similarly
negotiation is more difficult online compared to face-to-face sessions where
nonverbal social cues play an important role in reaching consensus. It may be

11
 difficult to get students to listen to each other and build common ground
online,

3. Promoting Reflection-on-Action: The third challenge of online role-playing

simulation is promoting reflection on action. Reflection is the process of
reviewing experience to identify generalisable knowledge. Students learn
more from educational activities when they are prompted to reflect on
experiences. Reflection promotes generalisation, and generalisation is
necessary if knowledge is to be usefully transferred to other settings. Two
difficulties with reflection are that (a) it is generally perceived as hard work,
and (b) it also sometimes is seen as a distraction from the task at hand.

8.5 ACTIVITY
a) Surf the web and identify four online role-playing
s simulation that may be used in teaching your subject area.
Simu b) Have online role-playing simulation been widely used
in teaching your subject area? Elaborate.

SUMMARY

Role playing and simulation have been adopted in primary and secondary
school teaching but its usage has not be extensive even though it promises to
be an effective pedagogical strategy.

There is a lack of consensus on the terms used in the role playing and
simulation literature.

Simulations simulate real life situations, while in role playing the participant is
representing and experiencing some character type known in everyday life.

In this module, role-playing and simulation would be taken together and hence
termed role-playing simulation to incorporate elements of both instructional
strategies.

Increasingly, instructors are aware of the need to use a wide range of teaching
strategies and are selecting to use role-playing and simulations to supplement
traditional methods of inquiry and investigation.

Role playing simulation promote effective interpersonal relations and social

transactions among participants.

Role playing simulation facilitate the development of language skills.

12
 Theoretical foundations underlying role-playing simulation: situated
cognition, cognitive conflict, reflection and making mistakes.

Generic steps in implementing role-playing simulation:

o Selection of activity
o Decide when to introduce activity
o Before commencing
o During activity
o Follow-up activity

Online role-play simulation is modelled on the assumption that human

interactions are communicative events.

Online simulation adds to face-to-face sessions two ways: anonymity and

asynchronicity.

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