Theatrical Funding and Society: The Relative Merits and Disadvantages of Funding

Systems in Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome

Alyssa Still

Theatre History I
 Abstract

Art throughout history has been funded through various mediums, all of which have historical

significance. Examining the context of theatrical funding lends us understanding of the great

movements of the past, and perhaps also a lense for examining our own culture. Funding for

theatre in the past shows a correlation between the society itself and the funding source. Ancient

Greece and Ancient Rome had different funding structures which reflected the society in which

the theatre was created. Examples of this are found in the Theoric Fund of Ancient Greece,

funding for control during the Roman Republic, and by powerful men in the Roman Empire.
Theatrical Funding and Society: The Relative Merits and Disadvantages of Funding Systems in

Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome

Funding is an oft forgotten aspect of theatrical art. However, examining the funding of

theatre allows a deeper understanding of the art itself. The positive and negative aspects of a

cultures artistic output is correlated to the funding structures supporting it. Historical context is

recognized as vitally important for understanding the art itself, but that historical context is

intimately entwined with the funding of theatre. Since the formalization of theatrical production

the source of funding for theatre has been a reflection of society which is evidenced in the

philanthropic funding of Ancient Greece and funding for status and strategy in Ancient Rome.

Ancient Greece

Athens was the cultural center of Ancient Greece. It was a model of democracy and

culture. The Athenian democracy began in the 5th century BC, which also saw the Golden Age

of Greek Drama (Martin). In fact, the rise and fall of Athenian democracy and Athenian tragedy

are closely connected. Following a loss in the Peloponnesian War to Sparta in the 4th century,

Athens lost a significant amount of power and democracy was suppressed (Martin). Prior to this

crushing loss funds were freely given to support cultural pursuits, but afterwards, funds were

diverted to the military. During this time, we also saw the decline of Athenian tragedy. The

tragedies of the Golden Age were continuously performed, and became known as the Old

Tragedies by 386 B.C. (Brown, 39). However, tragedies after the old tragedians died did not hold

the same place in the public consciousness. Theatre in Ancient Greece was deeply tied to the

democracy, which would not have been as effective without philanthropy.

 Under the Athenian democracy, philanthropy became an ideal of the Greek people. Their

idea of philanthropy was being productive for the benefit of humanity (Bond). Tax exemptions

for charities, though instituted by Byzantine emperors, came from the Greek idea of benefiting

humanity and became known as a philanthropy (Bond). Without the philanthropy of wealthy

men theatre may have looked very different. Their generosity shaped the physical and cultural

environments of Greek cities, gave audiences memorable lessons in civility, and enshrined drama

as one of the greatest media of collective artistic expression in the West (Bond). Art was the

glue which held together the Athenian democracy. It seems the bonding power of art was

partially due to the unofficial extra tax placed on wealthy citizens in the form of artistic

patronage.

One such unofficial tax was the title of choregos which was bestowed upon a wealthy

patron for each production. The choregos paid for the expenses of the chorus, with matching

costumes and numerous participants, which could be very costly (Brown, 15). Aristotles

Athenian Constitution describes the process of the appointment of the choregos. An elected

Archon, or magistrate, would assign the responsibility to the most wealthy men in Athens, one

for each of the three tragic performances (Aristotle). During a time before Aristotle, the choregi

for the comic chorus was also assigned by the Archon, but during Aristotles time the comic

choregi were selected by the tribes of Athens (Aristotle). Since these wealthy men were in the

same social circles, the position of choregos was usually filled because of peer pressure or vanity

(Bond). The philanthropy displayed by the choregos was not so much an act of charity, as an

expectation (Bond). With philanthropy in Ancient Greece being an expectation, it was not an

opportunity to gain greatly improved political status.

 Despite the role of the choregos and the other forms of philanthropy in Ancient Greece,

class tensions were still an issue during the Athenian democracy, despite the relatively

participative governmental structure. There was initially no charge at the City Dionysia, likely

because productions were paid for with public money, thus they were theoretically available for

all citizens to enjoy (Buchanan). However, without regulation, the limited seating at the theatre

created chaos as fights broke out over seats (Buchanan). The solution was to charge admission at

the theatre, but it was not a perfect solution. Poorer citizens in Athens were now unable to afford

the cost of admission, and could not participate in a crucial piece of democracy (Buchanan).

Furthermore, rich citizens would purchase all of the seats leaving none for the lower class

citizens who may have been able to afford them (Buchanan). Theatre, the spectacle of City

Dionysia, and other festivals were an important binding agent of the Athenian democracy, and

the inability of all types of citizens to attend festivals threatened the democracy. The theoric

fund, which was an allowance given to those without the means to afford admission, helped

more citizens of Athens participate in the ritual.

The theoric fund, or theorika, covered the admission costs of lower class Athenian

citizens to festivals (Buchanan). It was established by Pericles during the 5th century, the

flourishing time of the Golden Age (Buchanan). This great accomplishment of the democracy

seems to parallel the artistic achievements of the time. Theorika was allotted to citizens at public

assembly (Buchanan). In the early years of the establishment of theorika, this allotment was two

obols for each day of City Dionysia (Buchanan). Over time allotments of theorika spread to other

festivals and also included money for food, which further appeased the audience (Buchanan).

The Theoric Fund was redirected in the 4th century by Demosthenes to funds for war
(Buchanan). Perhaps, the reverence which the Greeks had for the classical tragedies of the 5th

century recalls a time when the theatre was open to many.

During a later period of Ancient Greek drama, in the 280s B.C., artists found a way to

empower themselves economically by forming professional guilds, known as the Artist of

Dionysus (Brown, 39). These guilds set a precedent which is still evident today. The collective of

artists granted them more political power than if they attempted to enter negotiations as

individuals. This political power allowed the Artists of Dionysus to travel throughout Ancient

Greece (Brown, 40). Thus, they reached a larger number of powerful patrons who contributed to

their huge budgets (Brown, 40). This version of patronage mimics the role of the individual

donor in modern theatre. While the Artists of Dionysus was a guild it appears to have been the

first step toward the structure of theatrical companies. The organization of the Artists of

Dionysus was one of many achievements of the Ancient Greeks which has reverberated

throughout history.

Ancient Greek theatre was a triumph of artistic achievement. A new art form rose from

the democratic ideals of the Athenian society. The sense of community which is essential to

democracy was provided by this shared ritual of their own invention. Furthermore, the

competitive element of Ancient Greek theatre seems to have fostered a sense of innovation and

clarity. Greek theatre had a distinctive and identifiable structure likely because the judgement of

the competition cultivated a specific taste over time. The balance between state funding and

philanthropy created a harmonious environment to create art. During the Golden Age of Greek

Tragedy the funding systems of Greece reached peak effectiveness by opening itself up to the

majority of its citizenry.

 Ancient Rome

Ancient Rome was a powerful military force, but did not possess the tactful cultural curation of

the Ancient Greeks. When conquering Greek areas the Romans found they needed moral and

religious legitimacy if their armies were to succeed in controlling the sprawling Greek world,

and political strategy therefore required a rigorous cultural strategy (Brown, 49). Thus Rome

appropriated the culture of Greece and much of the artistic work of Ancient Rome were either

copies of or were largely inspired by Greek works. Another such area where Rome appropriated

a Grecian idea and applied regulation was philanthropy.

Charitable giving was a strategic move for Romans and they would select appreciative

beneficiaries carefully and choose presents capable of eliciting maximum acknowledgment from

recipients (Bond). The Roman strategic approach to philanthropy did not have a theatrical

output until the late republic. Roman appropriation of theatre took the form of religious

festivals, or ludi, which were organized by elected magistrates and funded from the state

treasury (Klar) just like the Greek theatre. Roman theatre lacked large choruses (Brown, 50) and

thus the opportunity for patronage by elite citizens was eliminated. Furthermore, Roman

theatrical structures were temporary until the late republic (Klar). The lack of philanthropy in

theatre during the Republic appears to have created a vacuum, which powerful men eventually

identified as a place for lavish philanthropic displays just prior to the Empire when they

struggled for superiority (Klar). Furthermore, theatre was entirely financially dependant on the

state, due to the lack of philanthropy. While there is not evidence, this may have affected the

content of the performances, which was not overtly political. However, many aspects of
theatrical creation in Rome were political in nature and exhibited the strong governmental

control exercised by the Republic.

The theatrical structures of Rome were a reflection of the controlling government as their

temporary nature was political. Roman senators feared citizens assembling to rise against the

government (Cliff). Another possible concern was competition among elites to build grand

theatres(Cliff), which turned out to be a viable concern. During the early Roman Republic, there

seems to have been enough cooperation among senators to keep any one person from grabbing

power by heavily investing in the arts. Instead, legal loopholes allowed the wealthy to create

trusts which appeared philanthropic, but actually fueled their own personal wealth (Klar). With

the rapid growth of the Roman territory and growing numbers of destitute citizens there was

social uprising and political crisis (Klar). In this time of unrest during the 1st Century B.C. elite

citizens attempted to seize power (Klar). Pompey was one such citizen and he demonstrated his

wealth, military achievements, and philanthropy by building the first permanent stone theatre in

Rome in 55 B.C. (Cliff). Thus the concerns of early senators became real, and powerful men

built theatres as monuments to themselves throughout Rome.

Another such area of governmental control over theatre was in regulation of professional

guilds. The official guild of actors and writers of the Roman Republic was in honor of Minerva

the goddess of crafts (Brown, 50). Minerva was a more domestic god than Dionysis, and a

motive of Roman leadership in establishing Minerva as the patron god of theatre may have been

to tame their work. However, an opposing group of artists rose as Rome grew into more of Greek

territory. This transition between Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome saw the rise and fall of the

Bacchanalia. Bacchus was a Roman name for the Greek god Dionysus who inspired City
Dionysia (Riedl, 113). Bacchanalia was the Roman version of City Dionysia, with some key

differences. The cult of Bacchanalia traveled through Rome performing plays and being

generally raucous (Riedl, 114). Their unique brand of revelry and expression was in direct

conflict with the previously established guild in honor of Minerva. In 186 B.C. a decree, the

senatus consultum de Bacchanalibus, banned the activities of the Bacchanalia, because the

senate believed the cult were conspiring against them (Riedl, 114). This ban, which is considered

the first major act of religious persecution in the west, resulted in the deaths of many priests and

artists involved in the Bacchanalia (Riedl, 114). It can be implied though that a festival similar to

Dionysia, which so fervently worshipped the gods was less than ideal in Roman society.

Worshipping the gods above Roman leadership proved deadly for those in the bacchanalia.

Roman theatre was not a groundbreaking venture. Much of the work was either directly

translated or adapted from Greek work. The strong regulations imposed on theatre was not

beneficial to the artistic merit of theatre. Whether or not the government censured work, it

appears that the solely state funded theatre of the Roman Republic was not overtly creative or

original. The tragedies of the Roman Empire were not adaptation like the comedies of the

Republic. The Empire, which saw more contributions from individuals to the artistic process,

was more innovative theatrically.

Despite Ancient Romes attempt to appropriate the culture of Ancient Greece, Rome did

not have the effectiveness of Greece both artistically and financially. The environment of

Ancient Greece was delicate, and thus the output of Greek classics is restricted to one century. It

would appear that the environment for creating great art must be just right. Rome exhibited to
much control of art, while Greece struck a balance of freedom and regulation. Greek theatre may

have more merit because its funding created on context which allowed the art form to thrive.
 Annotated Bibliography

Aristotle. The Athenian Constitution. Project Gutenburg. Trans. Fredrick G Kenyon. N.p., 21

July 2008. Web. 27 Sept. 2016

The Athenian Constitution serves this work as a primary source of the systems which supported

City Dionysia. This Aristotelian work details the political systems of Ancient Athens beginning

in the 7th century BC until 403 BC, approximately 70 years prior to the writing of the work

sometime between 330 and 320 BC. The work is broken into two sections; the first being

different forms of the citys constitution and the second describing the citys institutions. The

second section of the work is most relevant to this paper. Certains parts particularly Part 56

speak in depth about the assignment of the Choregi and twice mentions the Commissioners of

the Theoric Fund, but does not specify the purpose of the fund. There are some relevant passages

in the first section, such as, Part 28, which mentions theatrical performance.

Bond, Sarah. Philanthropy in Ancient Times: Some Early Examples from the Mediterranean.

Showcase of Fundraising Innovation and Inspiration, 02 Apr. 2011. Web. 26 Sept. 2016.

Sarah Bond is a faculty member in the Classics department of th University of Iowa. This

secondary source provides a comparison of the philanthropic systems of Ancient Greece and

Ancient Rome. The essay identifies the attitudes which each society had toward money, an

extremely helpful resource for this paper. The author directly compares the spending habits of

each society with the societal attitudes, which is similar to what I hope to accomplish.
Brown, John Russell. The Oxford Illustrated History Of Theatre: Oxford ; New York : Oxford

University Press, 1995. Print.

The Oxford Illustrated History of Theatre is a definitive text of theatrical history. It is a well

known reference for theatrical scholars. It is well researched, detailed, and easy to read. This

source is valuable for both setting up a context of theatrical history and examining the artistic

styling of historical periods.

Buchanan, James J. Theorika; a Study of Monetary Distributions to the Athenian

Citizenry during the Fifth and Fourth Centuries B.C. Locust Valley, NY: J.J.

Augustin, 1962. Print.

This is a somewhat outdated source, but it is a reliable secondary source cited in several other

materials. The dissertation is a thorough study of the history of the theoric fund. Through the

source I was enlightened about the circumstances which made the theoric fund a necessity of the

Athenian democracy, the Social War of the 4th century BC. The work is extremely useful,

because it focuses directly on a monetary attribute of Ancient Greek theatre. However, it is a

difficult source to work with as it is dense and has several citations which are entirely in greek.

Cliff, Ursula. The Roman Theatre. CLIO History Journal. 2009. Web. 27 Sept. 2016.

Ursula Cliff is department member of anthropology and archaeology at The Australian National

University. This source is recent and well-received by scholars. It is also clear and easy to

understand. The source offers a review of the culture which surrounded theatre in Rome, rather
than the funding of their theatre. It is helpful, however, in setting up the comparison between

Ancient Greek society and the funding of theatrical ventures.

Klar, Laura S. "Theater and Amphitheater in the Roman World." The Met's Heilbrunn Timeline

of Art History. The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Oct. 2006. Web. 29 Nov. 2016.

This resource from the Metropolitan Museum of Art provided context on Ancient Roman

theatrical history, particularly on theatrical structure. The Met is recognized as a scholarly artistic

institution at the cutting edge of innovation and research.

Martin, Thomas R. "An Overview of Classical Greek History from Mycenae to Alexander."

Perseus Digital Library. Tufts University, 1996. Web. 29 Nov. 2016.

This source provided valuable historical context for Greek history. Perseus is a digital library

sponsored by Tufts University, and is a scholarly resource.

Riedl, Matthias. "The Containment of Dionysos: Religion and Politics in the Bacchanalia Affair

of 186 BCE." International Political Anthropology (2012): 113-33. Web.

This source discussed the Bacchanalia. It was useful for explaining the function and eventual

prohibition of the cult. This source comes from a scholarly peer reviewed journal.