Base (chemistry)

For other uses, see Base (disambiguation). In water, by altering the autoionization equilibrium, bases
In chemistry, bases are substances that, in aqueous so- yield solutions in which the hydrogen ion activity is lower
than it is in pure water, i.e., the water has a pH higher than
7.0 at standard conditions. A soluble base is called an
alkali if it contains and releases OH ions quantitatively.
However, it is important to realize that basicity is not
the same as alkalinity. Metal oxides, hydroxides, and es-
pecially alkoxides are basic, and counteranions of weak
acids are weak bases.
Bases can be thought of as the chemical opposite of acids.
However, some strong acids are able to act as bases.[4]
Bases and acids are seen as opposites because the eect
of an acid is to increase the hydroxonium (H3 O+ ) con-
centration in water, whereas bases reduce this concen-
tration. A reaction between an acid and base is called
neutralization. In a neutralization reaction, an aqueous
solution of a base reacts with an aqueous solution of an
Soaps are weak bases formed by the reaction of fatty acids with acid to produce a solution of water and salt in which the
sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide. salt separates into its component ions. If the aqueous so-
lution is saturated with a given salt solute, any additional
lution, are slippery to the touch, taste astringent, change such salt precipitates out of the solution.
the color of indicators (e.g., turn red litmus paper blue),
react with acids to form salts, promote certain chemical The notion of a base as a concept in chemistry was rst
reactions (base catalysis), accept protons from any proton introduced by the French chemist Guillaume Franois
donor, and/or contain completely or partially displaceable Rouelle in 1754. He noted that acids, which at that
OH ions. Examples of bases are the hydroxides of the time were mostly volatile liquids (like acetic acid), turned
alkali metals and alkaline earth metals (NaOH, Ca(OH)2 , into solid salts only when combined with specic sub-
etc.). stances. Rouelle considered that such a substance serves
as a base for the salt, giving the salt a concrete or solid
These particular substances produce hydroxide ions form.[5]
(OH ) in aqueous solutions, and are thus classied as
Arrhenius bases. For a substance to be classied as an Ar-
rhenius base, it must produce hydroxide ions in an aque-
ous solution. In order to do so, Arrhenius believed the
1 Properties
base must contain hydroxide in the formula. This makes
the Arrhenius model limited, as it cannot explain the ba- General properties of bases include:
sic properties of aqueous solutions of ammonia (NH3 ) or
its organic derivatives (amines).[1] There are also bases Concentrated or strong bases are caustic on organic
that do not contain a hydroxide ion but nevertheless react matter and react violently with acidic substances.
with water, resulting in an increase in the concentration
of the hydroxide ion.[2] An example of this is the reac- Aqueous solutions or molten bases dissociate in ions
tion between ammonia and water to produce ammonium and conduct electricity.
and hydroxide.[2] In this reaction ammonia is the base
Reactions with indicators: bases turn red litmus pa-
because it accepts a proton from the water molecule.[2]
per blue, phenolphthalein pink, keep bromothymol
Ammonia and other bases similar to it usually have the
blue in its natural colour of blue, and turn methyl
ability to form a bond with a proton due to the unshared
[2] orange yellow.
pair of electrons that they possess. In the more general
BrnstedLowry acidbase theory, a base is a substance The pH of a basic solution at standard conditions is
that can accept hydrogen cations (H+ )otherwise known greater than seven.
as protons. In the Lewis model, a base is an electron pair
donor.[3] Bases are bitter in taste.[6]

1
2 4 ALKALINITY OF NON-HYDROXIDES

2 Reactions between bases and wa- HCl + H

2O H
ter 3O+
+ Cl
The following reaction represents the general reaction be-
tween a base (B) and water to produce a conjugate acid
(BH+ ) and a conjugate base (OH ):[2] When the two solutions are mixed, the H
B +H2 Ol BH+ +OH 3O+
and OH
The equilibrium constant, K , for this reaction can be
[2] ions combine to form water molecules:
found using the following general equation:
K =[BH+ ][OH ]/[B]
H
In this equation, both the base (B) and the extremely 3O+
strong base (the conjugate base) compete with one an- + OH
other for the proton.[7] As a result, bases that react with 2H
water have relatively small equilibrium constant values.[7] 2O
The base is weaker when it has a lower equilibrium con-
stant value.[2] If equal quantities of NaOH and HCl are dissolved, the
base and the acid neutralize exactly, leaving only NaCl,
eectively table salt, in solution.
3 Neutralization of acids Weak bases, such as baking soda or egg white, should be
used to neutralize any acid spills. Neutralizing acid spills
with strong bases, such as sodium hydroxide or potassium
hydroxide can cause a violent exothermic reaction, and
the base itself can cause just as much damage as the orig-
inal acid spill.

4 Alkalinity of non-hydroxides
Bases are generally compounds that can neutralize an
amount of acids. Both sodium carbonate and ammonia
are bases, although neither of these substances contains
OH
groups. Both compounds accept H+ when dissolved in
protic solvents such as water:

Na2 CO3 + H2 O 2 Na+ + HCO3 + OH

NH3 + H2 O NH4 + + OH

Ammonia fumes from aqueous ammonium hydroxide (in test
tube) reacting with hydrochloric acid (in beaker) to produce
ammonium chloride (white smoke).
From this, a pH, or acidity, can be calculated for aqueous
solutions of bases. Bases also directly act as electron-pair
donors themselves:

Bases react with acids to neutralize each other at a fast rate

CO3 2 + H+ HCO3
both in water and in alcohol.[4] When dissolved in water,
the strong base sodium hydroxide ionizes into hydroxide NH3 + H+ NH4 +
and sodium ions:
A base is also dened as a molecule that has the abil-
ity to accept an electron pair bond by entering another
NaOH Na+
atoms valence shell through its possession of one electron
+ OH
pair.[4] There are a limited number of elements that have
atoms with the ability to provide a molecule with basic
properties.[4] Carbon can act as a base as well as nitrogen
and similarly, in water the acid hydrogen chloride forms and oxygen. Fluorine and sometimes rare gases possess
hydronium and chloride ions: this ability as well.[4] This occurs typically in compounds
5.1 Superbases 3

such as butyl lithium, alkoxides, and metal amides such
as sodium amide. Bases of carbon, nitrogen and oxygen
without resonance stabilization are usually very strong, or
superbases, which cannot exist in a water solution due to
the acidity of water. Resonance stabilization, however,
enables weaker bases such as carboxylates; for example,
sodium acetate is a weak base.
Acids with a pKa of more than about 13 are considered
very weak, and their conjugate bases are strong bases.
Strong bases are able to form stable compounds by com-
bining with a strong acid.[4] Weak bases, however, do not
possess the ability to form stable compounds by combin-
ing with a weak acid.[4]

5 Strong bases
A strong base is a basic chemical compound that can re-
move a proton (H+) from (or deprotonate) a molecule of a
very weak acid in an acid-base reaction. Common exam-
ples of strong bases include hydroxides of alkali metals
and alkaline earth metals like NaOH and Ca(OH)
2 respectively. Due to their low solubility, some bases,
such as alkaline earth hydroxides, can be used when the
solubility factor is not taken into account.[8] One advan-
tage of this low solubility is that many antacids were
suspensions of metal hydroxides such as aluminum hy-
droxide and magnesium hydroxide.[9] These compounds
have low solubility and have the ability to stop an in-
crease in the concentration of the hydroxide ion, prevent-
ing the harm of the tissues in the mouth, esophagus, and
stomach.[9] As the reaction continues and the salts dis-
solve, the stomach acid reacts with the hydroxide pro-
duced by the suspensions.[9] Very strong bases hydrolyze
in water almost completely, resulting in the leveling
eect.[4] In this process, the water molecule combines
with a strong base, due to the waters amphoteric ability;
and, a hydroxide ion is released.[4] Very strong bases can
even deprotonate very weakly acidic CH groups in the
absence of water. Here is a list of several strong bases:
5.1 Superbases
Main article: Superbase
Group 1 salts of carbanions, amides, and hydrides tend
to be even stronger bases due to the extreme weakness
of their conjugate acids, which are stable hydrocarbons,
amines, and dihydrogen. Usually these bases are cre-
ated by adding pure alkali metals such as sodium into
the conjugate acid. They are called superbases, and it is
impossible to keep them in water solution because they
are stronger bases than the hydroxide ion. As such, they
deprotonate the conjugate acid water. For example, the
ethoxide ion (conjugate base of ethanol) in the presence
of water undergoes this reaction.
CH
3CH
2O
+H
2O CH
3CH
2OH + OH
Examples of superbases are:

Lithium hydroxide (LiOH) Butyl lithium (n-C4 H9 Li)

Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) Lithium diisopropylamide (LDA)
[(CH3 )2 CH]2 NLi
Potassium hydroxide (KOH)
Lithium diethylamide (LDEA) (C
Rubidium hydroxide (RbOH) 2H
Cesium hydroxide (CsOH) 5)
2NLi
Magnesium hydroxide (Mg(OH)
2) Sodium amide (NaNH2 )
Sodium hydride (NaH)
Calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)
2) Lithium bis(trimethylsilyl)amide [(CH
3)
Strontium hydroxide (Sr(OH)
3Si
2)
2NLi
Barium hydroxide (Ba(OH)
2)
6 Neutral bases
The cations of these strong bases appear in the rst and
second groups of the periodic table (alkali and earth alkali When a neutral base forms a bond with a neutral acid,
metals). a condition of electric stress occurs.[4] The acid and the
4 11 ACIDITY OF BASES

base share the electron pair that formerly only belonged 9 Weak bases
to the base.[4] As a result, a high dipole moment is cre-
ated, which can only be destroyed by rearranging the When there is a hydrogen ion gradient between two
molecules.[4] sides of the biological membrane, the concentration of
some weak bases are focused on only one side of the
membrane.[12] Weak bases tend to build up in acidic
7 Bases as catalysts uids.[12] Acid gastric contains a higher concentration of
weak base than plasma.[12] Acid urine, compared to alka-
line urine, excretes weak bases at a faster rate.[12]
Basic substances can be used as insoluble heterogeneous
catalysts for chemical reactions. Some examples are
metal oxides such as magnesium oxide, calcium oxide,
and barium oxide as well as potassium uoride on alu- 10 Uses of bases
mina and some zeolites. Many transition metals make
good catalysts, many of which form basic substances.
Basic catalysts have been used for hydrogenations, the Sodium hydroxide is used in manufacture of soap,
migration of double bonds, in the Meerwein-Ponndorf- paper and a synthetic ber called rayon.
Verley reduction, the Michael reaction, and many other
reactions. Both CaO and BaO can be highly active cata- Calcium hydroxide (slaked lime) is used in the man-
lysts if they are treated with high temperature heat.[10] ufacture of bleaching powder.

Calcium hydroxide is also used to clean the sulfur

dioxide, which is caused by exhaust, that is found in
8 Solid bases power plants and factories.[9]

Examples of solid bases include: Magnesium hydroxide is used as an 'antacid' to neu-

Oxide mixtures: SiO2 , Al2 O3 ; MgO, SiO2 ; CaO,
SiO2 [11]
Mounted bases: LiCO3 on silica; NR3 , NH3 , KNH2
on alumina; NaOH, KOH mounted on silica on
alumina[11]
Inorganic chemicals: BaO, KNaCO3 , BeO, MgO,
CaO, KCN[11]
tralize excess acid in the stomach and cure indiges-
tion.
Sodium carbonate is used as washing soda and for
softening hard water.
Sodium hydrogen carbonate is used as baking soda
in cooking food, for making baking powders, as an
antacid to cure indigestion and in soda acid re ex-
tinguisher.

Anion exchange resins[11]

Ammonium hydroxide is used to remove grease
stains from clothes
Charcoal that has been treated at 900 degrees Cel-
sius or activates with N2 O, NH3 , ZnCl2 -NH4 Cl-
CO2 [11]
11 Acidity of bases
Depending on a solid surfaces ability to successfully
form a conjugate base by absorbing an electrically neutral The number of ionizable hydroxide (OH-) ions present
acid, the basic strength of the surface is determined.[10] in one molecule of base is called the acidity of bases.[13]
The number of basic sites per unit surface area of the On the basis of acidity bases can be classied into three
solid is used to express how much base is found on types: monoacidic, diacidic and triacidic.
a solid base catalyst.[10] Scientists have developed two
methods to measure the amount of basic sites: titra-
tion with benzoic acid using indicators and gaseous acid
11.1 Monoacidic bases
adsorption.[10] A solid with enough basic strength will ab-
sorb an electrically neutral acid indicator and cause the
acid indicators color to change to the color of its conju- When one molecule of a base via complete ionization
gate base.[10] When performing the gaseous acid adsorp- produces one hydroxide ion, the base is said to be a
tion method, nitric oxide is used.[10] The basic sites are monoacidic base. Examples of monoacidic bases are:
then determined using the amount of carbon dioxide than Sodium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide, silver hydrox-
is absorbed.[10] ide, ammonium hydroxide, etc.
 5

12 Etymology of the term

The concept of base stems from an older alchemichal no-
tion of the matrix":

The term base appears to have been

rst used in 1717 by the French chemist,
Louis Lmery, as a synonym for the older
Paracelsian term matrix. In keeping with
16th-century animism, Paracelsus had pos-
tulated that naturally occurring salts grew
within the earth as a result of a universal acid
or seminal principle having impregnated an
Sodium hydroxide earthy matrix or womb... Its modern meaning
and general introduction into the chemical
vocabulary, however, is usually attributed
to the French chemist, Guillaume-Franois
11.2 Diacidic bases
Rouelle... Rouelle explicitly dened a neutral
salt as the product formed by the union of an
When one molecule of base via complete ionization pro- acid with any substance, be it a water-soluble
duces two hydroxide ions, the base is said to be diacidic. alkali, a volatile alkali, an absorbent earth, a
Examples of diacidic bases are: metal, or an oil, capable of serving as a base
for the salt by giving it a concrete or solid
form. Most acids known in the 18th century
were volatile liquids or spirits capable of
distillation, whereas salts, by their very nature,
were crystalline solids. Hence it was the
substance that neutralized the acid which
supposedly destroyed the volatility or spirit
of the acid and which imparted the property
of solidity (i.e., gave a concrete base) to the
resulting salt.
William Jensen, The origin of the term
base[5]

13 See also
Acids

Acid-base reactions
Barium hydroxide
Base-richness (used in ecology, referring to environ-
ments)
Barium hydroxide, magnesium hydroxide, calcium hy-
droxide, zinc hydroxide, iron (II) hydroxide, tin (II) hy- Conjugate base
droxide, lead (II) hydroxide, copper (II) hydroxide, etc.
Titration

11.3 Triacidic bases 14 References

When one molecule of base via complete ionization pro- [1] Chemistry, 9th Edition. Kenneth W. Whitten, Larry Peck,
duces three hydroxide ions, the base is said to be triacidic. Raymond E. Davis, Lisa Lockwood, George G. Stanley.
Examples of triacidic bases are: (2009) ISBN 0-495-39163-8. Page 363

Aluminium hydroxide, ferrous hydroxide, Gold Trihy- [2] Zumdahl, Steven; DeCoste, Donald (2013). Chemical
droxide, Principles (7th ed.). Mary Finch. p. 257.
6 14 REFERENCES

[3] Chemistry. Page 349

[4] Lewis, Gilbert (1938). Acids and Bases (PDF). Jour-

nal of the Franklin Institute. pp. 293313. Retrieved 19
February 2015.

[5] Jensen, William B. (2006). The origin of the term

base"" (PDF). The Journal of Chemical Education. 83
(8): 1130. Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 March
2016.

[6] http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/base

[7] Zumdahl, Steven; DeCoste, Donald (2013). Chemical

Principles (7th ed.). Mary Finch. p. 258.

[8] Zumdahl, Steven; DeCoste, Donald (2013). Chemical

Principles (7th ed.). Mary Finch. p. 255.

[9] Zumdahl, Steven; DeCoste, Donald (2013). Chemical

Principles (7th ed.). Mary Finch. p. 256.

[10] Tanabe, K.; Misono, M.; Ono, Y.; Hattori, H. New Solid
Acids and Bases: their catalytic properties. p. 234. Re-
trieved 19 February 2015.

[11] Tanabe, Konzo. Solid Acids and Bases: their catalytic

properties. Academic Press. p. 2. Retrieved 19 Febru-
ary 2015.

[12] Milne; Scribner; Crawford. Non-ionic Diusion and the

Excretion of Weak Acids and Bases (PDF). Science Di-
rect. Retrieved 19 February 2015.

[13] ELECTROPHILE- NUCLEOPHILE - BASICITY -

ACIDITY - pH SCALE. www.citycollegiate.com. Re-
trieved 2016-06-20.
 7

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