Chapter 3

METHODOLOGY AND
EXPERIMENTAL SETUP

3.1 Introduction
In this chapter methodology, experimental setup and equipment
used for the present work is described. The simulation of monopole
antennas is carried out by using Mentor Graphics IE3D simulation
software of version 14.65 in University Science Instrumentation Centre,
Gulbarga University, Gulbarga-585106. This was sponsored by UGC,
New Delhi under Major Research Project. The whole experimental work
of monopole antennas is carried out by using German make Rohde and
Schwarz(R&S) Vector Network Analyzer(VNA) of ZVK model (10 MHz - 40
GHz) in the Microwave Electronics Research Laboratory (MERL),
Department of Post Graduate Studies and Research in Applied
Electronics, Gulbarga University, Gulbarga-585106.

3.2 IE3D software

Electromagnetic (EM) simulation is an advanced technology to
yield high accuracy analysis and design of complicated microwave and
RF printed circuits, antennas, high speed digital circuits, microwave and
millimeter-wave integrated circuits (MMICs) and other electronic
components. IE3D is an integrated full wave EM simulation and
optimization package for the analysis and design of 3-D planar
microwave circuits, MMIC, RFIC, RFID, antennas, digital circuits and
high frequency printed circuits boards (PCB). It is the most versatile, easy
to use, efficient and accurate EM simulation tool.

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3.2.1 Basic theory and implementation
IE3D is a full-wave EM solver. It solves the Maxwell equations,
which governs the macro electromagnetic phenomenon. It solves the
Maxwells equations in an integral form through the use of Greens
functions. It can model both the electric current on a metallic structure
and a magnetic current representing the field distribution on a metallic
aperture.

In IE3D, we adopt a triangular and rectangular mixed meshing

scheme and apply the non-uniform basis functions. As a non-uniform
meshing based simulator, it approaches a problem in a better way. A
user draws a circuit as a group of arbitrarily shaped polygons on a layout
editor first. Then, the simulator tries to fit a non-uniform triangular and
rectangular mesh in to the circuit. The non-uniform meshing scheme is
more flexible, efficient and accurate, than the uniform meshing scheme.
It creates significantly fewer cells and unknowns than uniform grid based
meshing.

The exciting thing is that close boundary Greens function

formulation and uniform meshing are implemented in to the IE3D. Users
are offered with the maximum flexibility and capability with the uniform
meshing for open boundary, close boundary and periodic boundary
conditions. Periodic boundary condition is used to model large phase
arrays.

3.2.2 IE3D Application programs

The IE3D package consists of the seven major application
programs.
MGRID : It is the major layout editor for conditions of a structure. It
allows a user to create and edit a structure as polygons and vertices.
IE3DLIBRARY: The object oriented schematic layout editor for
parameterized modeling and editing.
AGIF : The advanced automatic geometry modeling tool to create fill 3D
IE3D models directly from GDSII files.

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IE3DOS: It is the EM simulator or simulation engine for numerical
analysis. It is a DOS-style command line application.
IE3D: The IE3D dialog displaying the progress of an IE3D simulation or
optimization.
PATTERNVIEW: Post processor for radiation pattern visualization and
post processing.
ADIX: It is the optional ACIS/DXF? GDSII/GERBER format converter.

To perform an EM simulation, user has to start from the layout editor

MGRID. On MGRID, a circuit has to be drawn as a group of polygons.
After the construction of circuit, the simulator engine IE3D can be
invoked. The simulation result is saved into a file compatible with the
Agilent/Eesof Touchstone format.

The saved file can be imported into other popular commercial

nodal network or circuit simulators such as the ADS from Agilent/Eesof
or Microwave office from Applied Wave Research. The simulation result
can also be displayed and processed by schematic editor MOUDA. One of
the major disadvantages is that the field and current distributions from a
simulated structure are accessible to users which are valuable to circuit
and antenna designers.

The IE3D package consists of the seven major application

programs:

MGRID: It is the major layout editor for construction of a structure. It

allows a user to create and edit a structure as polygons and vertices. It
has full control over the detail shapes and locations of geometry. Starting
from V14, MGRID is renamed as IE3D EM Design System. It has
integrated layout editing, s-parameters visualization and post processing,
current distribution visualization, near-field and far-field post processing
and visualization. It also has Fas EM Design Kit for real-time full-wave
EM tuning and optimization.

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IE3D LIBRARY: The object-oriented schematic-layout editor for
parameterized geometry modeling and editing. With the introduction of
Fast EM Design Kit for real-time EM tuning, optimization and synthesis,
parameterization becomes necessarily needed and extremely important
for IE3D full-wave design. Parameterization is available on the major
IE3D layout editor MGRID. However, it is limited to vertices and polygons
levels. High-level parameterization can be done on IE3DLIBRARY. To
make IE3DLIBRARY more flexible, we have introduced Boolean objects
and void objects.

The new introduction makes IE3DLIBRARY much more capable in

generating sophisticated parameterized models. IE3DLIBRARY is
relatively easy to use because no many commands are involved. Detailed
discussion on using IE3DLIBRARY can be found from other electronic
documentations.

AGIF: The advanced automatic geometry modeling tool to create full-3D

IE3D models directly from GDSII files, Cadence Virtuoso and Cadence
Allegro.

IE3DOS: It is the EM simulator or simulation engine for numerical

analysis. It is a DOS-style command line application. It is called in the
background by the IE3D dialog to perform an EM simulation. It is
normally hidden from the customers. IE3DOS supports Win32, Win64,
Linux32 and Linux64. The 64-bit editions allow users to solve large
structures.

IE3D: The IE3D dialog displaying the progress of an IE3D simulation or

optimization. The IE3D engine is actually in IE3DOS while IE3D is only
the shell for displaying the progress. The IE3D dialog is also integrated
into MGRID and IE3DLIBRARY.
MODUA: MODUA is the schematic editor for parameter display and nodal
circuit simulation.

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 Most of its capabilities are integrated into MGRID in V14. Mixed
EM and circuit co-simulation is still the unique feature on MODUA while
other S-parameter display and post processing features are integrated
into MGRID.

PATTERNVIEW: Post processor for radiation pattern visualization and

post processing. All functionalities of PATTERNVIEW are integrated into
MGRID in V14.

ADIX: It is the optional ACIS/DXF/GDSII/GERBER format converter. All

functionalities of ADIX are integrated into MGRID for those users choose
the ADIX option.

To perform an EM simulation, a user can start from layout editor

MGRID, IE3DLIBRARY or AGIF. The most fundamental one is the MGRID
layout editor. On MGRID, you draw a structure as a group of polygons.
After you finish constructing the structure as polygons and defining ports
on it, you can invoke the simulation engine IE3D to perform an EM
simulation. The simulation result is saved into a file compatible with the
Agilent/EEs of Touchstone format. The saved file can be imported into
other popular commercial nodal network or circuit simulators such as
the ADS from Agilent/EEs of or Microwave Office from Applied Wave
Research. The simulation result is also saved into the IE3D geometry file
(.geo or 1-8 .ie3). They can be visualized and post-processed on MGRID,
MODUA, IE3DLIBRARY and AGIF of the IE3D package. MODUA is a
program similar to the Agilent/EEs of Touchstone except it does not have
a library with large number of elements. MODUA actually does not need
such a library because any simulation result files and pre-simulated
geometry files from MGRID can be used as modules in MODUA.

A user can also define lumped elements, such as R, L, C, M

(mutual inductor), open circuit, short circuit and ideal connection, on
MODUA to do an EM and circuit co-simulation. Before V14, MODUA is
automatically invoked by IE3D to display the solved s-parameters after a

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simulation. Starting from V14, users can use MGRID to do visualization
and post processing. The only functionality MODUA has while MGRID
does not have is circuit simulation. If no E Mand circuit co-simulation
and optimization are involved, users even dont need MODUA on IE3D
V14.

One of the major advantages of EM simulation is that the field and

current distributions from a simulated structure are accessible to the
users. Information on the current and field distribution in a structure
can be valuable to circuit and antenna designers. On the IE3D, you can
optionally save the current distribution file in a simulation. The current
distribution file can be accessed on MGRID V14 while opening the
geometry file. You can visualize the vector and scalar current
distribution. You can also do an animation on the current distribution.
You can find the radiation patterns and other parameters from the
current distribution on MGRID. Finally, the radiation patterns can be
visualized and post-processed on either MGRID or PATTERNVIEW. You
can display the 3D patterns, 2D patterns, merge different patterns, find
array radiation patterns, and find the transfer functions between the
transmitting (Tx) antenna and the receiving (Rx) antenna. You can
display and process the parameters of linearly polarized and circularly
polarized antennas. On MGRID, you can also calculate and visualize near
field distribution on the structure. Some users may have a geometry
constructed using other tools. The MGRID can import and export in
GDSII and CIF formats in the standard version. The optional ADIX
converter allows a user to import and export geometry in AutoCAD DXF
format (for 2D or 3D), ACIS format (for 3D) and GERBER format. ADIX is
fully integrated into MGRID. When the ADIX optional is enabled, MGRID
is able to import and export in GDSII, CIF, DXF, ACIS and GERBER
formats. Table 3.1 shows the functionalities of the IE3D software as given
below.

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 Table 3.1 Functionalities
FUNCTIONALITY GENERAL SPECIAL CAPABILITY
AND CAPABILITY OR EXPLANATION
Microstrip Circuits Yes Multiple dielectrics, lossy and finite
ground Plane
Stripline Circuits Yes Accurate modeling of finite strip
thickness
Co-planar Yes Finite thickness, lossy ground, finite
Waveguide (CPW) or infinite ground plane
Slot-line Yes Magnetic current modeling for infinite
Structures ground plane and electric current
modeling for finite ground plane.
Suspended Yes No limit on the number of dielectric
Stripline and Other and
Multilayer Planar metallic layers
Circuits
High Speed Digital Yes RLCG equivalent circuit extraction in
Packaging and SPICE format, simulation of SPICE file
Signal Integrity in frequency domain for verification
and confirmation
Printed Circuits on Yes IE3Ds Greens functions include all
Lossy Silicon the losses in the dielectrics and
Substrate metals.
HTS Yes Modeling of skin effect and high
Superconductor dielectric Permittivity
Circuits
Coaxial Circuits Yes modeling of any multiple conductor
and Shielded Strip- transmission line systems of arbitrary
line cross-section shape
Circuits
Microstrip Yes Edge fed, probe-fed, proximity coupled
Antennas fed and aperture coupled fed, no
limitation on number of feeds and
vertical pins.

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Wire Antennas Yes Dipoles, loop antennas, cylindrical
helix and conical helix antennas,
quadrifilar antennas. It provides more
accurate modeling than the typical
wire antenna algorithms.
RF Antennas Yes Inverted antennas, spiral antennas
and any other antennas with planar
and 3D metallic structures
Plane-wave Yes Calculate monostatic and bistatic
Incident and RCS radar cross-section (RCS)
Problems
3D Capability Yes Vertical and conical via holes, air
Metallic Structures bridges, 3D interconnect, no
limitation on the shape and
configuration of a 3D structure
3D Dielectric Yes Patch antennas with finite substrate,
Structures wire bonds in inhomogeneous
dielectric environment.
Arbitrarily Shaped Yes No limitation on the shape and
Structures orientation of planar and 3D
structures, meshing structure
efficiently without limited by uniform
grids
Open Structures Yes Capture all the radiation and coupling
effects
Closed Structures Yes Electric and magnetic walls emulating
enclosures. Exact boxed Greens
functions are implemented in the
IE3D 8.0 for precise modeling of
enclosed structures.
Periodic Structures Yes Periodical walls to emulating
periodical structures such as infinite
array. Exact periodic Greens
functions are implemented into the

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 IE3D 8.0 for precise modeling of
periodic structures.
Number of Ports No limit Offer different de-embedding schemes
and Port Location for different situation: extension
schemes for high accuracy, localized
for highly packed circuits, differential
feed for structure without an infinite
ground plane. No limitation on port
location and orientation.
Lumped Elements Yes Lumped elements defined in both the
and layout and schematic editors, s-
Layout Level parameter files incorporated for mixed
Simulation EM and nodal simulation
Electromagnetic Yes Automatic adjusting the location of
Optimization polygon vertices to fine tune
structures
Mixed Yes The MGRID+MODUA+IE3D allow
Electromagnetic mixed electromagnetic and network
and Network simulation and optimization.
Optimization
Back Simulation Yes Users are allowed to extract the effect
of a geometry portion out of a
simulation of a larger geometry. The
extra portion is excluded from the
final results.
Number of No limit A user can define as many conductor
Conductor Layers layers as the user likes
Different Yes A user can define the conductor as
Conductor normal conductor, HTS
Property in a superconductor, or thin film resistor.
Circuit
Metallic Thickness Yes The actual geometry of a thick
Modeling metallic structure can be modeled,
taking into consideration of the skin

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 effect
Number of No limit General formulation and
Dielectric Layers implementation of Greens functions
for unlimited number of dielectric
layers
Complex Dielectric Yes Complex r, r and available for
Constant (r), both the dielectric layers and the
Permeability (r) metallic strips.
and Conductivity
()
Frequency Yes A user is allowed to define the
dependent metallic complex r, r and
and substrate
parameters
Thin Dielectric Yes Tested for thin dielectric layers down
Layers to 0.1 microns in MMICs.
High Dielectric Yes Tested for dielectric constant up to
Constant Material 1000 in HTS circuits
MIM Capacitors Yes Optionally meshing the coupling
plates into small cells for accurate
modeling; aligning the meshing on
both plates; automatic creation of
meshed MIM capacitor with or
without vias.
Spiral Inductors Yes Easy one-step construction of
rectangular and circular spiral
inductor, modeling of finite thick
metal traces, modeling of air-bridges,
modeling of lossy ground plane
Interactive Graphic Yes Flexible mouse input and keyboard
Input of Geometry input of polygon vertices, strong 2D
and 3D geometry checking
Convenient Yes Copy, move, polygon and vertex
Geometry Editing elevation, automatic cutting of

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 overlapped polygons, digging holes in
geometry, polygon connectivity
checking, etc.
3D Structure Yes 3D display is a great help to 3D
Display in geometry Editing
Geometry
Editing
Automatic Yes One step parameterized constructions
Generation of of vias, wire-bonds, circles, rings,
Geometry curve-structures, spheres, fans,
conical and cylindrical helix
antennas, cylindrical tubes, probe-
feed proximity, slots, etc.
Parameter Display Yes Data list, linear graph and Smith
Chart display of S, Y, Z-parameters,
VSWR, lumped element equivalent
circuits.
Comparison of Yes Display multiple simulation and
Results measurement results simultaneously
Curve-fitting and Yes Curve-fitting simulation data to yield
Interpolation smooth Result
Nodal Circuit Yes Connect two or more s-parameter
Simulation modules or lumped elements together
using idealized connection
Calculation of Port Yes The MODUA allows a user to calculate
Information with the voltage, current and waves at all
Loading the ports under different excitation
and load conditions.
Equivalent Circuit Yes Calculate RLCG equivalent circuit for
Extraction transmission line model, find the
parameter values for equivalent
circuit created by users
Frequency Yes The MODUA allows extraction of
Dependent frequency dependent equivalent

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Equivalent Circuit circuit extraction.
Extraction
3D Current Yes Display 2D vector current, 3D current
Distribution density animation, 3D average current
Display density display
3D radiation Yes 3D pattern, 3D mapped pattern, 2D
pattern display pattern and 2D polar pattern for both
linear and circular polarized
antennas, axial ratio display, display
of radiation parameters such as
directivity, radiated power

Radiation Yes The PATTERNVIEW allows display of

Parameter frequency response display of
Frequency radiation parameters
Response Display
Radiation Pattern Yes The PATTERNVIEW allows displaying
Phase Display the phase of a pattern.
Radiation Pattern Yes The PATTERNVIEW allows
Comparison comparison of radiation patterns at
different frequencies and from
different structures.
Radiation Patterns Yes The IE3D allows users to calculate the
of Loaded radiation patterns of antennas with
Antennas lumped elements.
General Radiation Yes The IE3D 10.0 allows users to
Patterns calculate an Nport structures
patterns without the excitations
defined. The pattern for the specified
excitation can be readily obtained in
the display time. It allows tuning of
antenna patterns by changing the
excitations only.

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Pattern Yes The IE3D 7.0 allows optimization of
Optimization radiation patterns and parameters.
Pattern Rotation Yes You can rotate the patterns from
CURVIEW or PATTERNVIEW. This
feature is very important for wireless
applications because rotation of
antennas is frequently encountered.
Real Ground Effect Yes The CURVIEW and PATTERNVIEW
on Pattern allow the users to add the effects of
the real ground to the pattern.
Pattern Merging Yes The PATTERNVIEW allows merging of
radiation patterns from individual
radiators. This feature allows
calculation of radiation pattern from a
very large structure divided into
smaller sub-structures for field
simulation.
3D Near Field Yes Display scalar potentials, vector
Display potentials, E-fields, H-fields and
Pointing vectors as curves and 3D
graphs.

Save High Quality Yes Save colorful current distribution,

Bitmap File radiation Pattern or near field pictures
in bitmap files.
Display Current Yes Easy investigation of circular
and Field with polarization, antenna with integrated
Different source.
Excitation and
Load Conditions
S-parameter files Yes
compatible with
Agilent/EEsof

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RLCG Equivalent Yes RLCG segments extracted at single
Circuit SPICE low frequency for low frequency
Compatible applications
Frequency Yes* This feature is in the optional
Independent Wide MDSPICE. The MDSPICE converts an
Band N-port wide-band s-parameters file
Equivalent Circuit into a RLC network with perfectly
Extraction in matching
SPICE S-parameters.
format.
Frequency Yes Available on MGRID, IE3DLIBRARY
Dependent and MODUA on IE3D V12.
Equivalent Circuit
Extraction and
Visualization
Time-Domain Yes* The MDSPICE simulator allows high
Simulations on accuracy SPICE simulation based
S-Parameters upon the s-parameters from IE3D
GDSII, DXF, ACIS, Yes* CIF and GDSII formats are built-in.
GERBER and CIF DXF; ACIS and GERBER formats are
Bi-direction optional.
Conversion
EM Tuning, Yes Users can do full-wave EM tuning,
Optimization and optimization and synthesis real-time
Synthesis at design time on MGRID and IE3D
LIBRARY.

3.3 Vector Network Analyzer

A Vector Network analyzer is a test system that enables the RF
performance of radio frequency (RF) and microwave devices to be
characterized in terms of network scattering parameters or S-parameters.
The key element is that it can measure both amplitude and phase. Only
with knowledge of phase and magnitudes from a VNA circuit models be
developed that will enables complete simulation to be under taken.

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Hence, the information provided by this is used to ensure that the RF
design of the circuit is optimized to provide the best performance.

Vector Network Analyzer measures the magnitude and phase

characteristics of networks such as amplifiers filters, attenuators and
antennas etc. It compares the incident signal that leaves the analyzer
with either the signal that is transmitted through the test device or the
signal that is reflected from its input. In this dissertation antenna
measurement work is carried out using German make VNA ZVK (10 MHz-
40GHz) which is shown in Fig. 3.1. The instrument is basically 2-port,
4-channel analyzer consisting of test set, reference oscillator, signal
generator, first and second local oscillator, front-end, converter (A/D),
measurement control unit and a front panel as shown in Fig. 3.2.

The logical variables used at the microwave frequency are traveling

waves rather than total voltage and total currents. The basic task of
network analyzer is the measurement of S-parameters. These
S-parameters are expressed as

b1 = S11.a1+S12.a2
b2 = S21.a1+S22.a2

For S-parameter subscript ij, j is the port that is excited (the

input port) and i is the output port. Thus S11 refers to the ratio of signal
that reflects from port one for a signal incident on port one. Parameters
S11 and S22 are refers to as reflection co-efficient because they only refer
to what happens at a single port, while S12 and S21 are refers to as
transmission co-efficient because they refer to what happens from on
port to another.

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 Fig. 3.1 Vector Network Analyzer

Some of the characteristics and features of VNA ZVK are as

follows:

1. Distinguishing features:
Four receiver channels
Bidirectional.
Standard calibration methods plus R & S calibration
methods for test fixtures, circuit broadband

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 Fig. 3.2 Measurement Control Unit

Importance of VNA measurements:

Measuring both magnitude and phase of components is important
for several reasons. First, both measurements are required to fully
characterize a linear network and ensure distortion-free transmission. To
design efficient matching networks, complex impedance must be
measured. Engineers developing models for computer aided-engineering
(CAE) circuit simulation programs require magnitude and phase data for
accurate models.

In addition, time-domain characterization requires magnitude and

phase information in order to perform an inverse-Fourier transform.
Vector error correction, which improves measurement accuracy by
removing the effects of inherent measurement system errors, requires
both magnitude and phase data to build an effective error model. Phase-

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measurement capability is very important even for scalar measurements
such as return loss, in order to achieve a high level of accuracy.

Basic measurement task:

The basic measurement task of a network analyzer is to determine
the linear characteristics of a device under test (DUT), characterized by
the scattering parameters, as a function of frequency. In most cases the
DUTs to be examined will have two ports, i.e. an input and an output.
For this reason network analyzers usually have two test ports (port 1 and
port2), to which DUTs are connected by cable.

For overall determination of the scattering matrix [S] of a two-port,

four measurements are necessary for each frequency point, i.e. a
reflection measurement at the input and output of the DUT and
transmission measurement in the forward and reverse direction. For this
purpose the network analyzer applies a RF test signal to the DUT
alternately via port 1 and port 2, measures the signal reflected or
transmitted by the DUT, and is thus able, using the defining equations
for scattering parameters, to determine all four S parameters of the two-
port as shown in Fig. 3.1. Thus it can perform the basic measurement
task. Every network analyzer is composed of the three subsystems as
shown in Fig. 3.2.

1. A signal source for generating the test signal.

2. An S parameter test set for separating the different signal
components.
3. A receiver that receives the different signal components evaluates
and displays them. The number of receiver channels, in this case
is four, corresponds to the number of signal components provided
by the test set.

The scattering parameters, since they are either measured directly

or formed by ratios of wave quantities that are measured directly, are the
primary measured quantities of a network analyzer. Due to their

77
definition they are complex. They can be converted to derived measured
quantities, for example the complex impedance or admittance, as well as
scalar quantities like voltage standing wave ratio (VSWR) or group delay.
The reflection coefficient can also be displayed with respect to a
propagation time or distance axis by transforming from frequency into
time domain.

Besides the display of a measured quantity as a function of

frequency, one may often also be interested in its dependence on
generator level at constant frequency or how it changes with time at a
fixed frequency and a fixed generator level. These measurements can be
made in a level or time sweep mode. Note the difference between time
sweep domain transformations. Instruments can measure S-parameters
in complex form that means, with amplitude and phase information, are
referred to as vector network analyzers.

Proceeding in the direction of signal flow, the first major

component of the instrument is the crystal-controlled reference oscillator
in the synthesizer subsystem. From this the test signal and all LO signals
are derived. It must be possible to set the frequency of the test signal
generator over several decades. So one takes a synthesizer generator with
a frequency range of one octave for example, and generates the remaining
bands by doubling, division and for low frequencies by down conversion
with an auxiliary oscillator. At the input of the test set there is an
electronic RF switch which, in bidirectional operation of the network
analyzer, alternately switches the generator signal to the VSWR bridges
at port 1 and port 2 at each frequency point. In the unidirectional mode it
stays in one position. Power splitters, inserted between the VSWR bridges
and the RF switch, couple out the reference signals a1 and a2 which are
a measure of the waves incident to the bridges and thus to the DUT. The
signal components b1 and b2 which are transmitted or reflected by the
DUT connected between the two test ports PORT1 and PORT2, are
applied to the test set outputs via the VSWR bridges.

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 Linear Non-linear Frequency
converting
S- Compression Mixer
parameters point measurements
Group Interception Any harmonics
delay point
Impedance - Intermodulation
Admittance - Arbitrary frequency
conversion

The characteristics like VSWR, input impedance and return loss

will be measured using this network analyzer. The basic block diagram of
Vector Network analyzer is as shown in Fig. 3.3.

Fig. 3.3 Basic block diagram of Vector Network Analyzer

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3.4 Radiation pattern measurement system
Radiation pattern is a graph, which shows the variation in actual
field strength of radiated or received power with respect to the reference
antenna. The information contain in the radiation pattern of an antenna
is beamwidth, side lobe level, location of side lobes and positions of null
etc.

The radiation pattern measurement setup is as shown in Fig. 3.4.

The distance R between the transmitting and receiving antennas is given
by,

2D 2
R

where, D is the broad dimension of the pyramidal horn and is the

operating wavelength in cm.

In the present study the turn-table method is used to measure the

radiation pattern of device under test (DUT). Here DUT, which is a
monopole antenna, is kept in the receiving mode and the reference
antenna, which is a pyramidal horn antenna, kept in the transmitting
mode.

The two antennas are placed so as to face each other and then,
keeping the position of transmitting antenna fixed, the receiving antenna
is rotated around its axis, to change the angle in steps of degrees. At each
angle the received power is measured. The graph is plotted for azimuth
angle verses normalized power, which gives radiation pattern of DUT.

The turn-table measurement setup shown in Fig. 3.4 is specially

designed for the measurement of antenna radiation pattern by
Sophisticated Test and Instrumentation Center (STIC), Cochin University
of Science and Technology, Cochin. The system is totally automatic and
computer controlled and mainly consists of two units, namely positioner
control system (S310C) and antenna positioner (S310P). The S310C is
micro controller based turn-table controller, which can work as a stand-
alone unit or can be controlled from a computer. The S310C is designed

80
to control the S310 series positioner, which are all stepper motor driven.
The receiving part of Fig. 3.4 consisting of Computer, S310P, S310C,
device under test (DUT), crystal detector and Power meter.

The device under test is connected in the receiving mode in Fig.3.3,

the reference antenna (i.e. pyramidal horn) is kept at a certain distance
2D 2
away from the receiving antenna by satisfying the formula R ,

where R is the distance between transmitting and receiving antenna, D is

the broader diameter of antenna and is the operating wavelength. The
transmitting and receiving antennas are aligned properly before taking
the measurements for obtaining maximum on-axis power. The microwave
source at the transmitting section is energized and is tuned for the
desired frequency.

In the local mode the operator can directly enter the angular
positions in degrees in order to position the turn-table. The arrows keys
provided on the front panel of S310C can be used to position the turn-
table manually. The DUT is connected to the crystal detector through
SMA and waveguide to co-axial connector. The output of crystal detector
is fed to the power meter to measure the received power at different
angles.

With the execution of the software developed by STIC, the radiation

pattern of DUT connected in the receiving mode will be measured
automatically. The obtained data can be stored at various data files and
the plot of radiation pattern is obtained using Origin-6.1 software. With
the help of this facility the radiation pattern measurement can be made
quickly with more accuracy.

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Transmitting section Receiving section

VNA

Universal
Horn antenna
DUT Power
Meter

Tripod stand

POSITIONER
(STIC S310P)

(STIC S310C)

POSITIONER CONTROLLER

Fig. 3.4 Radiation Pattern Measurement System

3.5 Fabrication of proposed antennas

The fabrication of the monopole antenna is the most important
artwork after designed in the Auto CAD-2004. A laser print out of the
artwork is taken. The print dimension was achieved on one side of the
single sided PCB using photolithographic process. The fabrication
process of PRMA is shown in Fig. 3.5. In development of artwork of PRMA
accuracy is maintained up to eight decimal points. Accuracy is vital at
this stage and depending on the complexity and dimensions of the PRMA

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either full or enlarged scale artwork should be prepared on stabiline or
Rubylith film or prepared on butter paper. Using the precision cutting
blade of a manually operated co-ordinal graph the opaque layer of the
stabiline or Rubylith is cut to the proper geometry and can be removed to
produce either a positive or negative representation of the PRMA.

The design dimensions and tolerances are verified on a coordinate

axis measuring instrument using optical scanning. Enlarged artwork
should be photo reduced using a high precession camera to produce high
resolution negative, which is later used for exposing the photo resists.

The laminate should be cleared using the substrate manufacturer

recommended, procedure to insure proper adhesion of the photo resist
and the necessary resolution in the photo development process. The
photo resist is now applied to both sides of the laminate using laminator;
the laminate is then allowed to attain normal at room temperature prior
to exposure and development. The photographic negative must be now
linked in very close contact with the poly ethylene cover sheet of the
applied photo resist using a vacuum frame copy board or other
technique, to assure the feed line resolution required. With exposure to
proper wave length of light, polymerization of the exposed photo resist
occurs making it insoluble in the developer solution. The both side of
PRMA is exposed completely without a mask, since the copper file is
retained to act as a ground plate. The protective polythene cover sheet of
the photo resist is removed and the antenna is now developed in a
developer, which removes the soluble photo resist material. Visual
inspection is needed to assure proper development of rectangular
monopole antenna.

When these steps are completed, the antenna is ready for etching.
This is the critical step and required considerable care does that proper
etch rates are achieved. After etching photo resist is removed using a
strip line solution visual and optical inspection should be carried out to
ensure a good product and to ensure performance with dimensional to

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 Selection of substrate material

Design

Master drawing

Artwork layout

Photocopy

Negative film development

Laminate cleaning

Resist application

Resist exposure

Resist development

Etching

Inspection

Bounding

Finishing

Fig. 3.5 Fabrication process

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tolerances, with a final acceptance or rejection being based on resonant
frequency, radiation pattern and impedance measurement.

For acceptable units, the edges are smoothened and the antenna is
reinserted in water and dried. If desired, a thermal cover bonding may be
applied by placing a bonding film between the laminates does to be
bounded out placing these between tooling plates. Dowel pins can be
used for alignment and the assembly is then heated under pressure until
the bonding temperature is reached.

The assembly is allowed to cool under pressure below the melting point
of the bonding film and the laminate is then removed for inspection. The
above procedure comprises the general steps necessary in producing a
microstrip rectangular monopole antenna. The substance used for the
various process Ex. Cleaning, etching or the tools used for matching etc.,
depends on the substrate choose.

The design procedure and results of the monopole antennas are

discussed in the next chapter.

85