Impact and behavior of Natural Fiber

Composite
A Thesis Submitted
In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements
For The Award of
Degree of
B.TECH + M.TECH
(Integrated)
In
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

With Specialization
In
Production Engineering

By
Alok pandey
(Roll No. 1120314005)

Under The Supervision of

Er. Ajitanshu Mishra

Assistant Professor

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

INVERTIS UNIVERSITY, BAREILLY, INDIA
DECEMBER, 2016

1
 CERTIFICATE

Certified that ALOK PANDEY (Roll no. 1120314005) has carried out the
research work presented in the thesis entitled IMPACT AND BEHVIOR OF
NATURAL FIBER COMPOSITEfor theaward of B.Tech + M.Tech
(Integrated) in Mechanical Engineering from Invertis University, Bareilly under
my supervision. The thesis embodies results of original work, and studies are
carried out by the research scholar himself and the contents of the thesis do not
form the basis for the award of any other degree to the candidate or to anybody
else from this or any other university

Mr. Ajitanshu Mishra

Assistant Professor,
Head of Department,
Department of Mechanical Engineering

2
 ABSTRACT

Particulate fillers are of are mainly taken, not only in a from an economic view
point, but as modifiers especially the physical properties of the polymer. A
notable advance in the polymer industry has been the use of fiber and particulate
fillers as reinforcements in polymer matrix. Over the last few decades, the
considerable attention has been noticed towards natural fiber filled polymer
composites due to its many advantages.

These include mainly the improved environmental performance, due to

the use of biodegradable materials and the reduction in the use of non-renewable
(oil based) resources throughout the whole life cycle of the composite; the low
cost of wood flour; the lower specific weight of these fillers, in comparison to
the traditional mineral-inorganic ones;

The improvement in safety for the production employees and the special
aesthetic properties of the composites. Although there are several reports in the
literature which discuss the mechanical behavior of natural fiber composite
composites, however, very limited work has been done on effect of wood dust,
sugarcane dust, and root of grass and crows of wheat fillers on mechanical
behavior natural fiber based polymer composites. Against this background, the
present research work has been undertaken, with an objective to explore the
potential utilization of wood dust, root of grass, and sugarcane dust filler as a
reinforcing material in polymer composites and to investigate its effect on the
mechanical behavior of the resulting composites. Finally, the data analysis has
been made on fractured surfaces of composites after different tests.

3
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I deemed it a great pleasure and opportunity to dedicate the following few lines
to some persons who enabled me to complete the thesis work.
I express my deep sense of gratitude and to my supervisor Mr. Ajitanshu
Mishra (Assistance Professor & Head of Mechanical Engineering Department)
for their invaluable guidance, and above all for their ever co-
operative attitude that enabled me in bringing up this thesis in the
present form. It has been a great experience to work under them.
I am highly grateful to Mr. Umesh Gautam, Honorable Chancellor of Invertis
University, Bareilly, for their kind support and permission to use the facilities
available at the University for Successful Completion of this research work.
I also thank to Dr. Gaurav Agarwal and Er.Aman Singh for the timely help and
constant encouragement to complete my thesis work.
Last but not the least; I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my parents
& well-wisher for their motivation and helpful suggestion for completion of this
work.

ALOK PANDEY
Roll no. 1120314005
B.tech + M.tech (Production)
Mechanical Engineering

4
 LIST OF CONTENTS
1. CERTIFICATE............................................................................................
2. ABSTRACT...............................................................................................
3. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT..............................................................................
4. LIST OF FIGURE.......................................................................................
5. LIST OF TABLE.........................................................................................
6. CHAPTER 1..............................................................................................
7. 1.1 INTRODUCTION.................................................................................
1.2 Historical Background.................................................................................. 10
1.3 Classification of composites........................................................................12
1.3.1ParticulateComposites...............................................................................13
1.3.2 Fiber Composites................................................................................... 13
1.4.1 Particulate Reinforced Composites...........................................................14
1.4.2 Fiber Reinforced Composites.................................................................14
1.4.3 Hybrid composites.................................................................................15
1.4.4 Laminates.............................................................................................. 16
1.4.5 Short fiber- Rubber Composites.............................................................16
1.5 Constituents of Short Fiber-Rubber Composites..........................................16
1.5.1 Rubber matrix....................................................................................... 16
1.5.2 Natural Rubber (NR).............................................................................. 16
1.6 Fiber Reinforcement.................................................................................... 17
1.7 Natural Fibers.............................................................................................. 18
1.8 Classification of Natural Fibers....................................................................19
1.9 FiberOrientation........................................................................................... 19
1.10 The fiber- matrix interface adhesion can be explained by five main
mechanisms...................................................................................................... 22
1.10.1 Adsorption and Wetting.......................................................................22
1.11Advantages of Composite Materials:-.........................................................24
1.12 Significance of Composite Materials..........................................................25

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3.1 Materials...................................................................................................... 41
3.2 Fabrication................................................................................................... 41
3.3 Fabricated Composite Material....................................................................43
3.3.2- SEESAM Wood Dust with Epoxy............................................................44
3.3.3 Crows of Wheat with Epoxy+Hardner....................................................44
3.3.4 Root of a Grass and Epoxy+Hardner.....................................................45
3.4. Mechanical Testing..................................................................................... 46
3.5MECHANICAL TESTING RELATED TO WORK..................................................47
3.5.1Impact Test............................................................................................. 47
3.5.2 Fatigue Testing Machine........................................................................48
3.5.3 Rockwell hardness tester.......................................................................49
4.0 SPECIMEN REQUIRED FOR TESTING.............................................................51
8. COMPOSITES: RESULTS & DISCUSSIONS...............................................52
4.1 Mechanical Characteristics of Composites..................................................52
4.2Hardness testing of composite material.......................................................52
Table 4.1 hardness natural fiber reinforcement composite material..................53
4.3 effect of various natural fiber filler content on hardness.............................54
4.4Fatigue testing result.................................................................................... 55
4.4.1 Important Parameters and Equations....................................................57
4.5 Effect of Fiber and Filler Concentration on Fatigue of Composites...............58
4.6Impact Energy Testing Result.......................................................................59
4.7 Effect of Fiber and Filler Concentration on Impact Strength of Composites. 61
5.1CONCLUSION................................................................................................ 63
9. References............................................................................................ 64

6
 LIST OF FIGURE
S.No. Figure Name Page No.

Fig 1.1 Composites Refinement Reviewing The Last 55 Years 01

History Related To Composites

Fig 1.2 02

Fig 1.4 Classification Of Natural Fibers 05

Fig 1.5 Chemical Structure Of DGEBA 05

Fig 3.1 Composite Fabrication Method 06

Sugar cane dust +Matrix

Fig 3.2 07

Seesam Wood Dust +Matrix

Fig 3.3 12

Fig 3.4 Crows of wheat +Matrix 14

Root of a grass +Matrix

Fig. 3.5 17

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Fig. 3.6 Chaff+ Wood Dust +Matrix 18

Fig. 3.7 Charpy Impact Testing Machine 19

Fig. 3.8 Fatigue Testing Machine 20

Fig. 3.9 Rockwell Hardness Tester 20

LIST OF TABLE

Table Name
S. No Page No.
Classification of Composites
Table 1.1 27
Properties of natural fibers in relation to those of E-glass
Table 1.2 27
A comparative study of polyester, epoxy, and vinylester resin
Table 1.3 27
Properties of natural fibers and synthetic fibers
Table 1.4 28

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 Designation of Composites
Table 3.1 28

Mechanical Characteristics of Composites

9
 CHAPTER 1
1.1 INTRODUCTION

Composites the most adaptable and advanced engineering materials that is more known to
human. Used basically in the field of materials science and technology that has given birth to
these fascinating and sensational materials. Composites are found heterogeneous in nature,
made by the mixing of two or more components with fillers or reinforcing fibers and a matrix.
The matrix can be metallic, ceramic or polymeric in origin. It gives the composites their
shape, surface appearance, environmental tolerance and overall durability while the fibrous
reinforcement carries most of the structural loads thus giving macroscopic stiffness and
strength. A composite material can provide superior and unique mechanical and physical
properties because it combines the most desirable properties of its constituents while
suppressing their least desirable properties (1).
Now a days composite materials used as a key role in automobile industry, aerospace
industry and other engineering applications as they gives outstanding strength to weight and
modulus to weight ratio. High performance are rigid compositesmade from glass, graphite,
boron, and Kevlar or silicon carbide fibers in polymeric matrices have been studied
extensively because of their application in aerospace and space vehicle technology.

Matrix material which can be forms the continuous phase; the composites are mainly
classified into Metal matrix, Ceramic matrix and polymer matrix composites. Of these,
polymer matrix composites are much easier to fabricate than MMC and CMC. This is because
of the relatively low processing temperature required for fabricating polymer matrix
composite. PMCs generally consist of synthetic fibers like carbon, nylon, rayon or glass
embedded in a polymer matrix, which surrounds and tightly binds the fibers. Typically, the
fibers make up about 60 % of a polymer matrix composite by volume. The structure,
properties and applications of various composites are being investigated worldwide by several
researchers.

The fibrous reinforcing constituent of composites may having a thin continuous fibers
or mainly short fiber segments. When we using short fiber segments, the fibers with high
aspect ratio (length to diameter ratio) are used. Continuous fiber reinforced composites are
generally required to perform high structuralapplications. The specific strength (strength to
density ratio) and specific stiffness (modulus to density ratio) of continuous carbon fiber
reinforced composites can bemax superior to conventional metal alloys.

Also depending upon how fibers are oriented within the matrix, composites can be
fabricated into products that have structural properties specifically tailored for a particular use.
Polymer concretes are increasingly being used in buildings and other structures. They

10
represent a new type of structural material capable ofwithstanding highly corrosive
environments. The high strength to weight ratio and non-corrosive characteristics of these
materials like fiber-reinforced plastics can be utilized to build innovative structures, which
are, desirable and economical although composite materials have certain advantages over
conventional materials, they have some disadvantages also. PMCs and other composite
materials tend to be anisotropic; that is, properties like strength, stiffness etc. are different in
different directions depending on the orientation of composite constituent materials. These
anisotropic properties pose a significant challenge for the designer who uses composite
materials in structures that place multi-directional forces on structural members(2).

Also formation of a strong connection between the components of the composite

material is difficult. The broader use of advanced composites is inhibited by high
manufacturing costs. Development of advanced composite materials having superior
mechanical properties opened up new horizons in the engineering field. The advantages such
as corrosion resistance, electrical insulation, low thermal expansion, higher stiffness, and
strength and fatigue resistance make them preferred candidates for many applications.

The phases of the composite system have different roles that depend on the type and
application of the composite material. In the case of low to medium performance composite
materials, the reinforcement, usually in the form of short fibers and particles, provides some
stiffening but only local strengthening of the material. The matrix, on the other hand, is the
main load-bearing constituent governing the mechanical properties of the material. In the case
of high performance structural composites, the usually continuous-fiber reinforcement is the
backbone of the material that determines its stiffness and strength in the direction of fibers.
The matrix phase provides protection and support for the sensitive fibers and local stress
transfer from one fiber to another. The inter phase although small in size, can play an
important role in controlling the failure mechanisms, fracture toughness, and overall stress-
strain behavior of the material (3).

1.2 Historical Background

Nature has provided composite materials in living things such as seaweeds, bamboo, wood
and human bone. The first reinforced polymeric based materials appear to have been used by
the people of Babylonia around 4000-2000 B.C. The materials consisted of reinforced
bitumen pitch. Around 3000 B.C. evidences from various sources indicate that in Egypt and
Mesopotamia, types of river-boat were constructed from bundles of papyrus reed embedded in
a matrix of bitumen.

The art of mummification that flourished in Egypt during 2500 B.C.

exemplifies one of the first filament winding processes. Suitably treated dead bodies were
wrapped in tapes of linen and then impregnated with a natural resin toproduce, ultimately a

11
rigid cocoon. The use of lac has been known to India and China for several thousands of
years. It is recorded in the Vedas written about 1000 B.C (4).

In India the resin was used as filling for swords hafts and in the manufacture
of whetstones by mixing shellac with fine sand. The latter examplemay be considered as the
forerunner of the modern composite grinding wheel. By 500 B.C., the Greeks were building
ships with three banks of oars called triremes. They possessed keels that were much longer
than could have been accomplished by using a single length of timber. Thus, it can be seen
that the origin of composite technology goes back into antiquity.

The relative importance of the structural materials most commonly used, i.e. metals,
polymers, composites, and ceramics, to various societies throughout history has fluctuated.
Ashby [26] presents a chronological variation of the relative importance of each group from
10,000 B.C. and extrapolates their importance through the year 2020.

The information contained in Ashbys article has been partially reproduced in Figure 1.2. The
importance of composites has experienced a steady growth since about 1960 and is projected
to continue to increase through the next several decades(5).

The fiber-reinforced polymer market is estimated at almost 1.04 million metric tons (2.3
billion lbs) in 2002, and is expected to increase by 15 % in volume. According to the above
report, the market for fiber-reinforced polymers will grow at an average annual growth rate
(AAGR) of 3.0 % through the next five years, increasing to 1.2 million tons per year by
2010(6).

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 Fig 1.1 Composites Refinement Reviewing The Last 55 Years

Fig 1.2 history related to composites

1.3 Classification of composites

Composites are classified according to the type of matrix or according to the geometry of
reinforcement. On the basis of matrix material, composites are classified as: polymer, metal,
ceramic and carbon matrix composites. Polymer matrix composites include thermo set (epoxy,
polyimide, polyester) or thermoplastic (poly-ether-ether-ketone, polysulfone) resins reinforced
with glass, carbon graphite), aramid (Kevlar) or boron fibers. They are used for relatively low
temperature applications. Metal matrix composites consist of metals or alloys (aluminum,
magnesium, and titanium, copper) reinforced with boron, carbon or ceramic fibers. Their
maximum use temperature is limited by softening or melting temperature of the metal matrix.
Ceramic matrix composites consist of ceramic matrices (silicon carbide, aluminum oxide,
glass-ceramic, silicon nitride) reinforced with ceramic fibers. They are best suited for high
temperature applications. Carbon composites consist of carbon or graphite matrix reinforced
with graphite yarn or fabric(7). They have relatively high strength at high temperatures
coupled with low thermal expansion and low density On the basis of the geometry of
reinforcement, composites are classified as follows:

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 Figure 1.3 Classifications of Composites

1.3.1ParticulateComposites
It consists of particles of various sizes and sizes randomly dispersed within the matrix.
Because of the randomness of particle distribution, these composites can be regarded as quasi
homogenous on a scale larger than particle size and spacing and quasi-isotropic. Particulate
composites may consist of non-metallic matrix (concrete, glass reinforced with mica flakes,
brittle polymers reinforced with rubber like particles); metallic particles in non-metallic
matrices (aluminum particles in polyurethane rubber used in rocket propellants); metallic
particles in metallic matrices (lead particles in copper alloys to improve machinability. IT
consists of flat reinforcements of matrices. Typical flake materials are glass, mica, aluminums,
and silver. Flake composites are advantageous due to high out-of-plane flexural modulus,
higher strength, and low cost. As flakes cannot be oriented easily, only a limited number of
materials are available for use(8).

1.3.2 Fiber Composites

(Discontinuous) contain short fibers or whiskers as the reinforcing phase. Short. In the first
instance the composite material tends to be markedly anisotropic and examples include carbon
and aramids .The continuous fiber matrix composite are unidirectional, can be oriented at

14
right angles to each other (cross ply or woven fabric continuous fiber composite) or can be
oriented along several directions (multidirectional continuous fiber composite

In the present work, PMCs composites (matrix) are used due their low cost and high strength
whereas particulate composites (reinforcement) are preferred as they are isotropic, have
increased operating temperature and oxidation resistance.

Fig 1.4 Types of composite

1.4Classification of Composites
Based on the types of reinforcement used, the composites are classified as

1.4.1 Particulate Reinforced Composites

A composite whose reinforcement is a particle with all the dimensions roughly equal are
called particulate reinforced composites. Particulate fillers are employed to improve high
temperature performance, reduce friction, increase wear resistance and to reduce shrinkage.
The particles will also share the load with the matrix, but to a lesser extent than a fiber. A
particulate reinforcement will therefore improve stiffness but will not generally strengthen(9).

1.4.2 Fiber Reinforced Composites

Fiber reinforced composites contain reinforcements having lengths higher than cross sectional
dimension. Fibrous reinforcement represents physical rather than a chemical means of

15
 changing a material to suit various engineering applications. These can be broadly classified
as reinforcing fiber in a single layer composite may be short or long based on its overall
dimensions(10). Composites with long fibers are called continuous fiber reinforcement and
composite in which short or staple fibers are embedded in the matrix are termed as
discontinuous fiber reinforcement (short fiber composites). In continuous fiber composites
fibers are oriented in one direction to produce enhanced strength properties. In short fiber
composites, the length of short fiber is neither too high to allow individual fibers to entangle
with each other nor too small for the fibers to loss their fibrous nature. The reinforcement is
uniform in the case of composites containing well dispersed short fibers. There is a clear
distinction between the behavior of short and long fiber composites.

1.4.3 Hybrid composites

Composite materials incorporated with two or more different types of fillers especially fibers
in a single matrix are commonly known as hybrid composites. Hybridisation is commonly
used for improving the properties and for lowering the cost of conventional composites. There
are different types of hybrid composites classified according to the way in which the
component materials are incorporated. Hybrids are designated as

I) Sandwich Type
II) Interply
III) Intraply And
IV) Intimately Mixed

In sandwich hybrids, one material is sandwiched between layers of another, whereas in

interply, alternate layers of two or more materials are stacked in regular manner. Rows of two
or more constituents are arranged in a regular or random manner in intraply hybrids while in
intimately mixed type, these constituents are mixed as much as possible so that no
concentration of either type is present in the composite material (11).

16
 Fig 1.5 Hybrid composites

1.4.4 Laminates
A laminate is fabricated by stacking a number of lamiae in the thickness direction. Generally
three layers are arranged alternatively for better bonding between reinforcement and the
polymer matrixfor example plywood and paper.These laminates can have unidirectional or bi-
directional orientation of the fiber reinforcement according to the end use of the composite. A
hybrid laminate can also be fabricated by the use of different constituent materials or of the
same material with different reinforcing pattern. In most of the applications of laminated
composite, manmade fibers are used due to their good combination of physical, mechanical
and thermal behavior (12).

1.4.5 Short fiber- Rubber Composites

The term short fiber means that the fibers in the composites have a critical length which is
neither too high to allow individual fibers to entangle with each other, nor too low for the
fibers to lose their fibrous characteristics. A short fiber composite signifies that the two main
constituents, i.e., the short fibers and the rubber matrix remain recognizable in the designed
material. When used properly, a degree of reinforcement can be generated from short fibers,
which is sufficient for many applications (13).

1.5 Constituents of Short Fiber-Rubber Composites

1.5.1 Rubber matrix

Rubber matrix various elastomers have been used as matrices for short fiber reinforcement.
Typically, the matrix has considerably lower density, stiffness and strength than those of the
reinforcing fiber material, but the combination of matrix and fiber produces high strength and
stiffness, while still possessing a relatively low density. In a composite the matrix is required

17
to fulfill the following functions: To bind together the fibers by virtue of its cohesive and
adhesive characteristics. To protect them from environments and handling.To disperse the
fibers and maintain the desired fiber orientation and spacing.

To transfer stresses to the fibers by adhesion and/or friction across the fiber-
matrix interface when the composite is under load, and thus to avoid any catastrophic
propagation of cracks and subsequent failure of the composites. To be chemically and
thermally compatible with the reinforcing fibers. To be compatible with the manufacturing
methods which are available to fabricate the desired composite components.

1.5.2 Natural Rubber (NR)

Natural rubber is a high molecular weight polymer of in which essentially all the isoprene
have the cis 1-4 configuration. The chemical structural formula of natural rubber is shown in
figure 1.6.

FIG 1.6 Structural formula of natural rubber

Long various rubbers, natural rubber is very important since it possess the general features of
other rubbers in addition to the following highly specific characteristics. Since it is of
biological origin, it is renewable, inexpensive and creates no health hazard problems. It
possesses high tensile strength due to strain induced crystallization. It also possesses superior
building tack and good crack propagation resistance. Apart from the conventional rubber
products, NR finds a few specialized applications. NR is a versatile and adaptable material
which has effective property (14).

1.6 Fiber Reinforcement

Fiber is defined as any single unit of matter characterized by flexibility, fineness and high
aspect ratio. It is a slender filament that is longer than 100 um or the aspect ratio greater than
10. Fibers have a fine hair like structure and they are of animal, vegetable, mineral or
synthetic origin .Fibers are broadly classified into types as natural and manmade or synthetic
Fiber reinforced rubber compounds play a crucial role in high pressure hoses, transmission
belts, conveyor belts and tires(15). Until about 1890, only natural fibers were available. Just

18
before the end of the 19 the century the first synthetic fiber based on cellulose, rayon was
developed. These cellulose yarns are considered to be half synthetic, because the raw material
is still a natural polymer, cellulose. DuPont developed the first fully synthetic fiber Nylon 66,
it was commercially introduced in 1936 (Carothers).

A few years later, Nylon 6 (Schlock, 1941) and polyester (Winfield & Dickson, 1942) were
introduced. The development of advanced fibers took place around 1970. Most of these
fibers were produced from fully aromatic polymers with high temperature stability. Eventually
this led to the discovery of the liquid crystalline PPTA (paraphenylene terephthalamide), the
first super strong fiber (DuPont and Akzo Nobel). The second super strong fiber was gel spun
poly ethylene, Dyneema of DSM; introduced in 1979they provide sufficient mechanical
properties in particular stiffness and strength at acceptably low price levels. Recent advances
in natural fiber development are genetic engineering(16). The composites science offer
significant opportunities for improved materials from renewable resources with enhanced
support for global sustainability. Natural fiber composites are attractive to industry because of
their low density and ecological advantages over conventional composites. These composites
are gaining importance due to their non-carcinogenic and bio-degradable nature. Natural fiber
composites are very cost effective material especially in building and construction, packaging,
automobile and railway coach interiors and storage devices(17).

FIG 1.7 CLASSIFICATION OF COMPOSITE

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1.7 Natural Fibers
Extensive research has been done on the reinforcement of elastomers using natural fibers. The
reinforcement of elastomers using cellulose fiber was studied by different authors. Jute and
silk fibers were also added to different rubber matrices for the preparation of short fiber
rubber composites. Sisal, coir, coconut and pineapple leaf fibers were also used to reinforce
various elastomeric matrices. Natural fiber composites include coir, jute, baggase, cotton,
bamboo, hemp. Natural fibers come from plants. These fibers contain lingo cellulose in
nature. Natural fibers are eco-friendly; lightweight, strong, renewable, cheap and
biodegradable. The natural fibers can be used to reinforce both thermosetting and
thermoplastic matrices. Thermosetting resins such as epoxy, polyester, polyurethane, phenolic
are commonly used composites requiring higher performance applications. They provide
sufficient mechanical properties in particular stiffness and strength at acceptably low price
levels. Recent advances in natural fiber development are genetic engineering. The composites
science offer significant opportunities for improved materials from renewable resources with
enhanced support for global sustainability. Natural fiber composites are attractive to industry
because of their low density and ecological advantages over conventional composites. These
composites are gaining importance due to their non-carcinogenic and bio-degradable nature.
Natural fiber composites are very cost effective material especially in building and
construction, packaging, automobile and railway coach interiors and storage devices .These
composites are potential candidates for replacement of high cost glass fiber for low load
bearing applications(18). Natural fibers have the advantages of low density, low cost and
biodegradability. However, the main disadvantages of natural fiber composite are the relative
high moisture absorption. Therefore, chemical treatments are done so as to modify the fiber
surface properties (19).

1.8 Classification of Natural Fibers

Fibers are a class of hair-like material that are continuous filaments or are in discrete
elongated pieces, similar to pieces of thread. They can be spun into filaments, thread, or rope.
They can be used as a component of composites materials. They can also be matted into
sheets to make products such as paper or felt(20).Natural fibers include those made from
plant, animal and mineral sources .Natural fibers can be classified according to their origin as:

1) Animal Fibers: contains wool, silk, avian fiber. It includes sheeps wool, goat hair, horse
hair, feathers and feathers fiber.
2) Mineral fiber: Mineral fibers are naturally occurring fiber or slightly modified fiber
procured from minerals. These can be further categorized as asbestos, Ceramic, Metal fiber.
3) Plant fiber: Plant fibers are generally comprised mainly of cellulose. This fiber can be
further categorizes into following.

20
a) Seed fiber: Fibers collected from the seed and seed case e.g. cotton and kapok.
b) Leaf fiber: Fibers collected from the leaves e.g. sisal and agave.
c) Skin fiber: Fibers are collected from the skin or bast surrounding the stem of their
respective plant. These fibers have higher tensile strength than other fibers. Therefore, these
fibers are used for durable yarn, fabric, packaging, and paper. Some examples are flax, jute,
banana, hemp, and soybean.
d) Fruit fiber: Fibers are collected from the fruit of the plant, e.g. coconut (coir) fiber.
e) Stalk fiber: Fibers are actually the stalks of the plants such as straws of wheat, rice, barley,
and other crops including bamboo and grass. Tree wood is also such a fiber (21).

1.9 FiberOrientation
Fiber orientation has a significant influence on the physic mechanical properties of short fiber
reinforced rubber composites. The preferential orientation of fibers in the matrix results in the
development of anisotropy in the matrix. With respect to orientation two limits are explained
as longitudinal (along machine direction) and transverse (across machine direction), as given
in figure 1.5. It was observed that during mixing procedure lower the nip gap, higher the
anisotropy in tensile properties of the composites implyinggreater orientation of fibers.This is
represented as anisotropy index, which reduces gradually with increasing nip gap. Aktharetal.
Found a small nip gap and single pass in the mill to be the best. During processing and
subsequent fabrication of short fiber polymer composites, the fibers orient preferentially in a
direction depending upon the nature of flow i.e., convergent and divergent as explained by
Goettler. If the flow is convergent the fibers align themselves in the longitudinal direction and
if it is divergent they orient in the transverse direction.

In longitudinally oriented composites the effective stress transfer from the

matrix to the fiber occurs in the direction of fiber alignment and greater strength and
reinforcement will be experienced by the composite(22). In transversely oriented composites
the stress transfer takes place in a direction perpendicular to the fiber alignment and hence
fracture of the sample occurs at a lower tensile stress which may be equal or lower than the
strength of the matrix. Recently Thomas and co-workers have evaluated the percentage (%)
extent of orientation from green strength measurements.compound. Many researchers have
used SEM to study the fractured surface to determine the fiber orientation Senapati et. al.]
Reported that two passes through tight nip gave optimum mechanical properties for short
PET/NR composites. The effect of mill opening and the friction ratio of the mill and
temperature of the rolls on the orientation of short Kevlar fibers in TPU matrix have been
described by Kutty et. al.

21
1.9.1 Fiber Dispersion
Good dispersion of short fibers in the rubber compounds is an essential requisite for high
performance composites. The naturally occurring cellulosic fibers tend to agglomerate during
mixing due to hydrogen bonding. A pretreatment of fibers at times is necessary to reduce
fiber-fiber interactions. Natural fibers treated either with carbon black or compositions
containing latex were found to be dispersing well in the rubber matrix. Fiber length has also a
role in facilitating better dispersion(23). Derringer has used commercially available fibers
such as Nylon, rayon, polyester and acrylic flock cut into smaller lengths of 4mm to study
dispersion.

1.9.2Fiber concentration
Concentration of fibers in the matrix plays a crucial role in determining the mechanical
properties of the fiber reinforced polymer composites. A lower concentration of fibers gives
lower mechanical strength. This has been observed not only in rubbers but also in
thermoplastic elastomeric matrices. This behavior has been attributed basically to two factors,
(a) dilution of the matrix which has a significant effect at low fiber loadings and (b)
reinforcement of the matrix by the fibers which become increasingly important as fiber
volume fraction increases(24). At low fiber content, the matrix is not restrained by enough
fibers and highly localized strains occur in the matrix at low strain levels causing the bond
between fibers and the matrix to break, leaving the matrix diluted.

Non reinforcing deboned fibers. At high fiber concentrations, the matrix is sufficiently
restrained and stress is more evenly distributed thus the reinforcement effect outweighs the
dilution effect. As the concentration of fibers is increased to a higher level the tensile
properties gradually improve to give strength higher than that of the matrix. The concentration
of fibers beyond which the properties of the composite improve above the original matrix
strength is known as optimum fiber concentration. In order to achieve improvement in
mechanical properties with short fibers, the matrix is loaded beyond this volume fraction of
fiber. In rubbers this optimum fiber concentration is quite often found to lie between 25 and
35 phr. This has been observed by several researchers for various natural and synthetic fibers
in rubbers. Quite often at concentration beyond 35 to 40 phr the strength again decreases,
because there is insufficient matrix material to adhere the fibers together (25).

1.9.3 Fiber- Matrix Adhesion

Proper reinforcement of rubber matrix using fibers can be achieved only if there exist
adequate adhesion between the fiber and the rubber. The fiber- matrix adhesion is important in
determining the mechanical, dynamic mechanical and rheological characteristics of the

22
composites since the stress transfer occurs at the interface from matrix to fiber. In short fiber-
rubber composites, after the selection of suitable fiber and rubber matrix, the next most
important parameter is the achievement of adequate adhesion between the fiber and the
matrix. Mechanical interlocking at the fiber-matrix interface is possible as given in figure 1.6
(e). The degree of roughness of the fiber surface is very significant in determining the
mechanical and chemical bonding at the interface. This is due to the larger surface area
available on a rough fiber. Surface roughness can increase the adhesive bond strength by
promoting wetting or providing mechanical anchoring sites.
Naturally occurring fibers such as cotton, cellulose, etc., have short whiskers
protruding from the surface, which help to give a physical bond when mixed in rubber. Glass,
Nylon,polyester and rayon has smooth surfaces and adhesion of these fibers to the rubber
matrix is comparatively poor. This type of linkage is possible when there is a charge
difference at the interface. The anionic and cationic species present at the fiber and matrix
phases will have an important role in the bonding of the fiber matrix composites via
electrostatic attraction. Introduction of coupling agents at the interface can enhance bonding
through the attraction of cationic functional groups by anionic surface and vice versa (26).

FIG 1.8 FIBER MATRIX ADHESION

23
1.10 The fiber- matrix interface adhesion can be explained by five main
mechanisms.

1.10.1 Adsorption and Wetting

This is due to the physical attraction between the surfaces, which is better understood by
considering the wetting of solid surfaces by liquids. Between two solids, the surface
roughness prevents the wetting except at isolated points. When the fiber surface is
contaminated, the effective surface energy decreases. This hinders a strong physical bond
between fiber and matrix interface.

1.10.2 Inter Diffusion

Polymer molecules can be diffused into the molecular network of the fiber surface as shown
in figure 1.4 a. The bond strength will depend on the amount of molecular conformation,
constituents involved and the ease of molecular motion.

1.10.3 Electrostatic Attraction

This type of linkage is possible when there is a charge difference at the interface. The anionic
and cationic species present at the fiber and matrix phases will have an important role in the
bonding of the fiber matrix composites via electrostatic attraction. Introduction of coupling
agents at the interface can enhance bonding through the attraction of cationic functional
groups by anionic surface and vice versa.

1.10.4 Chemical Bonding

Chemical bonds can be formed between chemical groups on the fiber surface and a
compatible chemical group in the matrix. The type of bond determines the strength. Interfacial
chemical bonding can increase the adhesive bond strength by preventing molecular slippage at
a sharp interface during fracture and by increasing the fracture energy by increasing the
interfacial attraction.

1.10.5 Mechanical Adhesion

Mechanical interlocking at the fiber-matrix interface is possible as given in figure 1.6 (e). The
degree of roughness of the fiber surface is very significant in determining the mechanical and
chemical bonding at the interface. This is due to the larger surface area available on a rough
fiber. Surface roughness can increase the adhesive bond strength by promoting wetting or
providing mechanical anchoring sites (27).

24
 Naturally occurring fibers such as cotton, cellulose, etc., have short whiskers
protruding from the surface, which help to give a physical bond when mixed in rubber. Glass,
Nylon, polyester and rayon have smooth surfaces and adhesion of these fibers to the rubber
matrix iscomparatively poor (28).

They are used in air frames, wing spars, spoilers, tail-plane structures, fuel tanks, drop
tanks, bulkheads, flooring, helicopter rotor blades, propellers, and structural components,
pressured gas containers, and landing geardoors, fairings, engine nacelles (particularly where
containment capability is required for jet engines), air distribution ducts, seat components,
access panels, and so forth. Many modern light aircraft are being increasingly designed to
contain as much lightweight composite material as possible. For elevated-temperature
applications carbon-fiber-reinforced carbon is in use. Concord's disk brakes use this material,
rocket nozzles and re-entry shields have been fashioned from it (29).

FIG 1.9 Fiber- matrix interface adhesion can be explained by five main
mechanisms.

25
1.11 Advantages of Composite Materials:-
{1} Micromechanics,

{2} Macro mechanics,

{3} Mechanical Characterization,

{4} Structural Design and Optimization,

{5} Fabrication Technology,

{6} Maintainability, Serviceability and Durability

{7}Cost Effectiveness.

1.12 Significance of Composite Materials

The Study of composites is a philosophy of material design that allows for the optimum
material composition along with structural design and optimization in one concurrent and
interactive process. The scope of composite materials research and technology consists of
following tasks:

*Investigation of basic characteristics of the constituent and composite materials.

*Material optimization for given service conditions.

*Development of effective and efficient fabrication procedures and understanding of their

effect on material properties.

*Development of analytical procedures for determining material properties and prediction of

structural behavior.

*Development of effective experimental methods for material characterization, stress

analysis, and failure analysis.

*Non-destructive evaluation of material integrity and structural reliability.

*Assessment of durability, flaw criticality and life prediction (30).

1.13 Application of Composite in Various Fields

26
This is a brief listing of current and proposed applications of composite materials in various
branches of industries. It is not intended to be comprehensive or all-embracing, but merely to
give an indication of the range of possibilities for designers.

1.13.1Aerospace
A wide range of load-bearing and non-load-bearing components are already in use in both
fixed-wing and rotary wing aircraft. Many military and civil aircraft now contain substantial
quantities of lightweight, high-strength carbon-, Kevlar- and glass-fibre composites, as
laminated panels and mouldings, and as composite honeycomb structures with metallic or
resin-impregnated paper honeycomb core materials. They are used in air frames, wing spars,
spoilers, tail-plane structures, fuel tanks, drop tanks, bulkheads, flooring, helicopter rotor
blades, propellers, and structural components, pressured gas containers, and landing gear
doors, fairings, engine nacelles (particularly where containment capability is required for
jetengines),air distribution ducts, seat components, access panels, and so forth(31). Many
modern light aircraft are being increasingly designed to contain as much lightweight
composite material as possible. For elevated-temperature applications carbon-fiber-reinforced
carbon is in use. Concord's disk brakes use this material, rocket nozzles and re-entry shields
have been fashioned from it, and there are other possibilities for its use as static components
in jet engines. Rocket motor casings and rocket launchers are also frequently made of
reinforced plastics.
A particularly interesting (and important) application of composites is in its
development in Australia as a means of repairing battle damage (patching) in metal aircraft
structures. Space applications offer many opportunities for employing light-weight, high-
rigidity structures for structural purposes. Many of the requirements are the same as those for
aeronautical structures, since there is a need to have low weight and high stiffness in order to
minimize loads and avoid the occurrence of buckling frequencies. Dimensional stability is at a
premium, for stable antennae and optical platforms, for example, and materials need to be
transparent to radio-frequency waves and stable towards both u-variation and moisture (32).

1.13.2 Automotive Engineering

There is increasing interest in weight reduction in order to permit both energy conservation
and increased motoring economy. Reduction in the weight of an automobile structure achieves
primary weight-saving and if carried to sufficiently great lengths enables the designer to use
smaller power plants, thus achieving substantial secondary improvements in fuel economy.
The majority of automotive applications involve glass-reinforced plastics because the extra
cost of carbon or aramid fiber is rarely considered to be acceptable in this market. Even so, the
cost of using GRP is usually being weighed against the much lower cost of pressed steel

27
components, and the substitution is often rejected on purely economic grounds, leaving aside
the question of energy saving. A wide range of car and truck body moldings, panels and doors
is currently in service, including complete front-end mouldings, fascias, bumper mouldings,
and various kinds of trim. There is considerable interest in the use of controlled crush
components based on the high energy-absorbing qualities of materials like GRP.
Leaf and coil springs and truck drive shafts are also in service, and GRP wheel rims and inlet
manifolds have been described in the literature. Selective reinforcement of aluminum alloy
components, such as pistons and connecting rods, with alumina fibres is much discussed with
reference to increased temperature capability (33).

1.13.3 Bio-Engineering
Carbon-fibre-reinforced plastic and carbon components are in use for prosthetic purposes,
such as inorthopaedic fracture fixation plates, femoral stems for hip replacements, mandibular
andmaxillary prostheses (jaw remodeling, for example), and for external orthotic supports in
cases of limb deformities. Paralytic carbon is used to manufacture heart valve components,
and the substitution of a carbon/carbon composite is not unlikely. There have also been
developments in the use of particulate hydroxyapatite as filler in a thermoplastic composite
for bone remodeling or replacement(34).

1.13.4 Chemical Engineering

A substantial amount of GRP is currently in use in chemical plant for containers, pressure
vessels, pipe-work, valves, centrifuges etc.
These may be filament-wound or mounded components for containment of process
fluids(35).

1.13.5 Civil/Structural Engineering

Again the bulk of composites used in this field are glass-reinforced plastics. The low inherent
elastic modulus of GRP is easily overcome in buildings by the use of double curvature and
folded-plate structures: thin GRP panels also offer the advantage of translucency. Glass-
reinforced cement (GRC) products made with Cem-FIL (alkali-resistant glass fibres) are
gradually being introduced as structural cement-based composites, but these GRC are still
regarded with some suspicion by architects who prefer to consider only non-load-bearing
applications for glass-reinforced cement. Development of suitable highly-drawn polymer
fibres and net-like polymeric reinforcement has made it possible to produce stable polymer-
reinforced cement for a variety of purposes.

28
But concrete is the cheapest engineering material available, and it requires very little in the
way of expensive reinforcing filaments to be added to it to make it uncompetitive. The answer
is usually to use more concrete! But GRC is perhaps likely to attract the more adventurous
designer with light-weight concrete structures in mind (thin shell structures for example (36).

A good deal of GRP is used in this industry for folded-plate structures, cladding
panels, decorative sculptured panels (like those in the doors of the Roman Catholic cathedral
in Liverpool), services mouldings and ducting, racking, pipe work, rainwater mouldings,
domestic and industrial water tanks, form-work for concrete, and complete small structures
like foot-bridges. Light-weight composite paneling for partitioning and similar applications
has also been tried. CFRP have been less used until recently because of the cost, but are
increasingly being considered for building light-weight structures, including a number of
bridges. Current applications include the use of pultruded FRP shapes as individual structural
elements and shear stiffeners for concrete structures, as reinforcing bars for concrete,
components in composite/concrete structures, as externally applied impact containment
supports, and as patches for damaged concrete bridgework.

1.13.6 Domestic
Injection-moulded reinforced thermoplastics and polyester molding compounds are perhaps
the most common composites used in consumer items for the domestic market, and the range
is vast. Mouldings of all kinds, from kitchen equipment of all kinds to casings for the whole
gamut of domestic and professional electrical equipment, motor-cycle crash helmets,
television and computer casings, and furniture(37).

1.13.7 Electrical Engineering

Typical applications are radomes, structural components for switch gear, power generator
coolant containment and large-diameter butterfly valves, high-strength insulators (e.g. for
overhead conductor systems), printed circuit boards, and casings for electronic equipment.
The majority of applications in this field again use GRP, although the use of composites which
are more thermally stable and more moisture-resistant is increasingly predicated for sensitive,
small-scale electronic components. Many prototype and practical wind-generator designs
incorporate G.RP or hybrid blading (38).

1.13.8 Marine Engineering

Applications include surface vessels, offshore structures and underwater applications. A vast
range of pleasure craft has long been produced in GRP, but much serious use is also made of
the same materials for hull and superstructure construction of passenger transport vessels,

29
fishing boats and military (mine-countermeasures) vessels. Sea-water cooling circuits may
also be made of GRP as well as hulls and other structures. Off-shore structures such as oil rigs
also make use of reinforced plastics, especially if they can be shown to improve on the safety
of steel structures, for fire protection piping circuits, walkways, flooring, ladders, tanks and
storage vessels, blast panels, and accommodation modules. High specific compression
properties also make composite materials attractive for submersibles and submarine
structures, both for oil exploration and for military purposes, and for towed transducer arrays
for sea-bed sonar mapping (39).

1.13.9 Sport
Perhaps the most visible development in the use of composites has been in the sports goods
industry. Manufacturers have been quick to seize on the potential advantages of new materials
like carbon and boron fibre composites over conventional wood and metal for sports
equipment of all kinds, but whether the average sportsman (and perhaps even someof the
above-averageones) who have been inveigled into buying this more expensive composite
equipment in the hope that it would improve their game have been able to demonstrate
genuine improvement remains uncertain.
GRP vaulting poles were perhaps the earliest of the composite sports gear, but one can now
obtain tennis rackets, cricket bats, golf clubs, fishing rods, boats, oars, archery equipment,
canoes and canoeing gear, surf boards, wind-surfers, skateboards, skis, ski-poles, bicycles, and
protective equipment of many sorts in composite materials of one kind or another. In an
industry that is often less directly subject to controls exercised in other areas of engineering
there is often a tendency to dupe customers with the use of names which incorporate the
words carbon or graphite to describe expensive, black colored items which may at the
present time legitimately contain little or no carbon fiber.
The technology of composite materials has experienced a rapid development in last
two decades due to (a) significant progress in materials science and technology in the area of
fibers, polymers and ceramics,(b)requirements for high performance materials in aircraft and
aerospace structures,(c)development of powerful and sophisticated analysis using modern
numerical methods for structural analysis using modern computer technology. Prospects for
the future are bright as cost is decreasing due to market expansion, fabrication process is
becoming less costly, automation is introduced and availability of many good interactive
computer programs for numerical analysis.
Recent electronic devices are packaged with different polymeric materials and usually
epoxy or polyester resins are used for encapsulation.But due to their low thermal conductivity
and high CTE has become a secondary choice for such applications.Use of polymers in high
cost embedded heat sinks requires new class of particulate filled composites to enhance the
thermal conductivity of polymers.Improved thermal conductivity in polymers may be

30
achieved by molecular orientation or by the addition of conductive fillers.Aluminum oxide
with a high thermal conductivity, low dielectric constant and low CTE therefore emerges as a
suitable filler material to be used in polymeric materials. In view of this, in the present work,
aluminum oxide (Al2O3) is chosen as the ceramic filler to be dispersed within epoxy resin.
The objective of this paper is to analyses the heat transport through the Al2O3-epoxy
composites and to evaluate the effective thermal conductivity of these composites by
numerical as well as experimental method. Through addition of highly conductive inorganic
filler into the resin matrix, it is possible to achieve a better thermal conduction path and
decrease the thermal contact resistance at the fillerresin matrix interface that attributes to
increase in thermal conductivity (40).

31
 Chapter- 2
LITERATURE REVIEW

Since 1930s, polymers have made significant advances in the markets of metals, wood,
glass, paper, leather, and vulcanized rubber that were conventionally used in most household
goods and industrial components as well as creating new markets of their own. The main
reason behind the widespread use of polymers is their unique set of properties such as
toughness, light weight, low cost, and ease of processing and fabrication. Even though
polymers are not the panacea of industrys material problems, their unique set of properties
have made them one of the important classes of materials finding their way into widespread
use in the electronic industries. The goals for multifunctional electronic packaging materials
are that they should be lightweight, injection mouldable into complex shapes, and should have
tailored electrical conductivity. Polymers have properties that may help in achieving these
goals; however, they are poor thermal conductors, which is the required fundamental property
for electronic packaging application. One of the common methods to fabricate materials with
multifunctional properties is by having a composite of two or more materials. For the
electronic packaging application, a polymer matrix may be filled with conductive fillers to
obtain all the above mentioned multifunctional properties. A continuous conductive network
of particles throughout the matrix material can improve the effective thermal conductivity of a
polymer composite while keeping the intrinsic properties of a polymer.
Technology is a substantial improvement since polymers are commonly used due to
their thermal isolating properties. The advantages of thermally conductive polymers over
metals are reduced density; increased corrosion, oxidation, and chemical resistance; increased
processibility; and properties are adjustable to fit the application. However, polymers have
many disadvantages; for example, creep, thermal instability, and a limited number of
processing techniques. The main application for thermally conductive polymers is heat sinks.
Other possible benefits are faster injection mounding cycle times and improved thermal
stability. The increasing demand for smaller, lighter, and faster machines and electronics has
created a need for new materials. In addition, industry has a growing need to tailor the
properties of materials, including thermal conductivity, to desired applications.

This literature review provides background information on the issues to be considered in this
thesis and emphasizes the relevance of the present study. This treatise embraces some related
aspects of polymer composites with special reference to their impact and behavior
characteristics.

The topics include brief review:

32
 1-on impact of composites material
2-on behavior of composites material
3-on particulate reinforcement

Rajesh et. al. [1] conducted an experimental study in which silk & flax fiber reinforced epoxy
composites were prepared The composite samples having different fiber weight ratio were
prepared by using the compression moulding process with 1500psi pressure at 800C
temperature. Theses samples were then subjected to the mechanical testing such as tensile,
flexural and impact loading. It was observed that the fiber & resin ratio 40:60 showed best
tensile strength, flexural strength and impact strength among all the samples prepared. It was
suggested that this weight ratio should be used for the fabrication of for silk & flax fiber
reinforced epoxy.

Kumar et. al. [2] conducted an experimental study in which different specimens of bamboo
fiber reinforced epoxy composites having compositions were prepared. These specimens were
then subjected to tensile, flexural and hardness testing. It was observed that he tensile strength
and flexural strength of bamboo-epoxy composite increases up to a certain level of fiber
loading and then starts decreasing on further fiber loading. These maximum values were
obtained at 25wt% of fiber loading. Moreover it was also observed that surface hardness of
bamboo-epoxy composite improved up to 25wt% of fiber loading and after that the hardness
was nearly constant.

Fakhrul et. al. [3] conducted a study for understanding the effect of using small quantities of
wheat flour and saw dust on different mechanical, morphological, water absorption and
thermal properties of polypropylene. It was observed that addition of saw dust and wheat flour
lowered the tensile strength and percentage elongation. It was due to the improper adhesion
between natural fiber and plastic matrix, which was later confirmed by morphological study
of sample. However the water absorption capacity of sample increased making it suitable for
the applications requiring bio dregabiity. Furthermore thermal properties were also enhanced.
Therefore it was concluded that addition of sawdust and wheat flour to polypropylene was
overall beneficial.

Mustapa et. al. [4] studied the effects of coupling agent and impact modifier on the
mechanical properties of polypropylene rice husk composites. It was observed that rice husk
increased the flexural modulus but decreased the flexural and impact strength of PP
composites. Moreover incorporation of 4 wt% of maleic anhydride modified polypropylene
wax into the composite with 30 wt% of rice increased the flexural strength but decreased the
flexural modulus and impact strength. Therefore requirement of a detailed study for the
standard composition was needed.

33
Somnuk et al. [5] studied the effect of vetiver particle sizes on the rheological, thermal, and
mechanical properties of the composites. Moreover the effects of vetiver particle sizes, and
vetiver contents on shear-induced crystallization layer, degree of crystallinity, and crystallinity
distribution were also studied. It was observed that the mechanical properties such as
tensilestrength, and Youngs modulus of vetiver grass-PPcomposite were shown to be higher.

Strength and Youngs modulus of vetiver grass-PPcomposite were shown to be higher than
those of neat PP. Also, the vetiver particle sizes, and the vetiver contents showed the
significant influence on the crystallization of the vetiver grass-PP composite. The higher rate
of crystallization and number of effective nuclei, but the lower growth rate of vetiver grass-PP
composite wasobserved.

Yang et. al. [6] conducted an experimental investigation to study the mechanical and
morphological properties of the composite materials having rice husk flour as reinforcing
filler. Samples having different levels of filler loading were prepared. Tensile test andnotched
and unnotched Izard impact strength test were conducted for studying the mechanical
properties. Study of fractured surfaces obtained was conducted for the morphological study. It
was observedthattensile strength of the samples slightly decreased as the filler loading was
increased while the tensile modulus was improved on increasing the filler loading. It was also
observed that in notched and unnotched Izod impact test that strengths were lowered by the
addition of rice-husk flour. Moreover the composite became brittle at higher crosshead speed,
and with increase in test temperature it showed plastic deformation.

Khiyavi et. al. [7] conducted a study to produce copper reinforced metal matrix
composite(MMC) using micron sized chromium particles via friction stir processing (FSP) in
order to study the effects of adding Cr particles to copper based matrix by FSP. The Cu/Cr
metal matrix composite was produced successfully by friction stir processing in constant
rotational speed of 1600 rpm traverse speeds of 40, 80, 160 mm/min . It was observed that at
lower traverse speeds more uniform dispersion and smaller grain size was obtained and at
higher traverse speed of 80 mm/min, relatively higher values of micro-hardness in comparison
with traverse speed of 40 mm/min was observed and also the wear resistance of specimen
with traverse speed of 80 mm/min was higher than specimen with traverse speed of 160
mm/min.

Puvanasvaran et. al. [8] conducted a study for the investigation of mechanical properties of
sawdust and chipwood filled epoxy based composite. This study was carried out for three
different sizes of fiber derived from chip wood (CW) and sawdust (SW). These sizes were
categorized as soft, rough and coarse. The SW and CW fibers were blended with epoxy
by using hand tools machine respectively, then open molding was employed to them to form a
fiber composite. It was observed that the rough sawdust composite exhibit greater mechanical
properties compared to chip wood. It was concluded that the factors which influence the
natural composite depends on the fiber source, size, shape, processes, separation in matrix and

34
bonding in matrixes. The other potential factor of great importance is the defects already
present in the fiber.

Idrus et. al. [9] conducted a study to investigate the mechanical and morphological
propertiesof composites based on treated tropical sawdust and polypropylene(PP). The
influence of the chemically treated sawdust on the physical and mechanical properties of
sawdust-PP composites were investigated at various loading level. It was observed that the
mechanical properties of the chemically treated sawdust-PP composites were found to be
higher than those of the raw ones respectively. In scanning electron microscopy (SEM),
surface morphology obtained showed that raw saw-dust-PP composites possess surface
roughness and weak interfacial adhesion between the matrix and the filler while the
chemically treated one showed improved filler-matrixinteraction. Water absorption tests
shows that composites prepared with chemic.

Bavan D. et. al. [11] conducted an experimental investigation to study the tensile and thermal
decomposition properties of the treated vetiver composites. Vetiver fiber composites were
prepared by a hand lay method. On this prepared sample tensile and flexural tests were
conducted and for thermal degradation analysis, thermal gravimetric analyzer was used. In
tensile and flexural test samples made with treated vetiver showed better results than that of
without treatment. Similarly in the thermal analysis samples made with treated vetiver showed
improved results then samples made with raw vetiver. Therefore it was concluded that
composites made with chemically treated fiber have potential to compete with the composites
made with traditional fibers in terms of mechanical and thermal properties.

Ruksakulpiwat et. al.[12] studied the physical and mechanical properties of vetiver
composites. Vetiverpolypropylene (PP) composites having various ratios of vetiver content
and vetiver length were prepared using the injection moulding technique. It was observed that
vetiverPP composites exhibited higher tensile strength and Youngs modulus but lower
elongation at break and impact strength compared to the PP. It was also observed that increase
in vetiver content led to an increase in heat distortion temperature,viscosity, crystallization
temperature, and Youngs modulus of the composites. While on the other hand, the tensile
strength, decomposition temperature, elongation at break, and impact strength decreased with
increasing vetiver content. Moreover the chemical treatment of the vetiver grass improved the
mechanical properties of the composites.Thus it can be concluded that chemical treated
natural fibers composites can be looked as a prominent substitute to conventional fiber
composites.

Vinayagamoorthy et. al. [13] studied the characteristics of vitver/glass reinforced hybrid
composites. Four hybrid composite specimens were prepared by woven glass fibers, vetiver
and resin. In these samples proportions of randomly oriented vetiver and woven glass fibers
were varied while the resin proportion was kept constant. In three samples chemically treated
vetiver was used while in remaining one untreated vetiver was used. It was observed that
tensile, flexural, compression and impact strengths are lesser for the specimen having
untreated vetiver. Moreover micrograph of this specimen also shows improper adhesion

35
between the resin and vetiver fibers. Thus it was concluded that with careful selection of
natural fiber proportions and by proper chemical treatments to the natural fibers it is possible
to use vetiver fibers as substitute for glass fibers.

Prabhu et. al. [14] evaluated the mechanical properties of human hair & reinforced epoxy
composites. Five samples were prepared using hand lay method. In these samples the weight
percentage of epoxy was fixed while the weight percentage of kenaf fiber along with hair was
varied. After that flexural testing, tensile testing and impact testing were conducted on these
samples. It was observed that sample having equal amount of kenaf and hair showed the best
mechanical properties. It was concluded that use of waste like kenaf and hair can be seen as
promising alternate for the conventional fibers used in composites.

Senthilnathan et. al. [15] evaluated the mechanical properties of glass fiber, coconut coir and
human hair reinforced composites. In this study six samples were prepared having variable
ratio of glass fiber, coconut coir and human hair. Various tests such as tensile, flexural, shear,
impactand hardness tests were then conducted on these samples. It was observed that sample
having only coconut coir was having the maximum tensile load capacity. While sample having
human hair-coconut coir-glass-human hair hybrid composite exhibits highest flexible test
characteristics. This sample also shows considerable impact strength and maximum double
shear strength values comparing to other composites. Therefore it was concluded that human
hair-coconut coir-glass-human hair hybrid composite is more suitable for highly flexibility,
impact and double shear strength load applications.

Geisha et. al. [16] examined the water absorption and mechanical properties of sisal/coconut
coir natural fibers and epoxy composites. Samples of sisal/coconut coir epoxy composites
were fabricated with varying percentages of fibers by weight. Water absorption tests were
conducted by immersing the composite specimens in distilled water in plastic tub at room
temperature for different time durations while tensile strength and flexural strength tests were
conducted for mechanical testing. It was observed that the percentage of moisture uptake
increased as the fiber volume fraction was increased. The tensile and flexural properties of
Natural fiber reinforced Epoxy composite specimens were found to decrease with increase in
percentage moisture uptake. Moreover moisture induced degradation of composite samples
was observed at elevated temperature. The water absorption pattern of these composites at
room temperature was found to follow Fickian behavior, whereas the water absorption
properties at higher temperature did not follow Ficks law.
Bruno Bourse et. al [17], were conducted an experiment in which the HexMC, an advanced
form of effective and robust material form to produce smaller compression molding
techniques. It is leading more aerospace structural applications. Failure criteria on DFC result
in overdesigned parts. This paper highlights differences counterpart. These findings are some
of the building failure criteria and inspection techniques for DFC. In this experiment HexMC
is relatively insens HexMC is relatively insensitive to the types and sizes of defects that
affect CFC HexMC is much more damage tolerant than CFC Initial cracks created while

36
testing HexMC coupons/parts do not correlate failure load or give a good indication of the
final failure location. HexMC is very tolerant to fatigue when compared to CFC.
Chokri Cherif et. al [18]was conducted an experiment with the tests performed; it was
possible to gain first important knowledge for future tension tests of textile yarns under high
load rates. Significant aspects of the test set-up as well as the necessary measuring methods
for the determination of the load-time course and the path-time course within a very short test
period could be identified. Especially the problem of force measurement under high test
speeds in combination with a suitable test stand will be the focus of future research.
Furthermore, it could be noticed during the performed tests that the semi-elastic damping
during the power transfer from the test machine to the test body with the help of an
accelerating piston causes a long delay in the target speeds being reached. Hence,
technologies need to be developed that help the load initiating device coming from the test
stand to push the test body to reach the target speed within the shortest time possible.
Grisha et. al [18]were conducted an experiment in which the experiments are carried out to
determine tensile, flexural and impact properties of jute and hemp reinforced epoxy and
polyester hybrid composites for 300, 450 and 900fibre orientations.Composites with polyester
resin as matrix give more tensile, flexural and impact strength than epoxy based hybrid
composites. The tensile, flexural and impact strength is observed to be maximum at 900
orientations in both epoxy and Polyester based composites. Diagonal inclinations of the
reinforcing fibres gives poor mechanical properties as observed in 300, 450 oriented.

J. Sahari1 et. al. [19]was conducted an experiment in which the Natural fibre reinforced
biodegradable polymer composites appear to have very bright future for wide range of
applications. These biocomposite materials with various interesting properties may soon be
competitive with the existing fossil plastic materials. However, the present low level of
production and high cost restrict them for to be applied in industrial application. In addition,
its hydrophilic properties make the real challenge to design the product which can be good
candidate for outdoor applications. Thus, further research and improvement should be
conducted so that these fullydegraded composites can easily be manipulated and can give
benefit to all mankind and environmental issues.

Dixit S. et. al. [20], was conducted an experiment in which work is being an experimental
study on untreated (coir/ sisal/ jute) fibre-reinforced polyester composites. It has been shown
in this study the tensile properties of natural fibre composites can be significantly improved
by natural fibres in a sandwich reduction in water absorption of natural fibre composites is
also obtained with the sandwich construction. This work also demonstrates the potential of
these hybrid natural fibre composite materials for use in a number of consumable goods.

37
V. Kleisnera et. al. [21] the work is dedicated to the simulation of car bumper behavior
according to prescribed safety procedures. The main part of the work is focused on the design
of new composite bumper reinforcement with the aim to maintain or improve its mechanical
properties while reducing the mass. The numerical models for PAM-Crash software using
shell elements and Ledeve`ze model for the composite material are validated by experimental
measurements..Thedamage analysis provedone ofthe prole to be a suitablereplacement for
theoriginal part as it showed no fracture and, moreover, a great mass reduction could be
achieved with the use of the compositestructure. However, the matter of price and damage of
the reinforcement due to composite material delimitation must be further inspected. This
problem has not been involved in the numerical modeled.
Theconnectionbetweenthereinforcementandthe deformable lementwasalsonot resolve din this
work since it is rather a technological issue.

Iangiacomo Minak1, Zlatan oki, Ana Pavlovi, [22]in this paper presented an analysis of
variation of mechanical quantities during low-velocity impact tests of a composite structure.
The experimentally investigated structure was air-take manifold CAB for car engines made of
PA66 polyamide with 35% of glass fibers. The results have shown that equivalent stiffness has
the best potential of identifying the state of the structure from the point of view of
experimental and theoretical approach. Besides, the results of analysis have confirmed the
results of previous research that the force that causes the first failure of structure and force that
causes perforation of the structure do not depend on energy of the impact or show strain rate
dependence. However, the results of the study did not reveal any precursor of incoming
penetration failure in behavior of mechanical quantities except for decrease in stiffness of the
structure immediately before the breakdown of the structure. Moreover, it was established that
the penetration force and displacement were smaller than the forces and displacements that in
previous impacts did not cause critical failure of the structure.

B. Zibowicz et all [23] was conducted an experiment in which this paper was Based on the
investigations carried out it was found out that the most advantageous conjunction of the
magnetic and mechanical properties is displayed by composites with the 5% polyethylene
mass portion with the nanocrystalline Fe73.5Cu1Nb3Si13.5B9 alloy powder obtained by
milling the strips for 0.25 h. The worked out, frame technological process of composite
materials consisting of nanocrystalline powders of magnetically soft material and thermal
polymer may present the basis for applying different technological modifications that make it
possible to choose any operations in terms of the expected mechanical and magnetic
properties of composite materials. The manufacturing of composite materials greatly expand
the applicable possibilities ofnanocrystalline powders of magne- tically soft materials.

38
Allan Manalo et. al. [24]was conducted an experiment the flexural behavior and failure
mechanisms of an innovative composite sandwich beams in flat wise and edgewise positions
have been studied experimentally, analytically and numerically.Theexperimental investigation
showed that under flexural loading, the composite sandwich beams in the flat wise position
failed with sudden brittle type failure. In the edgewise position, the presence of
fibrecomposite skins increased the ultimate strength of the composite sandwiches. When
tensile cracks of the core occurred, the non-horizontal skins prevented it from widening and
prevented the sudden failure of the composite sandwich.

C.Poon et. al. [25], a review of major research activities in North America with respect to the
crashworthiness of composite aircraft structures was performed with the goal of identifying
potential canadian contribution to R&D areas where effort would be required to complement
the on-going programs in the United States. The areas reviewed included the crashworthiness
design criteria of the U.S. Army; major experimental programs undertaken by the FAA, the
U.S. Army, NASA, and Bell Helicopter Textron Inc. in the U.S., as well as the University of
Toronto in Canada in developing crashworthiness design concepts for composite structures;
and the capabilities of crash dynamics computer codes. Recommendations include a study on
the effect of aircraft size on crashworthiness design requirements; the implementation of the
KRASH code in Canada to establish commonality in analytical methods with major U.S. and
European users; an investigation on the energy absorption capabilities of the design features
for small aircraft containing composite and/or composite/hybrid structures; and a parametric
study on the crashworthiness design of composite-to-composite and composite-to-metal
joints.

R Wisdom et. al. [26] was conducted an experiment in which theunit cell analyses to predict
the mechanical behavior of textile composites, based on their "TexGen" textile modeling
schema. TexGen can model the geometry of and weaves, triaxial braids and non-crimp fabrics,
and incorporates functions to discretise tow and resin volumes, and assign material properties
and boundary conditions automatically. For structural FEA simulations, elastic properties and
failure criteria for the tows are based on micromechanics, and a simple continuum damage
model is used to predict stress-strain to final failure. This has been applied recently to quasi-
static and fatigue loading

Dr. A. K. Pickett et. al. [27]was conducted an experiment in which FE simulations with bi-
phase model predict well observed failure modes of composite elements under crash and
impact loadshelicopter EA floor beam structureswing access panel under high velocity
impactFor complex crush anddelaminationfailure modes, simulated loads and EA levels do
not agree quantitatively with test resultsfurther improvements required in materials and
numerical modeling. Improved composites models under development in HICASdamage

39
mechanics models for UD and fabric ply in-plane propertiesinterlaminarfailure models based
on fracture mechanicsinclusion of strain rate dependenceFirst trials with code
implementations in PAM-CRASH look promisingfabric ply damage model implemented and
testedstacked shell elements with slide lines tested in mode I failure.

SK. Nagoor Vali et. al. [28] experiments were conducted to characterize the surfaces of treated
and untreated fibers and to investigate tensile property, flexural property and impact property
in natural fiber composites. Tensile strength of the acrylonitrile treated 5 mm fiber length
obtained good result due to better mechanical interlocking between the fiber and matrix.
Flexural strength of the alkaline treated 9 mm fiber length obtained good result due to better
mechanical interlocking also between the fiber and matrix. Impact strength of the alkaline
treated (7, 9 mm) fiber length obtained same results due to better mechanical interlocking
between the fiber and matrix. Lastly, the alkaline treated (7, 9 mm) fiber had the overall best
result in that it obtained good result due to better mechanical interlocking between the fiber
and matrix. From the above result, it can be concluded that the 3 mm fiber were not suitable
for short fiber (JUTE) epoxy composite.

Bruno Boursier et all [29] This paper highlights differences counterpart. These findings are
some of the building failure criteria and inspection techniques for DFC. In this experiment
find out the different techniques to solve the problem realeted to the dfc.Bongarde1.

V.D.Shinde et. al. [30] were conducted an experiment in which focuses on the progress of
natural fiber reinforced composites. Industries are in constant search of new materials to lower
costs and profit margins. Due to the challenges of petroleum based products and the need to
find renewable resources. Natural fibers have cost and energy advantages over traditional
reinforcing fibers such glass and carbon. Now a days research is going on development of
bio-composites to replace traditional materials. The combination of different natural fibers
found to give better mechanical and physical properties.Fiber matrix interface should be
improved. The current challenge is to make them cost effective. The efforts to produce
economically attractive composite components have resulted in several innovative
manufacturing techniques currently being used in the composites industry.

Mohan Krishna et. al. [31] were conducted an experiment in which composites
characteristically have a discontinuous fiber or particle phase that is stronger than the
continuous phase matrix. Generally, there must be a substantial volume fraction of the
discontinuous phase in order to provide reinforcementGenerally, the hybrid metal matrix
composites have higher thermal conductivity and low thermal expansion coefficient, the
hybrid composites not only have the desirable low CTEs, but also have relative low content of
Silicon Carbide reinforcement compared to Al-SiCP composites. Particle Reinforced Matrix

40
Composites (PMMCs) possess distinct advantages over fiber reinforced composites in terms
of cost, isotropic mechanical properties and the potentiality to be processed using the
technology similar to that used for monolithic materials. Al/Sic/Graphite hybrid metal matrix
composites exhibits better and favorable thermal properties and are extensively used for
aerospace application.

Nikhil V Nayak et. al. [32] were conducts an experiment in which ratio of material having
high strength is check and finally conclude that: Composite materials offer high fatigue and
corrosion resistance. Composite materials have high strength to weight ratio. So they are best
suited for various aerospace applications.

Mr. M. Nayeem Ahmed et. al.[33] is conducted an experiment in which investigated for the
hybrid composites and the results obtained after testing the following conclusion are drawn. It
is found that the Hybrid Composite exhibited more tensile and mechanical properties when
compared to the Glass fibre composites irrespective of their thickness.By the addition of
graphite powder tensile strength is enhanced as it mixes up with the resin and acts as the
reinforcement within the resin. Addition of graphite in composite enhances the thermal
properties of the composite as graphite is the good conductor.With this study it is concluded
that composition of multiple materials leads to the improvement in mechanical and thermal
properties.

ChircoR mihael et. al.[34] conducted an experiment in which the in many cases, using composites
is more efficient. For example, in the highly competitive market, one is continuously looking
for ways to lower the overall mass of the craft without decreasing the stiffness and strength of
its components. This is possible by replacing conventional metal alloys with composite
materials. Even if the composite material costs may be higher, the reduction in the number of
parts in an assembly and the savings in fuel costs make them more profitable. These may
include improved strength, stiffness, fatigue and impact resistance, thermal conductivity,
corrosion resistance, etc.

Harley K. et. al. [35]were conducted an experiment where the influence of the preload
conditions (biaxial) on the behavior of plates made of woven glass/polyester composite
laminate materials under impact loading has been studied to determine the residual velocity
and the ballistic limit. In the biaxial preloaded panels, the ballistic limit for the projectile used
proved approximately 11% higher. The existence of preload did not affect the contributions of
each energy term. The energy absorbed due to tensile failure of primaryyarns and due to
matrix cracking did not contribute significantly to the reduction of the kinetic energy of the
projectile.

41
R. S lakes et. al. [36] wereconducted an experiment for MaHigh-loss composites are taking
knowledge for the following reasons. In current technology, polymer layers are able to
suppress bending vibration of thin plates. They have the disadvantages of temperature
sensitivity, flammability, a narrow effective range of tem-perature and frequency, and a
comparative inability to control vibration in deformation modes other than bending. For free
layer damping, the figure of merit for the layerdisonmaterial is the product of Youngs
modulus and mechanical damping: Etna. Therefore a combination of high stiffness and high
damping is beneficial, but difficult to attain in polymers. For polymers of the highest damping
(tan>1), the full width at half maximum of the damping peak at constant frequency may be
only about 18.

42
 Chapter-3
MATERIAL METHODOLOGY

This chapter describes the details of processing of the composites and the experimental
procedures followed for their characterization evaluation. The raw materials used in this work
are:

1.Natural Fiber
A-Root of A Grass
B-Wood Dust
C-Dust of Sugar Cane
D-Crows of Wheat
2.Epoxy Resin
3.Harderner

3.1 Materials
The molasses, vetiver, saw dust, wood dust fiber used for the preparation of composites is
arranged from local resources. First of all the fibers are segregated finely and they cut into
pieces of length about 2 mm. The Epoxy resin(LY 556) is taken as matrix binder is distributed
by Ciba Geigy India Ltd. Commonly epoxy resin have poor mechanical and thermal
properties. For getting the properties to be improved, the resin should undergo curing reaction
in which the liner epoxy resin structure changes to form three-dimensional cross-linked
thermo set structure. This curing reaction takes place by adding a curing agent called hardener
in a ratio of 10:1 to epoxy resin. The following reaction is an exothermic reaction in which
homopolymerisation of resin takes place. The curing agent or hardener is triethyenetetramine
(HY-951) is also supplied from Ciba Geigy India Ltd.

3.2 Fabrication
Natural fibers are reinforced in epoxy resin to prepare the composite. The composite slabs are
made by conventional hand-lay-up technique. Dust of wood, crows of wheat ,sugar cane dust
and root of grass are convert into powder form and it is used as particulate filler in this
composite because these natural fibers is abundantly available in India. These fibers is
collected from local supplier is sieved to obtain particle size in the range 300 um. The low
temperature curing epoxy resin (LY 556) and corresponding hardener (HY951) are mixed in a
ratio of 10:4 by weight as recommended. Epoxy LY 556 resin is chemically belonging to the
epoxide family and its common name is bis phenol A Digly cidyl Ether. The epoxy resin and
the hardener are supplied by Ciba Geigy India Ltd.

43
Composites of two different compositions (50 wt% of epoxy with hardener and 50 wt%of
natural fiber alumina filling) are made and the fiber loading (weight fraction of natural fiber in
the composite) is kept at 50% for all the samples. The castings are put under load for about 24
hours for proper curing at room temperature. The designations of these composites are given
in Table 3.1. The mix is stirred manually to disperse the fibres in the matrix. The cast of each
composite is cured under a load of about 5 kg for 24 hours before it removed from the mould.
Then this cast is post cured in the air for another 24 hours after removing out of the mould.
Specimens of suitable dimension are cut using a diamond cutter for mechanical testing.

Fig 3.1 COMPOSITE FABRICATION METHOD

3.2.1 Composition of Composites

COMPOSITE
COMPOSITION
S
(50 WT% OF EPOXY WITH HARDNER AND 50 WT% OF WOOD
C1
DUST)
(50 WT% OF EPOXY WITH HARDNER AND 50 WT% OF ROOT
C2
OF GRASS)
(50 WT% OF EPOXY WITH HARDNER AND 50 WT % OF
C3
CROWS OF WHEAT
(50 WT% OF EPOXY WITH HARDNER AND 50 WT% OF DUST OF
C4
SUGAR CANE )
TABLE 3.1 COMPOSITIONS OF MATRIX AND NATURAL FIBER

44
3.3 Fabricated Composite Material
Composite material is made with hardener, epoxy, and natural fiber with hand lay method in
which 50%epoxyand hardener and 50% natural fiber. There are 4 types of composite material
are made with hand lay method. Diagram are shown in fig 3.2 to 3.5

1- Sugar Dust With Epoxy

2- Wood Dust With Epoxy
3- Root of Grass
4- Crows of Wheat

3.3.1 Sugar Dust with Epoxy+Hardner

It contain sugar dust as filler and epoxy as matrix .this material is made up with hand lay
method .first we have to convert the sugar dust into a small particles because particles have a
properties that they can be easily bonded with matrix can be a example of good strength.

SUGAR DUST 50% EPOXY+HARDNER

(70%+30%)

(25%+25%)

MOULDING

SUGAR DUST
COMPOSITE MATERIAL

FIG 3.2 SUGAR DUST COMPOSITE MATRIAL

45
3.3.2- SEESAM Wood Dust with Epoxy
It contain wood dust as filler and epoxy as matrix .mainly we can made it by hand layup
technique .this material can be formed at room temperature .Wood dust is to cheap and we can
easily find it in the market or the street. Wood dust is common filler and effective filler which
can easily available.

Wood Dust 50% Epoxy+Hardner

50%

Moulding

WOOD DUST
COMPOSITE MATERIAL

FIG3.3 WOOD DUST COMPOSITE MATERIAL

3.3.3 Crows of Wheat with Epoxy+Hardner

It contain crows of wheat as a filler and epoxy +hardner as matrix.crows of wheat is a cheap
material are used for the food of the animal.these filler material are not vary expensive thats
why it can buy from any where for fabrication it convert into powder form because they can
give a good bond and then it is on moulding process after 24 hours and applied 2 kg force the
material is ready for the experiment.

46
 Crows of Epoxy+hardener
wheat(50%) (70%30%)

Moulding

Crows of wheat composite

material

FIG 3.4 CROWS OF WHEAT COMPOSITE MATERIAL

3.3.4 Root of a Grass and Epoxy+Hardner

This composite contain root of grass as a filler material and epoxy +hardener as a matrix this
filler material is a cheap material and can be easily found in the market. It is also made up
with hand layup technique in a room temperature. And applied force is 2kg.

47
 Root of a grass Epoxy +hardener

(50%) (70%+30%) 50wt%

Moulding

Root of a grass composite

material

3.5 ROOT OF GRASS COMPOSITE MATERIAL

3.4. Mechanical Testing

After fabrication the test specimens were subjected to various mechanical tests as per ASTM
standards. The Impact test, hardness, and the fatigue test and composites were carried out
using Instron 1195.Micro-hardness measurement is done using Leitz micro-hardness tester. A
diamond indenter, in the form of a right pyramid with a square base and an angle 136 DEGREE
between opposite faces, is forced into the material under a load F. The two diagonals X and Y of
the indentation left on the surface of the material after removal of the load are measured and
their arithmetic mean L is calculated. In the present study, the load considered F =24.54N.
Low velocity instrumented impact tests are carried out on composite.

48
3.5MECHANICAL TESTING RELATED TO WORK
3.5.1Impact Test
Impact tests were performed to understand the toughness of material. During the test,
specimens were subjected to a large amount of force for a very shortinterval of time. For any
material, the higher amount of impact strength indicates that it can absorb a large amount of
energy before failure. As the impact energy increases the toughness of material increases and
its plasticity will be also large. The pictorial view of impact tester is shown in figure 3.1.
Impact testing involves striking a standard notched specimen with a controlled weight
pendulum swung from a set height. The standard Charpy-V notch specimen is 55mm long,
10mm square and has a 2mm deep notch with a tip radius of 0.25mm machined on one face.
The test was developed around 1900 by S.B. Russell (1898, American) andGeorges
Charpy (1901, French). The test became known as the Charpy test in the early 1900s due to
the technical contributions and standardization efforts by Charpy. The test was pivotal in
understanding the fracture problems of ships during World War II.The Charpy impact test,
also known as the Charpy V-notch test, is a standardize high strainrate test which determines
the amount of energy absorbed by a material during fracture.

Fig 3.6 impact testing machine

49
 FIG 3.11 SPECIMEN FOR IMPACT TEST

3.5.2 Fatigue Testing Machine

The fatigue-testing machine is of the rotating beam type. The specimen functions as a single
beam symmetrically loaded at two points. When rotated one-half revolution the stress in the
fibres originally above the neutral axis of the specimen are reversed from compression to
tension for equal intensity. Upon completing the revolution, the stresses are again reversed, so
that during one complete revolution the test specimen passes through a complete cycle
flexural stress.
Fatigue limit, endurance limit, and fatigue strength are all expressions used to
describe a property of materials: the amplitude (or range) of cyclic stress that can be applied to
the material without causing fatigue failure. Ferrous alloys and titanium alloys] have a distinct
limit, amplitude below which there appears to be no number of cycles that will cause failure.
Other structural metals such as aluminums and copper do not have a distinct limit and will
eventually fail even from small stress amplitudes. In these cases, a number of cycles (usually
107) is chosen to represent the fatigue life of the material. Most laboratory is done either with
axial loading, or in bending, thus producing only tensile and compressive stresses. The stress
usually is cycled either between a maximum and a minimum tensile stress, or between a
maximum tensile stress and a maximum compressive stress. A specified mean load (which
may be zero) and an alternating load are applied to a specimen and the number of cycles
required to produce failure (life) is recorded. Generally, it is repeated with identical specimens
and various fluctuating loads. Loads may be applied axially, in torsion, or in

50
flexure.The process for the design of the apparatus, its subsystems, and the .A simple
schematic of the proposed Educational Fatigue Testing Machine is required.

FIG 3.7 FATIGUE TESTING MACHINE

FIG 3.08 SPECIMEN FORFATIGUE TESTING

3.5.3 Rockwell hardness tester

Hardness is a characteristic of a material, not a fundamental physical property. It is defined as
the resistance to indentation, and it is determined by measuring the permanent depth of the
indentation. This hardness test uses a direct reading instrument based on the principle of

51
differential depth measurement. Initially a minor load is applied, and a zero datum position is
established. The major load is then applied for a specific period and removed, leaving the
minor load applied. Theresulting Rockwell number represents the difference in depth from
zero datum position as a result of the application of major load.

The conical diamond (Brale) indenter is used mainly for testing hard materials such as
hardened steels and cemented carbides. Hardened steel ball indenters with diameters 1/16, 1/8,
1/4, 1/2 in. are used for testing softer materials such as fully annealed steels, softer grades of
cast irons, and a wide variety of nonferrous metals. Generally, in Rockwell testing, the minor
load is 10 kgf, and the major load is 60, 100 or 150 kgf. The indenter used may be either a
diamond cone (Brale) or steel ball, depending principally on the characteristics of the material
being test.Shore is a measure of the resistance of material to indentation by3 spring-loaded
indenter.The higher the number, the greater the resistance. The hardness testing of plastics is
most commonly measured by the Shore (Durometer) test or Rockwell hardness
test.Rockwell Hardness Testing. Hardness is a characteristic of a material, not a fundamental
physical property.

It is defined as the resistance to indentation, and it is determined by measuring the

permanent depth of the indentation.and The Brinell hardness test method as used to determine
Brinell hardness, is defined in ASTM E10. ... Brinell testing often use a very high test load
(3000 kgf) and a 10mm wide indenter so that the resulting indentation averages out most
surface and sub-surface inconsistencies.The Rockwell hardness number represents the
additional depth to which a test ball or sphere-conical penetrator is driven by a heavy (major)
load beyond the depth of a previously applied light (minor) load. High hardness numbers that
are obtained from hard materials indicate a shallow indentation while low numbers found with
soft materials indicate deep indentation. The increment of penetration depth for each point of
hardness on the Rockwell scale is 0.00008 inch. For example, if a piece of steel measures
Rockwell C 58 (extremely hard) at same point and C 55 at another, the depth of penetration
would have been 0.00024 inch deeper at the softer spot.Rockwell hardness test defined by the
formula, according to the measured Rockwell hardness, Rockwell hardness calculated a
variety of scale corresponding to the value of the residual indentation depth. 1. HRA, HRC,
HRD scale Rockwell hardness HR = 100-h/0.002 residual indentation depth h = (100-HR)
0.002mm such as: hardness is 62HRC, the residual indentation depth is h = (100 - 62) 0.002 =
0.076mm 2. HRB, HRF, HRE, HRG, HRH, HRK scale Rockwell hardness HR = 130-h/0.002
residual indentation depth of quality products h = (130-HR) 0.002mm such as: hardness to
80HRB, the residual indentation depth is h = (130-80).

52
FIG 3.8 HARDNESS TESTING MACHINE Fig 3.9 SPECIMENS FOR HARDNESS

4.0 SPECIMEN REQUIRED FOR TESTING

A limited quantity of something which is intended to be similar to and represent a larger
amount of that thing(s).mainly specimen used for the impact testing have size of 10*10mm
and for hardness it is 80*80 mm and for The standard specimen, a tapered-end specimen has
the length of 87.3mm. They are machined to match the tapers within the spindles of the
machine and held in place using drill-chuck. Stress as applied to the specimen by direct
application of dead weight to ensure precise loading. Maximum fiber stress in a specimen
having a 0.300inches (7.62mm) diameter is. By decreasing the diameter, the value of the
maximum fibre stress can be increased. An easy-touse reference table within the operator's
manual makes determination of the load weight needed to produce a particular stress a single
circulation. There are three types of specimen is used in this project.

53
 CHAPTER-4
MECHANICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF
COMPOSITES: RESULTS & DISCUSSIONS

This chapter presents the mechanical properties of the wood dust filled glass fiber
reinforced epoxy composites prepared for this present investigation. Details of processing of
these composites and the tests conducted on them have been described in the previous chapter.
The results of various characterization tests are reported here. This includes evaluation of
FATIQUE strength, impact strength and micro-hardness has been studied and discussed. The
interpretation of the results and the comparison among various composite Samples are also
presented.

4.1 Mechanical Characteristics of Composites

The characterization of the composites reveals that the filler content is having significant
effect on the mechanical properties of composites. The mechanical properties of the
composites with different filler content under this investigation are presented in Table 4.1, 4.2,
4.3.

4.2Hardness testing of composite material

Hardness of the three separate specimens and three reinforced composite material is
determined by using Brinell Hardness Testing Machine. The specimen size used here is a
circular rod of length of 65mm and the diameter of 35mm. The specifications of the machine
are ball intender of diameter 20mm and the maximum load of 4000N. The formula used to
determine the BHN of the specimen is given below.
BHN = P/A
P - Load applied to the specimen.
A - Area of the indentation.
Area of the indentations (A) = D/2 *((D- (D2 -d2) 0.5
Whered - Diameter of the ball intender.
d - Diameter of the indentation.

The Rockwell hardness number represents the additional depth to which a test ball or
sphere-conical penetrator is driven by a heavy (major) load beyond the depth of a previously
applied light (minor) load. High hardness numbers that are obtained from hard materials
indicate a shallow indentation while low numbers found with soft materials indicate deep
indentation. The increment of penetration depth for each point of hardness on the Rockwell
scale is 0.00008 inch. For example, if a piece of steel measures Rockwell C 58 (extremely
hard) at same point and C 55 at another, the depth of penetration would have been 0.00024
inch deeper at the softer spot.Rockwell hardness test defined by the formula, according to the
measured Rockwell hardness, Rockwell hardness calculated a variety of scale corresponding

54
to the value of the residual indentation depth. 1. HRA, HRC, HRD scale Rockwell hardness
HR = 100-h/0.002 residual indentation depth h = (100-HR) 0.002mm such as: hardness is
62HRC, the residual indentation depth is h = (100 - 62) 0.002 = 0.076mm 2. HRB, HRF,
HRE, HRG, HRH, HRK scale Rockwell hardness HR = 130-h/0.002 residual indentation
depth of quality products h = (130-HR) 0.002mm such as: hardness to 80HRB, the residual
indentation depth is h = (130-80) 0.002 = 0.1mm 3. HRN, HRT scale Rockwell hardness HRN
(or T) = 100-h/0.001 residual indentation depth h = (100 - HR) 0.001mm such as: hardness
value 80HR30N, the residual indentation depth is h = (100-80) 0.002 = 0.04mm.

COMPOSITES HARDNESS( RHN) LOAD 100 KG

C1(SUAGARDUST
28 24.5 25.34 29 21
WITH EPOXY)

C2(ROOT OF GRASS
18.6 18.2 18.4 18.8 17.9
WITH EPOXY)

C3(CROWS WHEAT
19.4 19 19.2 19.5 19.7
WITH EPOXY)

C4(WOOD DUST WITH

20.3 19.9 20.4 20.6 20.5
EPOXY)

Table 4.1 hardness natural fiber reinforcement composite material

Fig. 4.1 Rockwell Principle

55
 Rockwell Hardness Scales
Minor Major
Total Load
Scale Load F0 Load F1
Indenter F kgf Value of E
kgf kgf

A Diamond cone 10 50 60 100

B 1/16" steel ball 10 90 100 130
C Diamond cone 10 140 150 100
D Diamond cone 10 90 100 100
E 1/8" steel ball 10 90 100 130
F 1/16" steel ball 10 50 60 130
G 1/16" steel ball 10 140 150 130
H 1/8" steel ball 10 50 60 130
K 1/8" steel ball 10 140 150 130
L 1/4" steel ball 10 50 60 130
M 1/4" steel ball 10 90 100 130
P 1/4" steel ball 10 140 150 130
R 1/2" steel ball 10 50 60 130
S 1/2" steel ball 10 90 100 130
V 1/2" steel ball 10 140 150 130

Table 4.2- Rockwell Hardness Scales

Advantages of the Rockwell hardness method include the direct Rockwell hardness number
readout and rapid testing time. Disadvantages include many arbitrary non-related scales and
possible effects from the specimen support anvil.

4.3 effect of various natural fiber filler content on hardness

Rockwell hardness test had conducted for the composites of name given as C1, C2, C3, C4;
fig 4.1 depicts that as the fiber changes, the hardness value of the C1composites increases and
C3 composite decreases. Mainly the composite which are having increasing value are C1, C2
and the composite which are having decreasing value are C3, C4. C1 is mixture of the sugar
dust 50%+ epoxy +hardener 50% by weight, C2 is a mixture of root of a grass 50% and
epoxy +hardner50% ,C3is a mixture of crows of wheat 50%+epoxy +hardener 50% , and last

56
C4 contains seesaw wood dust 50% and epoxy +hardener 50% by weight. The sugar cane
have vast range of mechanical property related to hardness that why the hardness of the sugar
cane increases perfectly. Crows of wheat have short range of mechanical property related to
hardness thats why it has low hardness. And the grass has neutral property related to
hardness. And that why they shows the neutral character of hardness.

FIG 4.3Effect of filler content on hardness

4.4Fatigue testing result

The schematic diagram of the fatigue testing machine is shown in Fig.4.2. It consists of a 3-
phase motor with 2800 rpm speed. The machine is designed to carry out testing of two
specimens simultaneously. The samples for fatigue test can be of three types as shown in
Fig.4.2 depending upon the loading scheme provided by the machine.The specimens can be
either cyclically loaded in the axial manner [Fig.4.2 (a)] or in a rotating manner [Fig.4.2 (b)
(c)]

57
 Fig.4.4 Schematic diagram of Fatigue testing machine

Fig.4.5 Loading schemes for laboratory scale fatigue testing: (a)

Axial loading of the specimen, (b) single-end rotating cantilever
testing machine and (c) Four-point rotating cantilever testing
machine.

58
4.4.1 Important Parameters and Equations
A fluctuating stress cycle can be considered to be made up of two components, a
mean or steady stress m, and an alternating or variable stress a. We must first consider the
range of stress r. As can be seen from Figure 4.3 a & 4.3 b, the range of stress is the
algebraic difference between the maximum and minimum stress in a cycle. Thus,
r = max min
For a fully reversed stress cycle, as shown in Figure 4.4 (a), the Stress Ratio, R is -1
and if the stresses are partially reversed, R becomes a negative number less than 1. If the
stress is cycled between a maximum stress and no load, the stress ration becomes zero. If the
stress is cycled between two tensile stresses, the stress ratio becomes a positive number less
than 1.

The results of fatigue crack initiation tests are usually plotted as maximum stress, minimum
stress or the stress amplitude on (y-axis) against the number of cycles to failure, N (on the x-
axis). The number of cycles to failure is generally plotted on the logarithmic scale, while
stress is plotted either on the linear or logarithmic scale.
The regime in which the peak load is above the yield strength of the material is
referred to as the low cycle fatigue. Components usually endure <104 cycles during low
cycle fatigue. In contrast, when the peak cyclic stress is below the yield strength of the
material, the component undergoes more than 104 cyclic reversals and the regime is referred
to as the high cycle fatigue. Fig.4 depicts some of the general characteristics of fatigue.
The peak stress in case of cantilever bar testing is obtained by the following formula.
For the four-point cantilever bending the peak stress, ais given by
32 mb
a= d
Where Mb is the bending moment =PI/2, d is the diameter of the sample, P is the applied
load L is the length of the sample.
For the single-end cantilever testing
32 Px
a = d

Where x = distance along the length from the fixed end and maximum value of x is 1

59
 COMPOSITE FATIGUE TEST

C1(SUAGARDUST 27 29 26 25.3 25.4

WITH EPOXY)

C2(ROOT OF
GRASS WITH 15 17 19 19.5 19.6
EPOXY)
C3(CROWS
WHEAT WITH 20 20.5 21 22.5 23
EPOXY)
C4(WOOD DUST 10 11 12.5 13 15
WITH EPOXY)
Table 4.3 Fatigue Testing Results of Composites Materials

4.5 Effect of Fiber and Filler Concentration on Fatigue of Composites

Fatigue test had conducted for the composites of name given as C1, C2, C3, C4; fig 4.1
depicts that as the fiber changes, the hardness value of the C1composites increases and C3
composite decreases. Mainly the composite which are having increasing value are C1, C2 and
the composite which are having decreasing value are C3, C4. C1 is mixture of the sugar dust
50%+ epoxy +hardener 50% by weight, C2 is a mixture of root of a grass 50% and epoxy
+hardner50% ,C3is a mixture of crows of wheat 50%+epoxy +hardener 50% , and last C4
contains seesam wood dust 50% and epoxy +hardener 50% by weight.

60
 Figure.4.7: Variation of Fatigue test of composites with respect to fiber

4.6 Impact Energy Testing Result

Impact testing machine used for this experiment contains a heavy swing pendulum. This
pendulum has the maximum capability of impacting energy of 264 ft pound force = 264
0.3048m 9.8ms-2 0.45362 Kg = 343.977 J. A scale is provided in the machine, which
range from 0 264 foot pound (ft Lb). An indenter will move on this scale when pendulum is
allowed from its horizontal static position to impact the V-notched specimen. There is a stand
at the bottom of the machine where V-notched specimen is supported as a beam in horizontal
position.

Impact test is undoubtedly the most commonly used test that is done to characterize
the ductile to brittle transition behavior in materials. The impact test is done by placing a
square shaped V- notched specimen in the machine (Fig.1). Generally, the Charpy specimen
has a square cross- section of dimensions 10mm 10mm and contains a 450 V notch of 2 mm
deep with root radius of 0.25 mm. A heavy pendulum released from a known height strikes the
sample on its downward swing and fractures it. After the test bar is broken, the pendulum

61
rebounds to a height that decreasesas the energy absorbed in fracture increases. By knowing
the mass of the pendulum and the difference between its initial and final heights, the energy
absorbed by the fracture can be measured. In impact testing machine will be used here has the
indenter facility to indicate energy in foot pound (ft Lb) force absorbed by the fracture. If the
temperature of the testing is lowered, the V-notch impact test can be used for determining the
ductile to brittle behavior in a material.

Fig.4.8Schematic diagram of impact testing

In Charpy specimen, the plastic constrain to the notch produces a triaxial state of state of
stress. The relative values of the three principal stresses depend strongly on the dimension of
the bar and the geometry of the notch. The maximum plastic stress concentration, K (energy
absorbed in fracturing the material) is given by -

w

K = (1+ 2 2 )

Fracture surface examination shows fibrous (shear fracture), granular (cleavage fracture) or a
mixture of both which can be distinguished in magnification glass or even without
magnification.

62
 Composite Impact test (KJ/m2) LOAD 18.5KG

C1(SUAGARDUS
T WITH EPOXY) 36 31 32 32 34

C2(ROOT OF
GRASS WITH 42 45 43 40 41
EPOXY)

C3(CROWS
WHEAT WITH 25 29 28 27 26
EPOXY)

C4(WOOD DUST
WITH EPOXY) 20 23 25 21 28

TABLE 4.4 IMPACT TESTING OF COMPOSITE MATERIAL

4.7 Effect of Fiber and Filler Concentration on Impact Strength of

Composites
The effect of fiber content on the impact strength is shown in figure 4.3. It is observed from
the figure that addition of fiber in the matrix leads to improved impact strength of the
composites. The impact strength increases with the increase in the fiber loading of the
composites. The main reasons of fiber fracture while impact loading is fiber fracture,fiber
debonding. and fiber pull out.The energy dissipation in fiber pullout is much greater than the
fiber fracture.So this is the main reason for impact fracture in FRP.So as the fiber loading
increases, impact strength increases because more energy can be dissipated.

The impact energy values of different composites recorded during the impact tests are
given in Table 4.4. It shows that the resistance to impact loading of natural fiber filled natural
fiber reinforced epoxy composites improves with increase in filler content as shown in Figure
4.9 High strain rates or impact loads may be expected in many engineering applications of
composite materials. The suitability of a composite for such applications should therefore be
determined not only by usual design parameters, but by its impact or energy absorbing
properties.

63
Figure.4.9: Variation of impact strength of composites with respect to
fiber loading

64
 CHAPTER 5
5.1CONCLUSION

The present investigations of mechanical behavior of natural fibre filled

reinforced epoxy composites leads to the following conclusions:

1-In the present research work, natural fiber reinforced epoxy composites filled
with wood dust filler has been successful fabricated by simple hand lay-up
technique.

2-It has been noticed that the mechanical properties of the composites such as
micro-hardness, impact test,fatigue test etc. of the composites are also greatly
influenced by the filler content

3-The morphology of fractured surfaces is examined by using graph plot after

various testing. From this study it has been concluded that the good interfacial
bonding is responsible for higher mechanical properties.

4-The Hardness of sugar dust composite material is good as compare to other.

By the help of the graph you can see the variation and the result of the composite
material

5-The Fatigue strength of the seesam wood dust composite material is good
while comparing to other composite material.

6-The impact strength of the root of grass composite is gives influenced while
comparing to other composite material.

Future Work
This work gives a wide range of scope for future investigators to explore many
other aspects of particulate filled composites. This work can be further extended
to study other aspects of such composites like effect of other types of fillers;
filler size, loading pattern etc. on mechanical behavior of wood dust, sugar dust,

65
root of a grass ,crows of wheat filled polymer composites and the resulting
experimental findings can be similarly analyzed.

Natural fibres are fourth and promising fibre is coming future of

composite materials sectors. They have the potential to compete with traditional
fibre in all mechanical properties, future modification in fibre. The present work
displayed the tensile properties of NATURAL fibre composite materials and the
result was well appreciated. More modification of the fibre could have an added
advantage in the mechanical analysis

66
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