Chapter 8

KINEMATIC RELATIONS IN
DEFORMATION OF SOLIDS

Figure 8.1:

195
196 CHAPTER 8. KINEMATIC RELATIONS IN DEFORMATION OF SOLIDS

8.1 Motivation
In Chapter 3, the conservation of linear momentum for a static, steady-state, solid continuum body
resulted in three equations relating the Cauchy stress components:
xx yx zx
x-component: 0 = gx + + +
x y z
xy yy zy
y-component: 0 = gy + + + (8.1)
x y z
xz yz zz
z-component: 0 = gz + + +
x y z
For a solid, these equations are often referred to as the equilibrium equations since they provide a
statement of equilibrium that the internal forces (which produce internal stresses) within a continuum
body must satisfy. We note again that equation provides 3 equilibrium equations that are in terms
of 6 unknown stress components xx , yy , zz , xy = yx , xz = zx , and yz = zy , provided
that and gx , gy , gz are known. Therefore, in the same manner as for uids and heat transfer,
the dierential equations of equilibrium alone cannot be used to solve for the unknown stresses; in
fact, additional equations are required to aect a solution. These additional equations (kinematic
equations and constitutive equations) will be considered in this and the following chapter. When
the process of developing these additional sets of equations (kinematics and constitution) has been
completed, we will have the equilibrium equations in terms of stresses, the constitutive equations
relating stresses to strains (deformation gradients) and the kinematic equations that relate strains
to displacements. As a result of nally combining the 3 equation sets, we will be able to determine
the displacements of a solid continuum body subjected to loading on the body.

8.2 Kinematics
In this chapter, we wish to describe the kinematic behavior of a solid continuum body by dening
quantities called strains in terms of the gradients of displacement components. Kinematic relations
are expressions that dene the motion of a body. For a rigid body, kinematic relations are expressions
that can be written by considering the geometry of the body and its motion. In ENGR 211, kinematic
relations were utilized to relate various variables; for example, the tangential and angular velocities
were related by v = r in the study of a rotating rigid body about a xed point. For rope-pulley
systems, expressions were found which related the velocity of one portion of the system to another;
these relations were a result of the geometry of the pulley system and the assumption that the rope
was inextensible. In this chapter, we are interested in the continuum body that is deformable. In
the example below, we consider an elastic bar as shown in Figure 8.2a. If the bar is subjected by
an axial force F, it will stretch an amount as shown in Figure 8.2b. The quantity L is a measure
of the change in length relative to the original length and is dened to be the axial strain for the
bar. In Figure 8.2d, a shear load is applied that is parallel to the top surface as shown. The angle
measures the amount the original angle in Figure 8.2c has changed from a right angle. This angle
is related to the shear strain. In this chapter we will mathematically formalize these simple ideas
to develop expressions for strains in terms of displacement components.

8.3 Kinematics of a Deformable Solid

The construction of kinematic relations for a deformable body will involve the mathematical de-
scription of how two points within the body move relative to each other when external loads are
applied to the body. In order to describe the motion of a point within the body, we will dene the
initial position of a material point in the undeformed body and the nal position of the same point
in the deformed body. The relative position of the material point from initial to nal position will
8.3. KINEMATICS OF A DEFORMABLE SOLID 197

90
L

a) undeformed c) undeformed

F
F
F

L+

b) stretched (deformed) d) sheared (deformed)

Figure 8.2: Example of Axial and Shear Deformation

dene its displacement. By dening two material points on the initial body that are separated by
some distance and comparing to the same two material points in the deformed body, we will be able
to dene how much the vector connecting the two points has changed in magnitude and direction.
In the gure below every point in the body during its initial undeformed state can be located
relative to some coordinate system. Consider two points P and Q as shown below where P is located
at position r and Q is located at r+r. The position vector for P is given in terms of components by
r = xi +yj+zk, and the position vector for Q is given by r+r = (x+x)i +(y +y)j+(z +z)k.
As forces are applied to the body, the body reaches the nal deformed state where these two points

y
Deformed
Undeformed Body
Body
u (r + r) Q

Q
r r
P
u (r)
P
r
r

Figure 8.3: Position and Displacements Vectors for Deformable Body

are now located at P and Q . The relative position between Q and P is given by r, and the
relative position between P and Q is r . The new position vectors are r = x i + y j + z k and
198 CHAPTER 8. KINEMATIC RELATIONS IN DEFORMATION OF SOLIDS

r + r = (x + x )i + (y + y )j + (z + z )k. We describe the displacement of point P in

moving from position P to P by the vector u(r). From the gure we see that the displacement u
is the result of subtracting the position vector of original point, r, from r . The displacement of Q
can be similarly described. Utilizing the position and displacement vectors shown on the gure, we
can write the following:

displacement vector of P to P : u(r) = r r (8.2)

displacement vector of Q to Q : u(r + r) (r + r ) (r + r) = u(r) + r r (8.3)

Note that the displacement vector has three components that can be written as

ux ( x, y, z ) = x ( x, y, z ) x
uy ( x, y, z ) = y ( x, y, z ) y (8.4)

uz ( x, y, z ) = z ( x, y, z ) z

From vector calculus we now use the following denition of the gradient of a vector function for
r 0

u(r + r) = u(r) + r u (8.5)

where the displacement gradient u has the following matrix representation.

u

ux y uz
x x x
ux uy uz
[u] = y y y (8.6)
ux uy uz
z z z

Equation will then reduce to the following equation after substituting from

r = r + r u (8.7)

which expresses the deformation of material elements r in terms of r (original element) and the
displacement gradient.

8.4 Denition of Strain

Strain is a measure of the relative change in length and rotation of material segments. Consider two
material elements of length r1 and r2 undergoing deformations that will bring them into new
locations r1 and r2 , respectively, as shown in the gure below. A vector operation between these
two neighboring material element vectors that measures changes in length and relative rotation is
the dot product. Consider therefore taking the dot product of these two vectors in the deformed
state to obtain the following scalar result:

r1 r2 = [r1 + r1 u] [r2 + r2 u]
= r1 r2 + r1 [r2 u] + [r1 u] r2 + [r1 u] [r2 u]
 
= r1 r2 + r1 u + uT + u uT r2

 
2E

Thus,

r1 r2 = r1 r2 + r1 2E r2
8.4. DEFINITION OF STRAIN 199

y Undeformed State Deformed State

r2
r1 r1
u (r, t) r2

r r

x We already know from equation (8.7):

r1 = r1 + r1 (u)
r2 = r2 + r2 (u)
z

Figure 8.4: Vector Denitions Used in Strain

where the quantity E that measures the deviation of the dot product between two deformed material
elements from the dot product between the same material element, in the undeformed state, is dened
to be the nite strain measure:
1 
E= u + uT + u uT (8.8)
2
From our discussions of vector calculus, we note that the quantity u is represented by a 3 3
matrix and the notation uT indicates the transpose of the 3 3 matrix. In this text, we will not
deal with the nite strain measure but only with the innitesimal stress that will be introduced
next.
In looking at equation 8.8, we note that it contains two terms that are linear in the displacement
gradient u and the third term that is quadratic in the displacement gradient vector. For small
displacement gradients, it is reasonable to neglect the higher order term so that

u uT 0 for small displacement gradients

By neglecting the higher order terms from the nite strain measure, we obtain the innitesimal
strain tensor given by:
1 
= u + uT (8.9)
2
The matrix representation of strain can be written in terms of its components in Cartesian coordi-
nates:
  
ux 1 uy
+ u x 1 uz
+ u x
xx xy xz  x  2 x y 2  x z 

[] = yx yy yz = 12 u
uy uy 1 uz uy
x
+ + (8.10)
y x
  y  2 y z
zx zy zz 1 ux uz 1 uy uz uz
2 z + x 2 z + y z

We make the following comments regarding the nite and innitesimal strain tensors:
T T
By observation, [] = [] and [E] = [E] , i.e. both the nite and innitesimal strains are
represented by symmetric matrices.
200 CHAPTER 8. KINEMATIC RELATIONS IN DEFORMATION OF SOLIDS

Strain denes the relative deformation of material elements. By denition, it accounts for the
change in the relative angle between two material elements and the change in length from the
initial to the deformed state.

(r1 r2 = cos |r1 ||r2 |) (r1 r2 = cos |r1 ||r2 |) (8.11)

r1 r1

r2 r2

Figure 8.5:

Only when E = 0, the two dot products remain the same, i.e. r1 r2 = r1 r2 and
therefore the angle and the lengths of the material elements remain the same.

Since the dot product between two vectors is invariant under rigid body rotation or translation,
the nite strain E is also invariant under rigid body motion of the deformed state. (CAUTION :
is NOT invariant under rigid body motion of the deformed state.)

The derivations above are for the deformation of a body from a reference to a deformed con-
guration and the coordinate system is dened in the reference state. However by assuming
innitesimal deformations, the dierence between reference and deformed coordinates is ne-
glected. In this chapter we make no distinction between Eulerian and Lagrangian descriptions
only because we deal with innitesimal strains.

8.5 A 2-D Approach to Strain

Consider a more intuitive 2-D geometrical approach to dene xx (dened to be the change in length
of a line segment x which is originally oriented in the x direction and undergoes displacements ux
and uy ) as shown below:
First, dene the strain of a line segment in the x direction to be:

x x change in length of innitesimal line segment

xx = = (8.12)
x original length of line segment

As before, point P is located at position x and point Q is a position r + r. Dene the displacement
of point P to be ux (x) and uy (x) in the x and y directions respectively, and that of Q as ux (x + x)
and uy (x + x). From these denitions and the sketch above, we can write the following:
 1
x
2 2 2
= {x + ux (x + x) ux (x)} + {uy (x + x) uy (x)}
 2  2  12   2  2  12
ux uy ux uy
= x + x + x = x 1 + + x (8.13)
x x x x
 2  2  12   2  2  12
ux uy ux ux uy
= x 1 + + = x 1 + 2 + +
x x x x x
8.5. A 2-D APPROACH TO STRAIN 201

Q
y
x

P
uy (x + x)

ux (x) uy (x)
ux (x + x)

P x Q

x (x + x)

Figure 8.6: Two-Dimensional Geometry for Strain

We make use of the series approximation 1 + a
= 1 + 12 a (for small a). Thus, the last result is
approximately:
  2  2 
ux 1 ux 1 uy
x = x 1 + + + (8.14)
x 2 x 2 x

The strain becomes

  2 
ux 2 uy
x 1 + ux
x + 1
2 x + 1
2 x x
xx = (8.15)
x
or
 2  2
ux 1 ux 1 uy
xx = + + (8.16)
x 2 x 2 x
For small gradients, the quadratic terms are neglected and we obtain
ux
xx = (8.17)
x
Shear strain is a measure of the rotation of line segments that form a right angle in the undeformed
body as shown below. The shear  strain isdened geometrically as the average of the two rotations
ux uy 1 uy ux
y and x so that xy = 2 x + y .
Geometrically, each of the two terms is the tangent of an angle as shown above. xy is called a
shear strain and geometrically is 12 (average) of the angular rotation of line segments x and y
which originally form a right angle. In contrast, the engineering shear strain xy is dened as
u
the sum of these two angles, i.e., xy = 2xy = xy + u y . The denition of the engineering shear
x

strain xy from a graphical viewpoint is an approximation (similar to the square root approximation
made in xx . From the geometry above, dx dy = cos |dx ||dy |. Note that from the geometry
in the above sketch, we can show that:

  uy ux
cos = cos xy = sin xy xy = + = 2xy .
2 x y
202 CHAPTER 8. KINEMATIC RELATIONS IN DEFORMATION OF SOLIDS

ux
ux
y y

y
y x

uy
y
x
=
2
uy
x x

Figure 8.7: Two-Dimensional Geometry for Shear Strain

As in the square root approximation made for xx (for the geometrical interpretation of strain), an
assumption of small rotations has been made in dening the shear strain xy .

8.6 Visualization of the Innitesimal Strain in 3-D

The innitesimal strain tensor is given in terms of displacements by equation (8.9). Based on the
derivation of strain xx and yy in the previous section, each term in the strain tensor represents
either axial extension of a line segment (related to axial strain) or rotation of a line segment (related
to shear strain). The three diagonal terms are referred to as axial or normal strains and represent
the stretching of a material in each of the three coordinate directions. The three terms above the
diagonal are referred to as shear strains and represent the shearing of a material in each of the three
planes formed by the x-y-z axes. To see this more clearly, consider the diagram below:
The upper left-hand term in the matrix (or the 1,1 term) represents axial extension of a line
segment in the x direction when subjected to an axial force in the x direction, and is the axial strain
xx . The (2,3) term represents the change in the right angle, or shearing of a square lying in the
y-z plane, and is the shear strain yz . The (2,2) term represents the stretching of a line originally
in the y direction when subjected to an axial force in the y direction and is called the axial strain
yy . Together, the 6 independent components of the strain tensor represent all possible deformation
states of a material point, i.e., axial strain in the x, y and z direction and shear strain in x-y, x-z,
and y-z planes.

8.7 Strain Transformation

In Chapter 5, a stress transformation was developed which allowed us to determine the normal and
shear components of stress on a surface with unit normal n. The normal component is given by (see
Equation (5.5)):
(12)(22)(21)
n = x
x
= n n = [n] [] [n]
= xx cos2 + 2xy sin cos + yy sin2
(12)(22)(21)
The expression n = x
x
= n n = [n] [] [n] gives the component of stress, n , in the
direction of the unit normal (or in the direction of the x -axis which makes an angle to the x-axis).
8.7. STRAIN TRANSFORMATION 203

y y xy y
xz

dx dx

x x x
dx
z z
z dx dx xy =
xy
xz =
xz
xx = 2 2
dx

y y

dy dy yz
dy
[] = x x

z dy dy z yz
yy = yz =
dy 2

dz x

dz dz
z
SYMMETRIC dz dz
zz =
dz

Figure 8.8:

We can perform exactly the same set of transformations on strain to obtain the strain transformation
given by:
(12)(22)(21)
n = x
x
= n n = [n] [] [n] (8.18)
= xx cos2 + 2xy sin cos + yy sin2

The quantity n is the component of strain in the direction of a unit normal n. n is often called
the unit elongation in the n direction (just as xx is the unit elongation in the i or x-coordinate
direction). It should be noted that the strain transformation applies to the strain tensor [] and is not
applicable to engineering shear strains unless the engineering strain components are rst converted
to tensor strain components.
In a manner similar to that done in Chapter 5, we can also show that the shear compnent of
(12)(22)(21)
strain is given by x
y
= n n = [n] [] [n ] = (xx yy ) sin cos + xy (cos2 sin2 ).
Since the tensor strain transformation equations are identical to the tensor stress transformation
equations, we can also dene a Mohrs circle for strains. In applying Mohrs circle for strains, we
follow exactly the same steps as was done for stress. We leave this topic for the students next course
in structural mechanics.
We note in passing the following regarding second-order tensors:
204 CHAPTER 8. KINEMATIC RELATIONS IN DEFORMATION OF SOLIDS

y
t(n)

n

x
n t(n)
xx

xy
x
y
= s x
x
= n

yx
yy

Figure 8.9:

1. Both [] and [] are second-order tensors.

2. All second-order tensors follow the same transformation form in transforming from ( x, y, z )
to another Cartesian coordinate system ( x , y  , z  ), i.e., n = x
x
= n n and n = x
x
=
n n are identical transformations.
3. The same transformation applies to another second-order tensor, the moment of inertia of a
cross-section A. For cross-section like that shown below, we can dene moments of inertia as
follows:
  
Ixx = y 2 dA, Ixy = xy dA, Iyy = x2 dA
A A A

With respect to the x -y  coordinate system at some angle , the moment of inertial about the
x -axis is dened by:

Ix
x
= (y  )2 dA
A

y y

x

x

Figure 8.10:

However, since moments of inertia are second-order tensors, we can also obtain Ix
x
by applying
the coordinate transformation to the x-y moments of inertia: (n is unit vector in x direction).
8.7. STRAIN TRANSFORMATION 205

The moment of inertia tensor is dened by

 
Ixx Ixy
[I] =
Iyx Iyy

and the tensor transformation leads to

Ix
x
= [n] [I] [n]

Example 8-1

Given:

ux = k(2x + y 2 )
uy = k(x2 y 2 )
uz = 0

dx

dx
1 2k

dx
2k
1 2k
x
1 dx 1 + 2k

Figure 8.11:

Required : Evaluate [u] and [].

Solution

First we have the displacement gradient:

2k 2kx 0
[u] = 2ky 2ky 0
0 0 0

2k 2kx 0 2k 2ky 0 2k k(x + y) 0
1  1
[] = u + uT = 2ky 2ky 0 + 2kx 2ky 0 = k(x + y) 2ky 0
2 2
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Example 8-2
206 CHAPTER 8. KINEMATIC RELATIONS IN DEFORMATION OF SOLIDS

Given:

x = kx where: k = 5 105
y = 2x + kz + ky
z = (1 + k)z

Required :

(a) Determine the components of the innitesimal strain tensor, .

(b) Find the elongation per unit length of an element initially in the direction of i + 2j.

Solution

a.)

 k1 1 0
1
[] = u + uT = 1 k1 k
2

2 k
0 2 k

b.)
 
n = n n n= 1 2 0 n = 0.2
5 5
8.7. STRAIN TRANSFORMATION 207

Deep Thought

Strain and Stress are two universal comcepts -

everybody understands them, but nobody knows
which one comes first.
208 CHAPTER 8. KINEMATIC RELATIONS IN DEFORMATION OF SOLIDS

8.8 Problems
8.1 GIVEN :

x = kx where: k = 7 105
y = 3x + 4kz + 2ky
z = (5 + k)z

REQUIRED:

a) Determine the components of the innitesimal strain tensor, .

b) Find the elongation per unit length of an element initially in the direction of i, j and k.

8.2 GIVEN :

ux = x2 + y 2 where: k = 1 104
uy = 2k(x2 + y 2 )
uz = z

REQUIRED:

a) Determine the components of the innitesimal strain tensor, .

8.3 GIVEN :

4 3 2
[] = 3 1 0 105 ksi
2 0 1

REQUIRED:

a) Determine the elongations per unit length of two elements initially in the directions of i
and j.
b) Determine the change in angle between the two material elements in a).

8.4 GIVEN : The unit elongations at a certain point on the surface of a body are measured experi-
mentally by means of strain gages that are arranged to be 45 apart (referred to as a 45 strain
rosette gauge) in the directions i, (i + j) and j where the measured elongations are designated
by a, b and c, respectively.
REQUIRED:

a) In terms of a, b, and c, determine the strain components xx , xy , yy

b) If a = 50 105 , 75b = 105 , c = 100 105 , determine the numerical values of
xx , xy , yy

8.5 GIVEN :

ux = 5x2
uy = sin y
uz = cos yz

REQUIRED:

a) Determine the components of the innitesimal strain tensor, .

8.8. PROBLEMS 209

b) How will the innitesimal strain tensor components vary on the surface of a cylinder given
by y 2 + z 2 = a2 , where a is the radius. Assume the cylinder is centered at the origin.
8.6 For an isotropic plate, the displacement components are found to be
ux ( x, y, z ) = 0.00004x2 0.0002xy 2
uy ( x, y, z ) = 0.00035x3 y 0.0006y 2
uz ( x, y, z ) = 0
a) Determine xx , xy and zz .
b) Evaluate xx at the coordinates ( 0.6, 0.5, 0.3 ).
c) Is this problem plane stress? Why?
8.7 A rectangular piece of rubber has been deformed into the shape shown below by the dashed
lines. Determine the average normal strain along the diagonal CB and side AC. Average
normal strain is given by: ave = l
lo where l is the length of a line.

y
3 mm
C D

200 mm

4 mm

150 mm x
A B

Problem 8.7

8.8 A particle in a elastic body is originally located at position ( x, y, z ) in a Cartesian coordinate

system. The nal position ( x , y , z ) of the point (after deformation of the body) is given by
(assume units of inches):
x = kx where: k = 7 105
y = 3x + 4kz + 2ky
z = (5 + k)z
Note that if you know the nal position and initial position of a particle, then you know its
displacement. Refer to the notes to refresh your memory.
a) Determine the components of the innitesimal strain tensor, .
b) Find the elongation per unit length of an element initially in the direction of i, j, and k.
8.9 For an isotropic plate, the displacement components are found to be:
ux ( x, y, z ) = 0.00004x2 0.0002xy 2
uy ( x, y, z ) = 0.00035x3 y 0.0006y 2
uz ( x, y, z ) = 0
a) Determine the components of the innitesimal strain tensor, .
b) Evaluate xx at the coordinates ( 0.6, 0.5, 0.3 ).
c) Is this problem plane stress? Why?
210 CHAPTER 8. KINEMATIC RELATIONS IN DEFORMATION OF SOLIDS