Chapter 2:

Basic Components of Power

Systems

EEL 4283 Introduction to

Renewable Energy

Modern Power Network

Modern power networks are:
(1) generation, (2) transmission, and (3) distribution.

Main components of power systems. 2

1
Category of transmission lines

Modern Power Network

The generation system includes the main parts of the
power plants such as turbines and generators.
The energy resources used to generate electricity in
most ppower plants
p are combustible,, nuclear,, or
hydropower.
The burning of fossil fuels or a nuclear reaction
generates heat that is converted into mechanical
motion by the thermal turbines.
In hydroelectric systems, the flow of water through
the turbine converts the kinetic energy of the water
i
into rotating
i mechanical
h i l energy.
These turbines rotate the electromechanical
generators that convert the mechanical energy into
electric energy.
4

2
 Modern Power Network
The generated electricity is transmitted to all customers
by a complex network of transmission systems
composed mainly of transmission lines, transformers,
and protective equipments.
The transmission lines are the links between power
plants and load centers.
Transformers are used to increase (step up) or decrease
(step down) the voltage.
At the power plant, a transmission substation with step-
up transformers increases the voltage of the
transmission lines to very high values (220k - 1200
kV).
This is done to reduce the current (I = Power P/Volts V)
through the transmission lines, thus reducing the cross
section of the transmission wires and consequently
reducing the overall cost of the transmission system. 5

Modern Power Network

At the distribution end (or the load centers), the
voltage of the transmission lines is reduced by step-
down transformers to lower values (15 k to 25 kV)
for the distribution of power within city limits.
At
A the
h consumer sites,i the
h voltage
l is
i further
f h reduced
d d
to values from 100 V to 240 V for household use
depending on the standards of the country.
The power system is extensively monitored and
controlled. It has several levels of protections to
minimize the effect of any damaged component on
the system ability to provide safe and reliable
electricity to all customers.

3
 POWER PLANTS
At the power plant, energy resources such as coal,
oil, gas, hydropower, or nuclear power are converted
into electricity.
The main parts of the power plant are the burner (in
f il plants),
fossil l ) the
h reactor (in
(i nuclear
l power plants),
l )
the dam (in a hydroelectric plant), the turbine, and
the generator.
Power plants can be huge in sizeA and capacity. For
example, the Itaipu hydroelectric power plant
located at the BrazilianParaguayan border
produces 75 TW h annually
China is building the largest nuclear power plant in
the southern province of Guangdong with a capacity
of 6 GW.
7

POWER PLANTS
Although power plants are enormous in mass, they
are delicately controlled.
A slight imbalance between the input power of the
turbine and the output electric power of the
generator may cause a blackout
bl k unless
l rapidly
idl
corrected.
To avoid blackouts, the massive amount of water or
steam inside the plant must be tightly
A controlled at
all times, which is an enormous challenge to
mechanical and structural engineers.

4
 Byron nuclear power plant

Byron nuclear power plant. 9

Itaipu hydroelectric power plant in Brazil

Itaipu hydroelectric power plant in Brazil (75 TWh) 10

5
 Coal-fired thermal power plant

Coal-fired thermal power plant

11

TURBINES
The function of the turbine is to rotate the electrical generator
by converting the thermal energy of the steam or the kinetic
energy of the water into rotating mechanical energy.
There are two types of turbines: thermal and hydroelectric.
g
Figure 3 shows a model of a hydroelectric
y turbine. It consists
of blades mounted on a rotating shaft and curved to capture
the maximum kinetic energy from the water.
The angle of the blade can be adjusted in some types of
turbines for better control on its output mechanical power.
A nuclear reactions are
In thermal power plants, fossil fuels or
used to produce steam at high temperatures and pressures.
The steam is ppassed through
g the blades of the thermal turbine,,
and causes the turbine to rotate.
The steam flow is controlled by several valves at critical
locations to ensure that the turbine is rotating at a precise
speed.

12

6
 TURBINES
A typical hydroelectric power plant consists of a dam that
holds the water upstream at high elevations with respect to
the turbine.
The difference in height between the water surface behind the
dam and the turbine blades is called head. The larger
g the
head, the more potential energy is stored in the water behind
the dam.
When electricity is needed, the water is allowed to pass to the
turbine blades through pipes called penstocks. The turbine
A
then rotates and the valve of the penstock regulates the flow
of water, thus controlling the speed of the turbine,
Since the generator is mounted on the shaft of the turbine, the
generator rotates with
i h the
h turbine
bi andd electricity
l i i is
i generated.
d
To ensure that the voltage of the generator is at a constant
frequency, the turbine must run at a precise and constant
speed.

13

Model of hydroelectric turbine

14

7
 GENERATORS
The generator used in all power plants is the
synchronous machine. The synchronous machine
has a magnetic field circuit mounted on its rotor and
is firmly connected to the turbine.
The stationary part of the generator, called a stator,
has windings wrapped around the core of the stator.
When the turbine rotates, the magnetic field moves
inside the machine in a circular Amotion.
As explained by Faraday, the relative speed between
the stator windings and the magnetic field induces
voltage across the stator windings.
windings
When an electrical load is connected across the
stator windings, the load is energized as explained
by Ohms law.
15

GENERATORS
The output voltage of the generator (5 k to 22 kV) is
not high enough for the efficient transmission of
power.
g
Higher voltage
g ggenerators are not ppractical to build
as they require more insulation, making the
generator unrealistically large in size.
Instead, the output voltage of the generators is
increased by using step-up transformers..
A

16

8
 TRANSFORMERS
The main function of the transformer is to increase
(step up) or decrease (step down) the voltage.
The voltage of the transmission Line must be high
g to reduce the current in the transmission line
enough
When electric power is delivered to the load centers,
the voltage is stepped down for safer distribution
over city streets.
A
When the power reaches customers homes, the
voltage is further stepped down to the household
level of 100 V to 240 V depending on the various
standards
d d worldwide.
ld id

17

HIGH VOLTAGE TRANSMISSION LINES

Electrical lines (conductors) deliver electric power
from the generating plant to customers.
The bulk power of the generating plant is
transmitted to load centers over long g distance lines
called high voltage transmission lines.
The lines that distribute the power within city limits
are called medium voltage distribution lines. There
are several other categories such as sub-transmission
and high voltage distribution lines.
The transmission lines are high voltage wires (220 k
to 1200 kkV)) mounted d on tall
ll towers to prevent them
h
from touching the ground, humans, animals,
buildings, or equipment.

18

9
 HIGH VOLTAGE TRANSMISSION LINES

High voltage transmission

tower
A

19

HIGH VOLTAGE TRANSMISSION LINES

High voltage towers are normally 25 - 45 m in
height; one of these towers is shown. The higher the
voltage of the wire, the taller is the tower.
g voltage
High g towers are normally y made of
galvanized steel to achieve the strength and
durability needed in harsh environments.
Since the steel is electrically conductive, the high
voltage wires cannot be attached directly to the steel
tower.
Instead, insulators made of nonconductive material
mounted d on the
h tower are usedd to hold
h ld the
h
conductors away from the tower structure.

20

10
 INSULATORS
The insulators withstand the static and dynamic
forces exerted on the conductor during windstorms,
freezing rain, or earth movements.
p and designs;
Insulators come in various shapes g ; one
of them is shown in Figure. It consists of mounting
ends and insulated central rod with several disk-
shaped insulating materials.
In some types of insulators, the Adisk has a slightly
conical shape where the top diameter is slightly
smaller than the bottom diameter as shown in
Figure
Figure.
The top end of the central rod is attached to the
tower and the lower end is attached to the conductor.

21

INSULATORS
The insulators withstand the static and dynamic
forces exerted on the conductor during windstorms,
freezing rain, or earth movements.
p and designs;
Insulators come in various shapes g ; one
of them is shown in Figure. It consists of mounting
ends and insulated central rod with several disk-
shaped insulating materials.
In some types of insulators, the Adisk has a slightly
conical shape where the top diameter is slightly
smaller than the bottom diameter as shown in
Figure
Figure.
The top end of the central rod is attached to the
tower and the lower end is attached to the conductor.

22

11
 INSULATORS

Insulator 23

INSULATORS

Conical-shaped insulator, and (c) creepage distance.

24

12
 INSULATORS
To protect against the flashover in high voltage
transmission lines, the insulators must be
unrealistically long.
However,, if a disk- shaped
p insulator is used,, the
distance between the tower and the conductor over
the surface of the insulator is more than the actual
length of the insulator.
This is shown in Figure where the A jagged arrow
shows the flashover path which is longer than the
actual height of the insulator.
The
h flashover
fl h pathh is
i called
ll d the
h creepage distance
di
and is defined as the shortest distance along the
surface of the insulation material.

25

INSULATORS
But why are the disks slightly bent toward the
ground or have their upper radii smaller than their
lower radii?
The simplep answer is to make it easy
y to clean the
insulators When rain falls, the deposited salt and
dust on the insulator are washed away.
If it is mounted upside down, there will be pockets
where dust is trapped, thus reducing
A the insulation
capability of the insulators.

26

13
MEDIUM VOLTAGE DISTRIBUTION LINES
The conductors of the medium voltage distribution
lines are either buried underground or mounted on
poles and towers.
In most cities,, the distribution network is mainlyy
underground for esthetic and safety reasons.
However, it is also common to have overhead
distribution lines as shown in Figure.
Since the voltage of the distribution
A lines is much
lower than that for the transmission lines, the
distribution towers are shorter and their insulators
are smaller.
smaller

27

MEDIUM VOLTAGE DISTRIBUTION TOWER

Medium voltage distribution tower 28

14
 MEDIUM VOLTAGE DISTRIBUTION LINES
The distribution towers are often made of steel,
wood, concrete, or composite materials.
Most of the commercial and industrial plants have
direct access to the distribution network,, and they y
use their own transformers to step down the voltage
to the levels needed by their various equipment.
In residential areas, utilities install transformers in
vaults or on towers to reduce theA distribution line
voltage to any value between 100 V and 240 V
depending on the standard of the country.

29

CONDUCTORS
(1) Aluminum conductors are much cheaper than copper and (2)
aluminum is lighter than copper, which allows the use of longer
spans between towers.
Conductors are made of a ggroup p of smaller conductors called
strands that are spiraled. If more than two layers of aluminum
strands are used, the layers are spiraled in opposite directions to
prevent unwinding.
Since aluminum is a relatively soft metal and can easily break
under tension (its tensile strength is relatively low), reinforcement
steel alloyy strands can be pplaced at the core of the conductor.
The cross-section area of most conductors ranges from 12 to 800
mm 2.. For cables, the conductors are also made of strands, but the
conductor is encapsulated by insulation material to provide the
needed isolation from the surrounding ground.
30

15
 Transmission line conductor

31

CONDUCTORS
The most common types of conductors are :
All aluminum conductors (AAC): This conductor has one or more
strands of aluminum alloy without reinforcement strands. AAC is
used when the span between towers is short (urban areas). In coastal
areas, where corrosion is a problem, AAC conductors are used.
Aluminum conductors steel reinforced (ACSR): To increase the
strength of the aluminum conductors, the ACSR has steel strands at its
core surrounded by one or more layers of aluminum strands. The steel
of the core is often galvanized steel (zinc coated). The ACSR are used
when the span between towers is long. Even though the steel is
galvanized, it can still be corroded over a period of time, especially in
coastal areas.
All aluminum alloy conductors (AAAC): This is an alloy conductor
made of aluminum, magnesium, and silicon. The AAAC has excellent
tension characteristics and superior corrosion resistance. 32

16
 BUNDLED CONDUCTORS
Very-high-voltage transmission lines have their conductors split
into sub-conductors bonded together electrically, but are
separated from each other. This type of conductors is called
bundled conductor.
An object with high electric field ionizes the air surrounding it.
This ionization is a form of leakage current and is called corona.
The presence of the corona is highly undesirable for several
reasons
Over time, corona damages the conductor; the leakage current
creates spotted
p burns on the surface of the conductor.
Corona produces electromagnetic fields with wide frequency
spectrum that interferes with wired and wireless communications.
Corona is a form of leakage current that causes energy losses.

33

BUNDLED CONDUCTORS
This electric field is

V is the voltage of the

conductor d is the
diameter of the conductor

Electric field at surface of

conductor. 34

17
 BUNDLED CONDUCTORS
A hollow conductor that has a large diameter, but with the same
cross- section area, is shown.
This option is not practical as the conductor becomes weak and
can collapse
p under the ppressure exerted on it duringg the stringing
g g
process, or due to the dynamic forces of winds.

Reduce electric field strength: (a) solid conductor, (b) hollow, and (c)
bundled.
35

BUNDLED CONDUCTORS
A hollow conductor that has a large diameter, but with the same
cross- section area, is shown.
This option is not practical as the conductor becomes weak and
p under the ppressure exerted on it duringg the stringing
can collapse g g
process, or due to the dynamic forces of winds.

Reduce electric field strength: (a) solid conductor, (b) hollow, and (c)
bundled.
36

18
 BUNDLED CONDUCTORS
Bundled conductor is composed of
several sub-conductors with total
area equal to that in the solid one.
All sub-conductors are spaced
from each other and their voltages
are equalized
. To maintain their space and to
equalize the voltage of all sub-
conductors, conductive spacers are
used at short distances along the
transmission line. The spacer s
repeated every few meters.
Bundled conductors are typically
used for transmission lines rated at
or higher than 340 kV. 37

STATIC (SHIELD) WIRE

These wires are known as static, shield
wire, or overhead ground wire (OHGW).
This conductor does not carry current under
normal conditions and is grounded along
the transmission line and at the sub-stations.
The
Th term
t shield
hi ld is
i usedd because
b it protects
t t
the transmission line against lightning
strikes. Because lightning often hits the
highest point with the lowest potential, the
static wire that is the highest wire at ground
potential will attract the lightning strike.
The static wire is therefore bonded to all
metal tower structures and at substations
substations.
In this way, the static wire dissipates the
lightning energy throughout all ground
paths along the transmission line. The photo
shows two static wires. This is because the
tower is windy and one wire may not be
enough to protect all conductors. 38

19
 SUBSTATIONS
The substation is where the voltage is adjusted, circuits are
switched, system is monitored, and equipment is protected. A
typical substation includes
Transformers Switching equipment Protection equipment
M i ddevices
Measuring i C l systems
Control

Main parts of a substation.

Potential transformer (PT) Disconnecting switch (DS)
Circuit breaker (CB) Current transformer (CT)
Surge arrester (SA) 39

POTENTIAL TRANSFORMER
To measure the voltage of the line V1, we can
use the capacitor divider in Figure.
If we make C2>> C1, the voltage across C2 will
be much smaller than transmission line
voltage,
l allowing
ll i us to use low-voltage
l l
voltmeter. The current through the capacitors is

f is the frequency of the system.

40

20
 CURRENT TRANSFORMER
The CT is a special type of transformer where
the primary winding is replaced by the conductor
whose current is to be measured. The secondary
winding is wrapped around an iron core and has
turns The secondary
hundreds or thousands of turns.
windings are shorted by an ammeter. If we
ignore the leakage flux, we can use the ampere-
turn theory to estimate the secondary current I2

41

CURRENT TRANSFORMER

The rated secondary current I2 is standardized at 1 to 5A.

The CT must have its secondary windings shorted. This is done
by
b the
th ammetert connected
t d between
b t its
it terminals.
t i l
If the secondary winding is accidentally opened, the CT will be
damaged. This is because the voltage per turn ratio is almost
constant in the primary and secondary windings

Because N2 and V1 are high values, V2 is

extremely high and will cause insulation
failures and arcing to force the current to
pass through the secondary windings.
42

21
 CIRCUIT BREAKER
The CB is a high-voltage switching device designed to interrupt the
flow of current even during faults. The switching of the CBs is often
by solenoids that are activated by a controller.
For fault clearing, the CB is automatically opened when the current
exceedsd predetermined
d i d values.
l Thi could
This ld be
b done
d f as a
as fast
fraction of an alternating current (ac) cycle.
All inductors must return the energy to the source when the breaker
initiates the opening action.
When the blades of the breaker
starts to separate, an arc is
developed to allow the inductors
energy to return to the source.
Arc is a form of fire with high
temperature that can easily damage
the CB itself. Therefore, the arc
43
must be quenched very quickly.

CIRCUIT BREAKER (SF6)

The CB is immersed in a medium without oxygen and with good
cooling property. Among these medium are oil and sulfur
hexafluoride (SF6). SF6 is a colorless, odorless, nontoxic, non-
flammable gas. It is not soluble in water and is higher in density
than air
air. This is the most popular medium used today.
today

44

22
 CIRCUIT BREAKER
The CB has two main settings: tap setting and time dial setting.
The tap setting determines the level of current above which the
CB is to open.
Since most faults are temporary
p y and can be cleared byy
themselves, the breakers are designed to wait a while before they
initiate the opening. This delay time is the time dial setting.
Because of all its complex features and the level of energy it can
handle, the CB is among the most expensive equipment in the
power grid.
The power grid uses tens of thousands of CBs in the United
States.

45

DISCONNECTING SWITCHES
DSs are automatic or manually operating devices. In either case,
they are not designed to interrupt a fault current and are less
precise than CBs. They are normally used to isolate sections of
the network.
The CB has one DS on each side. This is to allow workers to
perform maintenance on the CB. The CB is first opened to
interrupt the current. Then, the two DS are opened to isolate the
CB from the grid.

46

23
 DISCONNECTING SWITCHES

47

SECTIONALIZERS
This is another type of DS. This device is more sophisticated
than the DS described earlier.
Sectionalizers do not interrupt fault currents and are often
used in conjunction with re-closers.
They have counters that keep track of the number of times a
re-closer operates and can isolate sections of the network
when the power is off.
When the fault is permanent, it can isolate the section of the
network with the fault and serve the rest of the customers.

48

24
 SURGE ARRESTERS
Switching of power lines and lightning strikes can cause excessive
and sudden increase in voltage at the substations.
To protect the vulnerable equipment, surge (or lightning) arresters
are used in substations. These devices operate very similarly to the
zener diode whose resistance is inversely proportional to the
applied voltage.

They are called metal-oxide

varistors (MOVs). The term
varistor is a combination of two
words:
d variable
i bl andd resistor
it

49

SURGE ARRESTERS

Surge arrester during Surge arrester during surges.

normal voltage

50

25
 SURGE ARRESTERS

Surge arrester mounted on transformer. 51

CONTROL CENTERS
The stability and security of the power system must
be maintained at all times to avoid any interruption
of service to the customers or the collapse of the
power system.
The system must also be protected from being
damaged due to the failure of any of its components
or equipment.
In addition, the system must operate efficiently and
economically to ensure the best rates to the
customers. These are enormous tasks whose
responsibility lies mainly with the electrical
engineers.
To effectively operate and control the power system,
it must be extensively monitored at all times.

52

26
 CONTROL CENTERS
All mechanical and electrical functions inside the
power plants are monitored, evaluated, and
controlled mostly in real time.
All major equipments, such as substation
transformers and transmission lines,
lines are also
extensively monitored and controlled.
The various circuit breakers in the network that
switch the various lines and components as well as
protecting the equipment during fault conditions are
continuously checked for their status and their
operations are often controlled remotely.
Besides the extensive monitoring, the engineers
continuously evaluate the operation of the system,
predict the future demand, and establish favorable
energy trade conditions between utilities.
53

CONTROL CENTERS
These functions require the use of sophisticated
algorithms that optimize the operation of the power
system.
All the above tasks are managed in the control
center which is the brain of the electric power
center,
system. One of these control centers is shown in
Figure 7.
The control center has a large mimic board
representing the main components of the power
system such as transmission lines and circuit
breakers.
The mimic board displays the current condition of
the system such as the power flow in all lines and
the status of each circuit breaker.

54

27
 TYPICAL CONTROL CENTER

FIGURE 7 Control center of Tennessee Valley Authority

55

CONTROL CENTERS
Several operators (called system operators) are
present at all times to monitor the power system and
implement corrective actions should a problem arise.
They also shift flows on transmission lines and
circuits to ensure that all power system components
are operating within their specified voltage and
current ranges.
When the system is operating under normal
conditions, the system operators run several software
to optimize the operation of the system, predict
future demand and power flows, assess system
stability, schedule generation, etc.

56

28
 WORLDWIDE STANDARDS FOR
HOUSEHOLD VOLTAGE AND FREQUENCY
The magnitude of the household voltage or frequency
is not the same worldwide. This is mostly because of
three reasons:
1. Due to the competitions between the United States
and Europe in the late 1800s and early 1900s, the
manufacturing companies in both continents have
independently developed their power system
equipment without coordinating their efforts.
2. Different safety concerns in Europe and the United
St t hhave lledd to
States t various
i voltage
lt standards.
t d d
3. Wiring and equipment costs have led nations to select
the most economical voltage standards.

57

WORLDWIDE STANDARDS FOR

HOUSEHOLD VOLTAGE AND FREQUENCY

58

29
 WORLDWIDE STANDARDS FOR
HOUSEHOLD VOLTAGE AND FREQUENCY
Table 1 shows the voltage and frequency standards in
select countries.
The voltage standard is for single-pole outlets used in
mostt household
h h ld appliances.
li
In the United States, 120 V is used everywhere inside
the house, except for heaters, driers, and ovens where
the receptacles are double- pole at 240 V.
The various voltages and frequencies standards
worldwide have created confusions among consumers
who wish to use equipment manufactured based on
one standard in a country with a different standard.
For example, the compressors of the refrigerators
designed for 60 Hz standard slow down by 17% when
used in a 50 Hz system.
59

WORLDWIDE STANDARDS FOR

HOUSEHOLD VOLTAGE AND FREQUENCY
Also, electrical equipment designed for 100 V
standard will be damaged if it is used in 240 V
systems.
For
F small ll appliances,
li modern
d power electronics
l t i
circuits have addressed this problem very effectively.
Almost all power supplies for travel equipment
(electric razors, portable computers, digital cameras,
audio equipment, etc.) are designed to operate at all
voltage and frequency standards.

60

30
 VOLTAGE STANDARD
It appears that the 120 V was chosen somewhat
arbitrarily in the United States.
Actually, Edison came up with a high-resistance lamp
filament that operated well at 120 V. Since then, the
120 V was selected in the United States.
The standard for voltage worldwide varies widely
from 100 V in Japan to 240 V in Cyprus.
Generally, a wire is less expensive when the voltage
is high; the cross section of the copper wires is
smaller for higher voltages.
However, from the safety point of view, lower
voltage circuits are safer than the higher voltage ones;
100 V is perceived to be less harmful than 240 V. 61

FREQUENCY STANDARD
Only two frequencies are used worldwide: 60 and 50
Hz.
The standard frequency in North America, Central
America most of South America
America, America, and some Asian
countries is 60 Hz.
Almost everywhere else, the frequency is 50 Hz.
In Europe, major manufacturing firms such as
Siemens and AEG have established 50 Hz as a
standard frequency for their power grids.
Most of Asia
Asia, parts of South America
America, all of Africa
Africa,
and the Middle East have adopted the same 50 Hz
standard.

62

31
 FREQUENCY STANDARD
In the United States, Westinghouse adopted the 60 Hz
standard.
Nikola Tesla actually wanted to adopt a higher
frequency to reduce the size of the rotating machines
machines,
but 60 Hz was eventually selected for the following
reasons:
It is a high enough frequency to eliminate light
flickers in certain types of incandescent lamps.
It is conveniently synchronized with time.
Machines designed for 60 Hz can have less iron and
smaller magnetic circuits than the ones designed for
50 Hz.

63

FREQUENCY STANDARD
In Japan, both frequencies are used; in Eastern Japan
(Tokyo, Kawasaki, Sapporo, Yokohama, and Sendai),
the grid frequency is 50Hz; and in Western Japan
(Osaka, Kyoto, Nagoya, and Hiroshima), the
frequency is 60 Hz.
The first generator in Japan was imported from
Germany for the Kanto area during the Meiji era, and
the frequency was 50 Hz.
Subsequent acquisitions of power equipment were
mainlyy from Europe
p and were installed in the eastern
side of Japan making the frequency of the eastern
grid 50 Hz.

64

32
 FREQUENCY STANDARD
After World War II, Japan imported their power
plants from the United States and installed them in
the western side of the island (the first power plant
was in the Kansai area).
The western grid is thus operating at 60 Hz.
The two frequency standards created two separate
grids with the dividing line between them going from
the Fuji River in Shizuoka upward to the Itoi River in
Niigata.
These two grids are not directly connected by an
alternating current (ac) line, but are connected by
direct current (dc) lines.

65

FREQUENCY STANDARD
On each end of the dc line, a power electronic system
converts the ac frequency into dc.
It is interesting to know that for stand-alone systems,
such as aircraft power systems,
systems the frequency is 400
Hz.
This is selected to reduce the size and weight of the
rotating machines and transformers aboard the
aircraft.
The frequency of the space station is 18 kHz.

66

33
 Frequency of Generating Plants
The frequency of the power systems voltage is
directly proportional to the speed of the generators in
the power plants (which is the same as the speed of the
t bi )
turbines).
The relationship between the frequency and the speed,
is given in the following equation:
p
f = n
120
Wh
Where n is i the
th speedd off the
th generator
t (rpm)
( )
P is the number of magnetic poles of the field circuit
of the generator
f is the frequency of the generators voltage
67

Frequency of Generating Plants

One of the earliest ac generators was a 10-pole
machine running at 200 rpm.
q
The frequency y of this generator
g was 16 Hz.
This anomalous frequency was low enough to allow
the series-wound dc motor to operate from ac supply
without any modification.
This was a justifiable reason because the series-
wound motor was used extensively in locomotive
tractions.
However, this low frequency created noticeable
flickers in incandescent lamps, and was therefore
rejected as a standard.

68

34
 Frequency of Generating Plants
When the Niagara Falls power plant was built, the
engineers used 12-pole generators running at 250
rpm, and the frequency was 25 Hz.
The power plant was built to produce compressed air,
and the low frequency was not a major concern.
In the following developments, the frequency was
raised to 40 Hz, then 60 Hz to reduce the flickers.

69

Frequency of Power Grids

In early days, the generators operated independently
without any connection between them.
The typical system was composed of a single generator,
f d (transmission
feeders ( i i lines),
li ) andd severall loads.
l d
In such a system. the frequency can drift without any
major impact on the stability of the system.
In the 1940s. it became economically important to
interconnect the generators by a system of transmission
lines, and the power grid was born.
The interconnections demanded that the frequency of
the grid be fixed to a single value.
If the frequencies of all generators are not exactly equal,
the power system would collapse. 70

35
 Why Higher Frequency?
The impedance due to inductance L is X L = j 2 fL
1
The impedance
p due to capacitance
p C is XC =
j 2 fC
The induced voltage E is related to the flux by
E = 2 f
We can see from these expressions that a higher
frequency requires a lower amount of inductances
and capacitances for same amount of impedance.
Also, it requires less amount of flux and magnetic
materials for the same amount of induced volatge.
71

Distributed Energy Market Place and

Smart Grid
Over the next few years, we expect to see the rapid
development in Distributed Energy Market Place and
Smart G
S Gridd co
combining
b g thee technologies
ec o og es in power
powe
electronics, wireless communications, network
security, artificial intelligence, smart metering, power
systems protections and delivery on demand. See the
Department of Energy Document on Introduction to
Smart Grid at
http://www.oe.energy.gov/DocumentsandMedia/DOE
_SG_Book_Single_Pages(1).pdf
SG B k Si l P (1) df
Next four slides illustrates the possibilities of future
development and growth in the power grid.

72

36
 Distributed Energy Market Place

Source: IEEE Power & Energy, Sept/Oct 2009 73

SMART GRID PUT IT TO WORK

74

37
The smart grid as enabling engine

75

TODAYs GRID. AND TOMORROWs

76

38
 Chapter Summary
Modern power networks includes (1) generation, (2)
transmission, and (3) distribution.
The control center of the central element to operate and control
the power system.
The magnitude of the household voltage or frequency is not
the same worldwide.
The standard for voltage worldwide varies widely from 100 V
in Japan to 240 V in Cyprus. 120 V is in the United States.
The standard frequency in North America, Central America,
most of South America, and some Asian countries is 60 Hz.
Almost everywhere else,
else the frequency is 50 Hz.
Hz
The frequency of the power systems voltage is directly
proportional to the speed of the generators in the power plants.
Future development is expected to be in the implementation of
Smart Grid concepts.
77

Academic Integrity
Academic Integrity is a major concern especially for on-lone
courses. Although it may be difficult, not impossible to
establish the identity the person who is on the other side doing
all the assignments and taking quizzes.
The
Th e-learning
l i stamps
t the
th date,
d t time
ti andd the
th IP address
dd off the
th
student computer.
There are special expectations of students for any academic
work done.
Academic dishonesty is a serious offense and will be taken
seriously.
Honesty in our academic work is vital,
vital and it is expected that
you will not knowingly act in ways which erode that integrity.
Accordingly, you pledge not to cheat, nor to tolerate cheating,
nor to plagiarize the work of others. (UWF Student Life
Handbook).
78

39
Taking the Quiz on Basic Components
of Power Systems
After reviewing this PowerPoint slides, you
should read the assigned readings before taking
the multiple-choice questions in Quiz #3 (OPEN
BOOK).
You should read Chapter 2 and practice all the
worked out Examples in Chapter 2.
You should read the DOE document on Smart
Grid Introduction (see the website link and
learning).
You may expect questions on topics which are
not covered in this presentation.
While you are taking the quiz, you may not have
any access to any programs or files in your
computer. 79

Discussion of the Week

Check the class schedule

80

40