SURFACE PREPARTION

Surface preparation standards are stipulated by various bodies throughout the world to
designate the cleanliness condition of blasted steel, prior to applying a protective coating.
The applicable cleanliness standard is usually called for by either the protective coating
manufacturer or the owner of the structure to be painted. The most commonly referred to
standards are SSPC, NACE, and Swedish Standards. Each standard is divided into four
standards of cleanliness, broadly described as follows; brush off, commercial, near white
metal, white metal. Whilst each standard may differ slightly in requirements and
terminology the following cross reference chart indicates the close approximation of each
level of cleanliness for each standard.

BRUSH OFF COMMERCIAL NEAR WHITE METAL WHITE METAL SSPC SP 7 SP

6 SP 10 SP 5 NACE No.4 No.3 No.2 No.1 SWEDISH Sa.1 Sa.2 Sa.2.5 Sa.3

A brief description of each of the four levels of cleanliness is as follows: Brush Off -
Loose mill scale, loose rust and foreign particles are removed.

Commercial - Mill scale, rust and foreign particles are substantially removed and grey
metal is visible.

Near White Metal - Mill scale, rust and foreign particles are removed to the extent that
only traces remain in the form of spots or stripes. The cleaned surface will show varying
shades of grey. White Metal - Visible mill scale, rust and foreign particles are entirely
removed. The cleaned surface should have a uniform metallic colour but may show
varying shades of grey when viewed at different angles.
 National Association of Corrosion Engineers (NACE)
Steel Structures Painting Council (SSPC)
Swedish Standards (Sa,St)

National Association of Corrosion Engineers (NACE)

NACE 1 White Metal Blast Cleaning

NACE 2 Near-White Blast Cleaning
NACE 3 Commercial Blast Cleaning

Steel Structures Painting Council (SSPC)

SP-1 Solvent Cleaning

SP-2 Hand Tool Cleaning
SP-3 Power Tool Cleaning
SP-4 Flame Cleaning
SP-5 White Metal Blast Cleaning
SP-6 Commercial Blast Cleaning
SP-7 Brush-Off Blast Cleaning
SP-8 Pickling
SP-9 Weathering Followed By Blast Cleaning
SP-10 Near-White Blast Cleaning

Swedish Standard (St,Sa)

St 2 Hand Tool Cleaning

St 3 Power Tool Cleaning
Sa 1 Brush-Off Blast Cleaning
Sa 2 Commercial Blast Cleaning
Sa 2 1/2 Near-White Blast Cleaning
Sa 3 White Metal Blast Cleaning

SSPC-SP-1

Solvent Cleaning - Removal of all detrimental foreign matter such as oil, grease, dirt,
soil, salts, drawing and cutting compounds, and other contaminants from steel surfaces by
the use of solvents, emulsions, cleaning compounds, steam or other similar materials and
methods which involve a solvent or cleaning action.
SSPC-SP-2
St 2

Hand Tool Cleaning - Removal of all rust scale, mill scale, loose rust and loose paint to
the degree specified by hand wire brushing, hand sanding, hand scraping, hand chipping
or other hand impact tods or by a combination of these methods. The substrate should
have a faint metallic sheen and also be free of oil, grease, dust, soil, salts and other
contaminants.

SSPC-SP-3
St 3

Power Tool Cleaning - Removal of all rust scale, mill scale, loose paint, and loose rust to
the degree specified by power wire brushes, power impact tools, power grinders, power
sanders or by a combination of these methods. The substrate should have a pronounced
metallic sheen and also be free of oil, grease, dirt, soil, salts and other contaminants.
Surface should not be buffed or polished smooth.

SSPC-SP-4

Flame Cleaning - Removal of all loose scale, rust and other detrimental foreign matter
by passing high temperature, high velocity oxy-acetylene flames over the entire surface,
followed by wire brushing. Surface should also be free of oil, grease, dirt, soil, salts and
other contaminants.

SSPC-SP-5
Sa 3
NACE 1

White Metal Blast Cleaning - Removal of all mill scale, rust, rust scale, paint or foreign
matter by the use of abrasives propelled through nozzles or by centrifugal wheels. A
White Metal Blast Cleaned Surface Finish is defined as a surface with a gray-white,
uniform metallic color, slightly roughened to form a suitable anchor pattern for coatings.
The surface, when viewed without magnification, shall be free of all oil, grease, dirt,
visible mill scale, rust, corrosion products, oxides, paint, or any other foreign matter.
SSPC-SP6
Sa 2
NACE 3

Commercial Blast Cleaning - Removal of mill scale, rust, rust scale, paint or foreign
matter by the use of abrasives propelled through nozzles or by centrifugal wheels, to the
degree specified. A Commercial Blast Cleaned Surface Finish is defined as one from
which all oil, grease, dirt, rust scale and foreign matter have been completely removed
from the surface and all rust, mill scale and old paint have been completely removed
except for slight shadows, streaks, or discolorations caused by rust stain, mill scale oxides
or slight, tight residues of paint or coating that may remain; if the surface is pitted, slight
residues of rust or paint may by found in the bottom of pits; at least two-thirds of each
square inch of surface area shall be free of all visible residues and the remainder shall be
limited to the light discoloration, slight staining or tight residues mentioned above.

SSPC-SP-7
Sa 1

Brush-Off Blast Cleaning - Removal of loose mill scale, loose rust, and loose paint, to
the degree hereafter specified, by the impact of abrasives propelled through nozzles or by
centrifugal wheels. It is not intended that the surface shall be free of all mill scale, rust,
and paint. The remaining mill scale, rust, and paint should be tight and the surface should
be sufficiently abraded to provide good adhesion and bonding of paint. A Brush-Off Blast
Cleaned Surface Finish is defined as one from which all oil, grease, dirt, rust scale, loose
mill scale, loose rust and loose paint or coatings are removed completely but tight mill
scale and tightly adhered rust, paint and coatings are permitted to remain provided that all
mill scale and rust have been exposed to the abrasive blast pattern sufficiently to expose
numerous flecks of the underlying metal fairly uniformly distributed over the entire
surface.

SSPC-SP-8

Pickling - Removal of all mill scale, rust and rust scale by chemical reaction, or by
electrolysis, or by both. It is intended that the pickled surface shall be completely free of
all scale, rust, and foreign matter. Furthermore, the surface shall be free of unreacted or
harmful acid or alkali, or smut.

SSPC-SP-9
Weathering Followed By Blast Cleaning - Weathering to remove all or part of the mill
scale followed by one of the blast cleaning standards.

SSPC-SP-10
Sa 2-1/2
NACE 2

Near-White Blast Cleaning - Removal of nearly all mill scale, rust, rust scale, paint, or
foreign matter by the use of abrasives propelled through nozzles or by centrifugal wheels,
to the degree hereafter specified. A Near-White Blast Cleaned Surface Finish is defined
as one from which all oil, grease, dirt, mill scale, rust, corrosion products, oxides, paint or
other foreign matter have been completely removed from the surface except for very light
shadows, very slight streaks or slight discolorations caused by rust stain, mill scale
oxides, or light, tight residues of paint or coating that may remain. At least 95 percent of
each square inch of surface area shall be free of all visible residues, and the remainder
shall be limited to the light discoloration mentioned above.
JOTUN

Surface Preparation Standards

There are four widely accepted standards for surface preparation; NACE, SSPC, Swedish
and the United Kingdom standards. While each standard has different terminology they
can frequently be interchanged based on the following table. The explanations we offer
for each type of surface prep is intended to give you an idea of what is expected. We
strongly suggest you contact the appropriate organization and acquire the most current
and most complete standard prior to bidding or doing any work.

SSPC NACE Sa, St BS 4232

SP-1
SP-2 ST 2
SP-3 ST 3
SP-4
SP-5 NACE 1 Sa 3 1st Quality
SP-6 NACE 3 Sa 2 3rd Quality
SP-7 Sa 1
SP-8
SP-9
SP-10 NACE 2 Sa 2 1/2 2nd Quality
SP-11
SP-12
SSPC-SP-1
Solvent Cleaning - Removal of all detrimental foreign matter such as oil, grease, dirt,
soil, salts, drawing and cutting compounds, and other contaminants from steel surfaces by
the use of solvents, emulsions, cleaning compounds, steam or other similar materials and
methods which involve a solvent or cleaning action.

SSPC-SP-2
St 2
Hand Tool Cleaning - Removal of all rust scale, mill scale, loose rust and loose paint to
the degree specified by hand wire brushing, hand sanding, hand scraping, hand chipping
or other hand impact tods or by a combination of these methods. The substrate should
have a faint metallic sheen and also be free of oil, grease, dust, soil, salts and other
contaminants.

SSPC-SP-3
St 3
Power Tool Cleaning - Removal of all rust scale, mill scale, loose paint, and loose rust to
the degree specified by power wire brushes, power impact tools, power grinders, power
sanders or by a combination of these methods. The substrate should have a pronounced
metallic sheen and also be free of oil, grease, dirt, soil, salts and other contaminants.
Surface should not be buffed or polished smooth.

SSPC-SP-4
Flame Cleaning - Removal of all loose scale, rust and other detrimental foreign matter by
passing high temperature, high velocity oxy-acetylene flames over the entire surface,
followed by wire brushing. Surface should also be free of oil, grease, dirt, soil, salts and
other contaminants.

SSPC-SP-5
Sa 3
NACE 1
1st Quality
White Metal Blast Cleaning - Removal of all mill scale, rust, rust scale, paint or foreign
matter by the use of abrasives propelled through nozzles or by centrifugal wheels. A
White Metal Blast Cleaned Surface Finish is defined as a surface with a gray-white,
uniform metallic color, slightly roughened to form a suitable anchor pattern for coatings.
The surface, when viewed without magnification, shall be free of all oil, grease, dirt,
visible mill scale, rust, corrosion products, oxides, paint, or any other foreign matter.

SSPC-SP6
Sa 2
NACE 3
3rd Quality
Commercial Blast Cleaning - Removal of mill scale, rust, rust scale, paint or foreign
matter by the use of abrasives propelled through nozzles or by centrifugal wheels, to the
degree specified. A Commercial Blast Cleaned Surface Finish is defined as one from
which all oil, grease, dirt, rust scale and foreign matter have been completely removed
from the surface and all rust, mill scale and old paint have been completely removed
except for slight shadows, streaks, or discolorations caused by rust stain, mill scale oxides
or slight, tight residues of paint or coating that may remain; if the surface is pitted, slight
residues of rust or paint may by found in the bottom of pits; at least two-thirds of each
square inch of surface area shall be free of all visible residues and the remainder shall be
limited to the light discoloration, slight staining or tight residues mentioned above.

SSPC-SP-7
Sa 1
Brush-Off Blast Cleaning - Removal of loose mill scale, loose rust, and loose paint, to the
degree hereafter specified, by the impact of abrasives propelled through nozzles or by
centrifugal wheels. It is not intended that the surface shall be free of all mill scale, rust,
and paint. The remaining mill scale, rust, and paint should be tight and the surface should
be sufficiently abraded to provide good adhesion and bonding of paint. A Brush-Off Blast
Cleaned Surface Finish is defined as one from which all oil, grease, dirt, rust scale, loose
mill scale, loose rust and loose paint or coatings are removed completely but tight mill
scale and tightly adhered rust, paint and coatings are permitted to remain provided that all
mill scale and rust have been exposed to the abrasive blast pattern sufficiently to expose
numerous flecks of the underlying metal fairly uniformly distributed over the entire
surface.

SSPC-SP-8
Pickling Removal of all mill scale, rust and rust scale by chemical reaction, or by
electrolysis, or by both. It is intended that the pickled surface shall be completely free of
all scale, rust, and foreign matter. Furthermore, the surface shall be free of unreacted or
harmful acid or alkali, or smut.

SSPC-SP-9
Weathering Followed By Blast Cleaning - Weathering to remove all or part of the mill
scale followed by one of the blast cleaning standards.

SSPC-SP-10
Sa 2-1/2
NACE 2
2nd Quality
Near-White Blast Cleaning - Removal of nearly all mill scale, rust, rust scale, paint, or
foreign matter by the use of abrasives propelled through nozzles or by centrifugal wheels,
to the degree hereafter specified. A Near-White Blast Cleaned Surface Finish is defined
as one from which all oil, grease, dirt, mill scale, rust, corrosion products, oxides, paint or
other foreign matter have been completely removed from the surface except for very light
shadows, very slight streaks or slight discolorations caused by rust stain, mill scale
oxides, or light, tight residues of paint or coating that may remain. At least 95 percent of
each square inch of surface area shall be free of all visible residues, and the remainder
shall be limited to the light discoloration mentioned above.

SSPC-SP-11
Power Tool Cleaning to Bare Metal - Metallic surfaces which are prepared according to
this specification, when viewed without magnification, shall be free of all visible oil,
grease, dirt, dust mill scale, rust, paint, oxide, corrosion products and other foreign
matter. Slight residues of rust and paint maybe left in the lower portion of pits if the
original surface is pitted.
When painting is specified, the surface shall be roughened to a degree suitable for the
specified paint system. The surface profile shall not be less than 1 mil (25 microns)
Inspection of surface preparation

Inspection of surface preparation

Inspection of surface preparation includes the following:
Cleanliness. Solvent cleaning to remove salt, oil, grease and dust/dirt
Evaluation of present condition (rust grade)
Evaluation of surface (preparation grade and roughness)
Remaining contamination acceptable?

The ISO-standard 8501

An important tool to inspect steel work and surface preparation.
The standard gives four rust grades which are used to assess the steel surfaces. These are
given the designations A, B, C and D. Photographs are used to illustrate the four rust
grades of the steel.
As well as photographs of dissimilar rust grades A, B, C
and D, the standard also contains 24 pictures which show
the visual cleanliness after mechanical pre-treatment by
wire-brushing, blast-cleaning and flame cleaning on steel
substrates originating from the four different rust grades.
ISO 8503 Surface roughness characteristics of blast cleaned
substrates
There are many test methods to measure roughness of the surface. Among the most suited
for the field are comparators.
In ISO 8503, two comparators are specified; one with profiles corresponding to blast-
cleaned surfaces using grit abrasive (reference comparator G) and one corresponding to
blast-cleaned surfaces using metallic shot abrasives (reference comparator S).
The nominal values for these profiles, identify the limits of the three grades fine, medium
and coarse.

Methods to check contamination on the surface

An easy test for detecting oil/grease on a surface is the "water break method", where a
drop of water is added on to the prepared surface. The drop will spread out rapidly on the
surface if no oil/grease is present, but will remain on the surface in a drop-shaped form in
the presence of oil/grease. This method is not a standard.
To detect water soluble salts, the most user-friendly method available today is to dissolve
the salts being present at the surface and to measure the conductivity of the water sample.
Conductivity is an indication of how well a liquid solution will conduct electricity and is
measured in micro-Siemens (S). The conductivity can through calculation be converted
to a corresponding salt content on the surface. A test
method for determining total amount of soluble salts is
described by two standards:
The sampling is given by ISO 8502-6, "Extraction
soluble contaminants for analysis" the Bresle
sampler.
The analysis is described by ISO 8502-9, "Field
method for soluble salts by conductometric
measurement".

Inspection before and during application

Inspection during application includes the following activities:
Climatic conditions
Technical Data Sheet must be available and followed
Ensure correct mixing and thinning (extremely important)
Measuring the wet film thickness (WFT)
Number of coats as given in the specification
Cleanliness between coats (salts, dust, oil etc.)
Drying time between coats, minimum and maximum
The workmanship
 Controlling the equipment and methods used

How to measure wet film thickness

The wet film gauge (ISO 2808)

A useful tool to measure wet film thickness on flat, even
surfaces. When measuring second coat, soft first coat or if
first coat is of resoluble paint type, may cause inaccurate
results.

How to measure relative humidity

The sling hygrometer (ISO 8502-4)
The sling-hygrometer consists of two thermometers, one
dry and one wet (wet cotton wool wrapped around the
sensor). On rotation, the water in the cotton wool will
evaporate, thus cooling the thermometer in ratio to the dry
one, which measures the temperature of the air. From the
temperature readings, the relative humidity can be
calculated.

How to calculate the dew point

The dew point calculator
The dew point is the highest temperature at which moisture
will condense from the atmosphere. The dew point is
essential to determine if the climatic conditions are
acceptable for paint work. The calculation can be done from
tables or by a so-called dew point calculator. There are two
slightly different types available today. They are based on
similar principles and consist of two seals, which are set
against each other, so that the required information can be
read. When you have measured the dry and wet bulb
temperature, the dew point and relative humidity can be
read from the dew point calculator.
How to measure steel temperature
Contact thermometer
Electronic instrument to measure the steel temperature.
When steel temperature is measured and you have found
the dew point, it is possible to determine if it is possible to
start the paint application. The steel temperature should
always be 3oC or 5oF above the dew point.

Inspection after application

Another critical stage that needs to be followed up is when the application has been
finished. Inspection after completion of the application includes:
Dry film thickness (DFT)
Curing / drying
Adhesion
Holiday detection

How to measure dry film thickness

Magnetic and electromagnetic dry film thickness gauge

The most used instrument in the field is the electromagnetic dry
film thickness gauge. Magnetic dry film gauge is a simpler
instrument which gives less exact measures. It is important to
calibrate the instruments to zero and thickness similar to be
measured. Electormagnetic dry film gauges are available in
many versions with different kind of additional functions.

How to test the adhesion

The pull-off test (ISO 4624)

Dollies are connected to the painted surface with glue. The
force needed to loosen the dolly, is measured by the instrument.
Several types of pull-off instruments are available. The test is a
destructive test, which means that the test will damage a small
part of the paint film.

Coating failures
Coating failures may appear during application, at the stage of curing or after a certain
period of service life.

Statistics show that as much as 95% of all coating failures are the result of poor surface
preparation and application.
In subpages of this page you will find some examples of common coating failures and the
reason why they occur. Please note that there are maybe many reasons for a coating
failure and in some cases it requires a lot of experience to find the exact cause.

Sagging

Sagging occurs when:

Paint is applied in excess of the DFT specified
Too much thinner has been added to the paint
The gun is held too close to the surface.

Sags are recognized as "curtains" on the painted surfaces. If

the wet film thickness is much too high, excessive sagging
can result in pools of paints forming on horizontal surfaces or
in corners.

After curing, the paint may crack all the way to the substrate
in such areas and reveal unprotected steel.
If sagging is noticed at the spraying stage, it should be
brushed out while the paint film is still wet. Repairs after
drying consists of abrasion (sanding) and re-coating.

Pinholes and pores

Using the wrong spraying technique, such as excessive air
pressure, excessive film thickness, strong wind (too good
ventilation) and too long application distance may cause
craters, pinholes and pores. If noticeable on the paint film,
check the spraying equipment to ensure that the air pressure
and nozzle size is correct. Pinholes in a paint film can also
result from overspray. On excessive film thickness air will be
entrapped in the paint. The escaping air will create pinholes.
The consequence being that pinpoint rusting occurs, followed
by undercutting of the coating around the pinholes.
Repairs consist of grinding and re-coating the area using
appropriate coats to seal the defects and build up the coating
to the correct DFT. If the coating is still uncured, brush out
and apply the additional coat.
Blistering
This is one of the most common types of failure related to the
adhesion of the paint. Sometimes the blisters are dry and
sometimes filled with liquid. The blisters can be both large
and small, often shaped as hemispheres. The size usually
depends on the degree of adhesion to the substrate, or
between the coats, and the internal pressure of the gas or the
liquid inside the blister.
Blistering can be caused by a number of different conditions:
Soluble salts contaminating the substrate or
contaminating the surface between coats. No coatings
are 100 percent water proof. The moisture vapour
passing through the coating and solve the salt in a
rather concentrated solution. A pressure in the high
concentration liquid will cause blisters. This
phenomenon is called osmosis.
Contamination of the surface (e.g. oils, waxes, dust, etc.) will not allow proper
adhesion of the coating. The moisture vapour tends to concentrate in these areas
of low adhesion. In this case, the blisters are so-called "dry" blisters.
Poor or inadequate solvent release from the coating. Entrapped solvents can
increase the water absorption and moisture vapour transmission of the coating and
lead to blistering. Solvent odour is usually connected with retained solvents. If the
blistering is widespread on a construction: reblast and wash before new system is
applied. For local areas: blast or carry out other mechanical cleaning before
recoating.

Lifting
Lifting is raising of the undercoat. It is caused by a stronger
solvent in the topcoat attacks the previously applied film.
The result is a wrinkled surface. A typical example is a
topcoat containing xylene, on top of an alkyd based primer
containing white spirit. The xylene in the topcoat will
dissolve the primer.
Blast cleaning and reapplication of the paint is necessary to
repair the damaged surface.
Delamination/peeling
Loss of adhesion to the substrate or between coats of paint is
delimitation or peeling.
The causes are:
Unsatisfactory surface preparation
Incompatible primer or undercoat
Substrate or intercoat contamination
Excessive cure time between coats

The way to repair the surface, is to remove paint down to

sound paint or to the substrate, and recoat.

Orange peel
Finely pebbled or dimpled surface texture with an
appearance similar to the skin of an orange.
Caused by:
Improper atomization due to low air pressure
Too close to the surface
Rapid solvent evaporation

Orange peel is mainly a cosmetic defect; sand down to

smooth surface and repaint if necessary.

What is Paint?
Paint
 (a) a liquid mixture, usually of a solid pigment in a liquid vehicle, used as a protective or
decorative coating; (b) the thin dry film formed by such a mixture applied to a surface;
(c) the solid pigment before it is mixed with a vehicle.

Paint may be described as a liquid composition capable of being applied over a surface.
The viscosity of this liquid composition is adjusted to ease application by airless spray,
brush, roller, etc. During the curing or drying process, this film becomes an impermeable,
strongly protective, decorative coating. Modern paints have evolved due to an increasing
demand for higher performance coatings. These paints have highly complicated
compositions including four main components: the binder, the pigment, the extender, and
the solvent.

Binders are the film-forming components of the paint in which the pigment and
extenders are distributed. In most cases, binders produce the greatest volume of paint film
and have the greatest influence on the paint characteristics (drying/curing, adhesion,
hardness, strength, resistance to chemicals, etc.). Therefore, the type of binder is
generally used to describe the generic type of paint.

Pigments are the small particles of solid material distributed in the paint. Pigments can
be divided into two groups: anticorrosive pigments, which prevent corrosion of metals by
chemical and electro-chemical means, and coloring pigments, which give permanent
color and hiding capacity.

Extenders are natural or synthetic materials finely distributed in the paint. They can also
be considered inert pigments. The particles have different sizes and shapes: nodular,
lamellar, acicular, etc. Extenders have significant influence on the physical properties of
the paint. These include the gloss, water & chemical resistance, mechanical strength and
hardness, and film build of the paint.

Solvents are used principally to facilitate application. Active solvents dissolve the binder
to make a solution suitable for various methods of application. Latent solvents make the
coating easier to apply, control the evaporation rate, and improve the quality of the final
film. Diluent solvents are used in limited quantities in conjunction with active solvents to
reduce costs. Diluent solvents do not dissolve the binder.

Types of Paints

Paints can be classified by generic types of binders, by function, or by drying/curing

mechanism.
Antifouling coatings are chosen for their ability to control marine growth and limit
undue hull roughness. The effect of roughness is an increase in the resistance to
movement, resulting in reduced speed and increased fuel consumption. The main cause of
hull roughness is fouling (growth of marine plants and animals on the hull). Modern
antifoulings fall into three main groups: soluble matrix, insoluble matrix and self-
polishing.

Soluble matrix antifouling have a natural resin binder that slowly

dissolves in seawater. When the coating is immersed in seawater, the
biocide leaches out of the paint, but the release rate soon drops below that
required to control fouling. As a result, effective protection lasts for a short
time (12 months).

Insoluble matrix antifouling have a binder that is insoluble in seawater.

Since only biocides are released, the paint film is left as a porous skeleton.
As the porous layer increases, the rate of biocide release decreases.
Eventually no more biocides can be released and performance drops
dramatically. Effective life of this type of antifouling is 24 months.

Self-polishing antifouling are based on acrylic binders and fall into two
categories: tin-free and tin-bearing. In contact with seawater, the binder
hydrolyses or ablates and dissolves at an even, predictable rate. As the
antifouling wears away or polishes, new biocide is continually exposed
down to the last few microns of antifouling. The benefits provided by a
self-polishing antifouling are increased service life (up to 60 months) and
a very effective protection against fouling. The effective life span is
directly proportional to the applied film thickness.

Acrylic coatings are derived from an extensive family of polymers. Acrylics are single
component paints that dry through solvent evaporation. They are not dependent on
temperature and offer good adhesion to similar generic types such as vinyl. Designed for
use on a wide variety of substrates, acrylics display excellent gloss and color retention.
They are often used to modify other generic types to improve water and chemical
resistance, flexibility, UV stability, gloss and color retention.

Alkyd coatings are a combination of natural oils and other chemicals. Alkyds are single
component paints cured by oxidation. They are good general purpose coatings designed
for a variety of applications above water. Alkyds are easy to apply and can be used for
primers or topcoats. They offer good color and gloss retention, but only fair-to-poor
chemical resistance. Alkyds are not suitable for application over alkaline surfaces.

Epoxy coatings are synthetic resins designed to provide a predetermined polymer

structure. Epoxies are two-component, chemically cured paints. Since epoxies are
synthetic, they are developed and used for a great variety of purposes. They form hard,
abrasion-resistant films with excellent water, chemical, alkali and solvent resistance and
are used on a variety of substrates from general purpose primers to high performance tank
linings. Some epoxies present difficulties in overcoating due to hardness of cured film.
Epoxies have a tendency to chalk and fade in direct sunlight. Epoxies are often modified
with other binders to improve properties such as cathodic protection, surface tolerance,
wetting, chemical resistance, gloss and color retention, abrasion resistance, and
flexibility.

Heat resistant silicone coatings are self-polymerizing resins. They are cured by heat.
Silicones offer excellent high heat resistance and good weather resistance. They are less
prone to oxidation, giving excellent resistance to UV and weathering. Solvent resistance
is marginal but improves markedly after exposure to very high temperatures and the burn-
off of organic materials. The expense of silicone limits its application, but it is often used
to modify other generic types in order to increase heat resistance.

Polyurethane coatings are formed by a reaction between hydroxy and isocyanate

compounds. They are the newest and potentially the largest polymer family in the
coatings industry. Polyurethanes are normally two-component, chemically cured paints,
but are also available in single-component form. Available in a wide range of
formulations, polyurethanes are tough and abrasion-resistant, provide excellent chemical
and solvent resistance, weathering properties, and gloss retention. They withstand mild
acids and alkali and work well in combination with epoxy primers. Two-component
formulations are sensitive to moisture in the wet stage, but when fully cured have an
outstanding resistance to humidity. Single component formulations react with humidity to
produce a dense, chemical- and corrosion-resistant film. Polyurethanes are often
considered to be the best all-around coatings currently produced.

Vinyl coatings are film-forming polymers consisting of varying ratios of polyvinyl

chloride, polyvinyl acetate and polyvinyl alcohol. Vinyls are single-component paints that
dry through solvent evaporation. They provide excellent acid and alkali resistance. Vinyls
require a high degree of surface preparation and offer limited resistance to oil and
solvents. Low solids content and high V.O.C. are making this product obsolete in the
United States.

Zinc silicate coatings are inorganic coatings with high metallic zinc content for cathodic
protection. Zinc silicates are two-component products chemically cured through water
absorption. They may be solvent or water borne and require a high degree of surface
preparation to work properly (intimate contact with steel is necessary). Zinc silicates are
extremely resistant to mechanical stress, heat and organic solvents. Zinc silicates should
not be used in acidic environments without being top-coated. Because combinations of
zinc and rainwater are alkaline, zinc silicates should not be used in conjunction with
alkyds. Zinc silicates are often designed as shop primers.

Surface Preparation

Good surface preparation is the most important part of any coating job. The greatest
percentage of coating failures can be directly linked to poor surface preparation. A paint
system applied to an unsuitable surface will not have a secure foundation to resist
abrasion and other mechanical stress to which it may be subjected. Surface contaminants
such as grease, oil, dirt or salt will prevent contact between the new coating and steel or
existing coatings, leading to poor adhesion and eventual stripping and peeling.

Rust and scale are other contaminants that prevent contact between the new coating and
the steel substrate. They will allow pockets of moist air to remain which form corrosion
cells beneath the new paint film and quickly destroy it. Salts in rust or on the steel
substrate may encourage blistering by osmosis. Therefore, all surface contaminants must
be removed. The methods of removal include fresh water, removal with the use of power
tools and grit blasting.

Solvent cleaning is a process utilizing solvents or other cleaning compounds to remove

oil, grease and other contaminants. Since solvents can be inherently detrimental to
subsequent coatings, it is extremely important to remove any solvents or cleaning
compounds from the surface prior to further preparation or applications. Solvent cleaning
is often considered to be a preliminary step in the total surface preparation procedure.

Hand or power tool cleaning is often considered technically suitable as a means of

cleaning surfaces for coatings application; however, this method is laborious and
frequently achieves less than satisfactory results. The methods of hand and power tool
cleaning include hand brushing, scraping, mechanical wire brushing, disc grinding, chisel
hammering and needle gunning. The inherent danger with this method is the possibility
of polishing and/or chipping the surface. Using a variety of hand and power tools to
prepare a surface likely gives the best results. This method is best suited for areas in
which grit blasting is not possible or practical; however, it should be limited to small jobs
and areas with difficult access.

Abrasive blast cleaning is the most effective and efficient method of removing rust, mill
scale, paint, and other contaminants from a substrate. The high velocity impact of
abrasive particles against the substrate cuts or abrades the impurities and removes them
from the surface. Abrasive blast cleaning generally provides the proper surface profile to
ensure adhesion of the coating system. When the proper type and size of grit, air pressure,
and nozzle are chosen, abrasive blasting is the fastest and most effective method of
surface preparation. Unfortunately, it is also one of the most expensive methods of
surface preparations and is presenting increased environmental concerns throughout the
world.

Water jetting, also known as hydroblasting, uses a high energy water stream (5,000 to
50,000 PSI) to strip rust, scale and paint. It is also a very effective means of removing
water-soluble salts, grease and oil. The advantages of water jetting include controlled
removal of individual layers of paint, effective removal of soluble salts, a lack of dust and
spark hazards, and a lack of contamination to surrounding areas. Disadvantages include
the inability to create a surface profile, decreased production rates, and expense. Written
and visual standards for water jetting have recently been introduced to the industry, and
this method is becoming an increasingly popular method of surface preparation
throughout the world.

Electrolytic de scaling is a method of surface preparation recommended where age and

neglect make normal paint maintenance impossible. Anodes, specially designed to
achieve heavy electrical current flow, are supplied as magnesium alloy strips. Strips are
clamped or welded to steel at specified intervals and a tank is filled with clean seawater.
A very strong electrical current is produced in the tank, which causes a breakdown of
oxides (scale and rust) and the formation of a soft calcareous layer on the surface of the
steel. The formation of this layer then forces the rust or scale to loosen and fall off. The
tank is emptied, washed down, dried, and is ready for coating. Electrolytic descaling
offers performance economy over traditional methods of surface preparation.

Surface Preparation Standards

The Marine Industry works with clear, well-understood standards when describing
surface preparation. These standards cover solvent cleaning, hand tool cleaning, power
tool cleaning, abrasive blast cleaning, and water jetting

Coating Application

There are a variety of methods used to apply coatings, ranging from dipping to
electrostatic spray. Because of size, time and cost constraints of a project, many
applications are not suitable or practical in given conditions. The most popular and
practical methods of application are brush, roller, and conventional and airless spray.
Note that paint application should only be carried out when prevailing climatic conditions
are suitable.

Brush application is the historical method of application and is quite efficient in coating
small and/or complex pieces. Application by brush is extremely effective at working paint
into rough and porous substrates and is ideal for priming pitted surfaces and stripe-
coating edges, flanges, and corners. Choosing the proper size, length, shape and bristle is
extremely important when utilizing brush application. The disadvantages of brush
application include its impracticality for use on large areas, its difficulty in controlling
film build, and its impracticality for use with fast-drying materials.

Roller application is two to three times faster than brush application and is ideal for large,
flat surfaces. Roller cores may be wire mesh, plastic or phenolic; covers may be
polyester, mohair, lambskin or nylon. Choice of roller type is dependent on the type of
paint being applied and the surface being coated. Application by roller proves difficult to
use in complex areas and in controlling film build. Roller application should not be used
when priming.
Conventional spray application is a widely accepted and speedy method of painting large
surfaces. The coating material is atomized by a stream of compressed air and is propelled
to the substrate by the air pressure. Air and fluid pressures can be controlled to produce a
proper fan pattern for application. Various nozzle sizes accommodate different paint
types. It is very important to use the proper air pressure, usually 40 - 80 PSI.
Disadvantages of conventional spray include the high loss of product caused by over
spray, billowing and turbulence caused by required compressed air, and the sometimes
necessary thinning of coatings to achieve proper atomization.

Airless spray application is the most effective method of coatings application. Coatings
material is pressed towards the nozzle or tip of a gun at high pressure. The coating is
diffused by being forced through a small opening where the drastic change in pressure
atomizes the paint and propels it to the substrate at a powerful rate. Application by airless
spray increases production rate, reduces over spray, allows heavier film build, and
eliminates the need for a pressure pot. Disadvantages of airless spray include difficulty in
coating small, intricate objects, a fixed spray tip, and little control over the quantity of
coatings being applied.

Life Cycle

Researchers have calculated that one ton of steel is completely converted into rust every
90 seconds. Since todays modern economic infrastructures are built with steel, this
ceaseless action of rust and corrosion takes a healthy toll on national wealth as well as on
the profitability of industrial companies. The cost of corrosion in developed countries is
estimated to equal 3% to 4% of their gross national product. Up to 25% of this huge loss
can be prevented using available technologies to slow or stop corrosion.

Prevention of corrosion is a minor part of the total cost of any construction. Professional
application of modern high-quality coatings is a reliable and cost-effective method for
prolonging service life and is normally a very minor expenditure compared to the value
of the total investment.

A coating system is designed based on the area to be protected and the service conditions
to which it is exposed. The areas vary from underwater hulls to superstructures, from
ballast tanks to above ground storage tanks, and from bridges to industrial plants. The
design of a coating system must take into account all these variables. In addition, the
surface preparation and application methods can become determining factors in choosing
one coatings system over another.

All paints will eventually age and gradually lose their protective properties. When
premature breakdown occurs, the first reaction is usually condemnation of the paint, but
this is seldom justified. Most premature failures can be avoided if sound specifications
are prepared and adhered to in all respects. At least 80% to 90% of coatings failures are a
result of poor or inadequate surface preparation, application technique, application under
poor or unsuitable conditions, insufficient thickness or the use of unsuitable paint types.
Life Cycle Cost

Jotun Paints, Inc. provides professional coatings system solutions tailored to an

individual area, exposure, life expectancy, surface preparation and application. To help
keep corrosion costs to a minimum, Jotun uses Life Cycle Cost (LCC) analysis to aid in
selecting the right coatings system.

The LCC analysis addresses the question of how best to protect a given structure through
its entire life at the lowest possible total cost. A builder is faced with two options when
painting a structure. The work can be carried out with minimum costs at construction, or
a little more can be invested to save money in the future. A particular coating system may
be less expensive initially, but if it has a shorter life span and requires more frequent
maintenance, the total life cycle cost will be much higher than a system that requires a
little more investment at the outset. Life spans of different coating systems vary
considerably, making it extremely important to look beyond comparisons based solely on
price per gallon or price per square foot. Significant savings can be obtained by simply
choosing products with increased life spans.

Expected service life and maintenance intervals are the key factors in determining life
cycle cost estimates. Since the cost ($ / ft2) of maintenance is many times higher than the
cost ($ / ft2) at the new construction stage, selecting the threshold level at which the
substrate will need coating maintenance is critical.

The table below illustrates the elements used in preparing the Life Cycle Cost analysis.

TOTAL COST COST / FT2

ELEMENTS IN THE FT2 COST

Rigging and Material Transport

Scaffolding
Covering / Masking
Degreasing
Cleaning
Steel Work
Surface Preparation
Application
Inspection
Paint Material
Thinner
Abrasives
Degreaser
Other costs (hotel, travel, etc.)

Maintenance

The need to perform maintenance can be measured against the internationally accepted
ISO 4628 - Evaluation of Degrading of Paint Coatings. This is a pictorial standard giving
objective criteria for evaluating coatings breakdown by rust, blistering, cracking, flaking
and chalking. International experience shows the most cost-effective maintenance
interval to be when a degree of 1% rust area is reached (Ri 3). Allowing rusting and
coating breakdown to continue becomes very costly to repair, while prompt and
immediate touch-up is inexpensive and highly effective.

Even top-quality coatings systems will require maintenance at some point. A protective
coatings system must be maintained in order to achieve the desired performance life of a
structure. Much like an engine, preventive maintenance of a coatings system will allow it
to perform in the desired manner and help prevent the spread of corrosion should a
breakdown occur. The benefits of a properly maintained coatings system are long term
cost savings and reduction of rework. Maintenance is necessary both for protection and
for appearance.

Health and Safety

These notes are designed to give general information regarding health and safety issues
when using paint and thinners. For more detailed information, review the MSDS and
Technical Data Sheet for the product in question.

Personal Protective Equipment: When using paints and thinners, it is extremely

important to wear protective clothing and safety glasses. The use of an appropriate,
properly fitted, NIOSH/MSHA approved respirator is recommended. For confined space
applications, consult with your on site health and safety department for specific
recommendations.

Fire and Explosion Dangers: The majority of paints contain flammable organic
solvents. To avoid the possibility of fire or explosion, all sources of spark or flame should
be kept well away from any area where paint is stored or in use.

Inhalation Dangers: The inhalation of dust, fumes and paint vapors should be avoided.
The best means of protection is a respirator. Consult your safety and health department
for specific recommendations on the type of respirator best suited to your job.
Skin and Eye Contact: Various constituents in paint can cause skin and eye irritation.
Proper precautions should be taken to avoid direct contact with liquid paint. The
following general precautions should be followed:

Wear sensible clothing that covers as much of the body as possible.

If clothing becomes soaked with paint, remove clothing wash with soap
and water. Launder clothing before reuse.
Always wear gloves.
Do not touch mouth or eyes with gloves.
If eyes are splashed with paint, rinse them immediately with water for at
least 15 minutes.
If skin is splashed with paint, wash immediately with soap and water. Do
not use solvent to clean skin.
Read and follow additional precautionary statements on the label and/or
MSDS.

Disposal: The disposal of waste and empty containers should follow all local and
national regulations regarding such materials.