Chapter 14

The Nervous
System
The Spinal Cord and
Spinal Nerves

Lecture Presentation by
Steven Bassett
Southeast Community College

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 Introduction

The Central Nervous System (CNS) consists of:

The spinal cord
Integrates and processes information
Can function with the brain
Can function independently of the brain
The brain
Integrates and processes information
Can function with the spinal cord
Can function independently of the spinal cord

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 Gross Anatomy of the Spinal Cord

Features of the Spinal Cord

45 cm in length
Passes through the foramen magnum
Extends from the brain to L1
Consists of:
Cervical region
Thoracic region
Lumbar region
Sacral region
Coccygeal region

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 Gross Anatomy of the Spinal Cord

Features of the Spinal Cord

Consists of (continued):
Cervical enlargement
Lumbosacral enlargement
Conus medullaris
Cauda equina
Filum terminale: becomes a component of the
coccygeal ligament
Posterior and anterior median sulci

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Figure 14.1a Gross Anatomy of the Spinal Cord

C1
C2
Cervical spinal C3
nerves C4
C5
C6
Cervical
C7
enlargement
C8
T1
T2
T3
T4
T5
T6
T7

Thoracic T8
spinal Posterior
nerves T9 median sulcus

T10

T11 Lumbosacral
enlargement
T12

L1 Conus
medullaris

L2

Lumbar L3 Inferior
spinal tip of
nerves spinal cord
L4
Cauda equina
L5

S1
Sacral spinal
S2
nerves
S3
S4
S5

Coccygeal Filum terminale

nerve (Co1) (in coccygeal ligament)

a Superficial anatomy and orientation of the adult spinal

cord. The numbers to the left identify the spinal nerves and
indicate where the nerve roots leave the vertebral canal.
The spinal cord, however, extends from the brain only to
the level of vertebrae L1L2.

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 Gross Anatomy of the Spinal Cord

Features of the Spinal Cord

Consists of (continued):
31 spinal segments
Each segment consists of:
Dorsal root
Dorsal root ganglia
Ventral root
Spinal nerve

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Figure 14.1a Gross Anatomy of the Spinal Cord

C1
C2
Cervical spinal C3
nerves C4
C5
C6
Cervical
C7
enlargement
C8
T1
T2
T3
T4
T5
T6
T7

Thoracic T8
spinal Posterior
nerves T9 median sulcus

T10

T11 Lumbosacral
enlargement
T12

L1 Conus
medullaris

L2

Lumbar L3 Inferior
spinal tip of
nerves spinal cord
L4
Cauda equina
L5

S1
Sacral spinal
S2
nerves
S3
S4
S5

Coccygeal Filum terminale

nerve (Co1) (in coccygeal ligament)

a Superficial anatomy and orientation of the adult spinal

cord. The numbers to the left identify the spinal nerves and
indicate where the nerve roots leave the vertebral canal.
The spinal cord, however, extends from the brain only to
the level of vertebrae L1L2.

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Figure 14.1d Gross Anatomy of the Spinal Cord
Posterior median sulcus
Dorsal root

Dorsal root White matter

ganglion

Central Gray
canal matter

Spinal Ventral
nerve root Anterior median fissure
C3

T3

L1

S2

d Inferior views of cross sections

through representative
segments of the spinal cord
showing the arrangement of
gray and white matter.
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 Gross Anatomy of the Spinal Cord

Features of the Spinal Cord

Transverse view
White matter
Gray matter
Central canal
Anterior median fissure
Posterior median sulcus

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Figure 14.1a Gross Anatomy of the Spinal Cord

C1
C2
Cervical spinal C3
nerves C4
C5
C6
Cervical
C7
enlargement
C8
T1
T2
T3
T4
T5
T6
T7

Thoracic T8
spinal Posterior
nerves T9 median sulcus

T10

T11 Lumbosacral
enlargement
T12

L1 Conus
medullaris

L2

Lumbar L3 Inferior
spinal tip of
nerves spinal cord
L4
Cauda equina
L5

S1
Sacral spinal
S2
nerves
S3
S4
S5

Coccygeal Filum terminale

nerve (Co1) (in coccygeal ligament)

a Superficial anatomy and orientation of the adult spinal

cord. The numbers to the left identify the spinal nerves and
indicate where the nerve roots leave the vertebral canal.
The spinal cord, however, extends from the brain only to
the level of vertebrae L1L2.

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Figure 14.1d Gross Anatomy of the Spinal Cord
Posterior median sulcus
Dorsal root

Dorsal root White matter

ganglion

Central Gray
canal matter

Spinal Ventral
nerve root Anterior median fissure
C3

T3

L1

S2

d Inferior views of cross sections

through representative
segments of the spinal cord
showing the arrangement of
gray and white matter.
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 Gross Anatomy of the Spinal Cord

Features of the Spinal Nerves

Classified as mixed nerves
Sensory nerves (afferent nerves)
Transmit impulses toward the spinal cord
Motor nerves (efferent nerves)
Transmit impulses away from the spinal cord

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 Spinal Meninges

Features of Spinal Meninges

Specialized membranes that provide protection,
physical stability, and shock absorption
Continuous with the cranial (cerebral) meninges
Denticulate ligaments help anchor the spinal
cord in position

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Figure 14.2c The Spinal Cord and Spinal Meninges
Spinal cord

Anterior median
fissure

Pia mater

Denticulate
ligaments

Arachnoid mater
(reflected)
Dura mater
(reflected)

Spinal blood
vessel

Dorsal root of
sixth cervical
nerve
Ventral root of
sixth cervical
nerve

c Anterior view of spinal cord shows meninges and spinal

nerves. For this view, the dura and arachnoid membranes
have been cut longitudinally and retracted (pulled aside);
notice the blood vessels that run in the subarachnoid
space bound to the outer surface of the delicate pia mater.
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 Spinal Meninges

Features of Spinal Meninges

Made of three layers
Dura mater
Tough, fibrous outermost layer
Arachnoid mater
Middle layer
Pia mater
Innermost layer

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Figure 14.2a The Spinal Cord and Spinal Meninges

Gray matter
White matter
Dorsal root
ganglion
Ventral root
Spinal nerve
Dorsal root
Meninges
Pia mater

Arachnoid
mater

Dura mater

a Posterior view of the spinal cord shows the

meningeal layers, superficial landmarks, and
distribution of gray and white matter.
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 Spinal Meninges

The Dura Mater

Tough fibrous outermost layer of the meninges
Stabilizes the spinal cord within the vertebral canal
Cranial and sacral attachments stabilize the
longitudinal axis of the spinal cord

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 Spinal Meninges

The Arachnoid Mater

Middle meningeal layer
Separated from the pia mater by the subarachnoid
space
Cerebrospinal fluid flows within this space
Arachnoid trabeculae extend from the arachnoid to
the outer layer of the pia mater

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 Spinal Meninges

The Pia Mater

Deepest meningeal layer
Blood vessels are found in this layer
Firmly bound to the brain tissue and the spinal cord
tissue

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 Sectional Anatomy of the Spinal Cord

Gray Matter
Central canal
Consists of somas (cell bodies) surrounding the
central canal
Consists of glial cells
White Matter
Consists of axons
Nerves are organized into tracts or columns
Located outside the gray matter area

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 Sectional Anatomy of the Spinal Cord

Organization of Gray Matter

Somas are organized into groups called nuclei
Sensory nuclei
Motor nuclei
Transverse view shows:
Posterior gray horns
Lateral gray horns
Anterior gray horns
Gray commissure

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 Sectional Anatomy of the Spinal Cord

Organization of Gray Matter

Posterior gray horns
Somatic sensory and visceral nuclei
Lateral gray horns
Visceral motor nuclei
Anterior gray horns
Somatic motor nuclei
Gray commissure
Consists of axons crossing from one side to the
other

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Figure 14.4b Sectional Organization of the Spinal Cord

Posterior median sulcus

From dorsal root
Posterior
gray horn

Posterior gray
commissure
Somatic
Sensory
Visceral nuclei

Lateral Visceral
gray horn Motor
nuclei
Anterior Somatic
gray horn
To ventral
Anterior gray root
commissure

Anterior median
fissure

b The left half of this sectional view shows important anatomical landmarks; the right half indicates
the functional organization of the gray matter in the anterior, lateral, and posterior gray horns.

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 Sectional Anatomy of the Spinal Cord

Organization of White Matter

Consists of columns of nerves (funiculi)
Posterior white column
Anterior white column
Lateral white column
Columns convey either:
Sensory tracts (ascending tracts)
Motor tracts (descending tracts)

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Figure 14.4c Sectional Organization of the Spinal Cord

Posterior white Leg

column (funiculus) Hip
Trunk
Arm

Lateral
white
column
(funiculus) Flexors
Extensors Hand
Forearm
Arm
Shoulder
Trunk

Anterior white Anterior white

column (funiculus) commissure

c The left half of this sectional view shows the major columns of white matter. The right half
indicates the anatomical organization of sensory tracts in the posterior white column for
comparison with the organization of motor nuclei in the anterior gray horn. Note that both
sensory and motor components of the spinal cord have a definite regional organization.

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 Spinal Nerves

There are 31 pairs of spinal nerves

8 cervical nerves
12 thoracic nerves
5 lumbar nerves
5 sacral nerves
1 coccygeal nerve

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Figure 14.1a Gross Anatomy of the Spinal Cord

C1
C2
Cervical spinal C3
nerves C4
C5
C6
Cervical
C7
enlargement
C8
T1
T2
T3
T4
T5
T6
T7

Thoracic T8
spinal Posterior
nerves T9 median sulcus

T10

T11 Lumbosacral
enlargement
T12

L1 Conus
medullaris

L2

Lumbar L3 Inferior
spinal tip of
nerves spinal cord
L4
Cauda equina
L5

S1
Sacral spinal
S2
nerves
S3
S4
S5

Coccygeal Filum terminale

nerve (Co1) (in coccygeal ligament)

a Superficial anatomy and orientation of the adult spinal

cord. The numbers to the left identify the spinal nerves and
indicate where the nerve roots leave the vertebral canal.
The spinal cord, however, extends from the brain only to
the level of vertebrae L1L2.

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 Spinal Nerves

Spinal Nerves
Each peripheral nerve consists of:
Epineurium
Outer layerbecomes continuous with the dura
mater
Perineurium
Layer surrounding a fasciclea fascicle is a bundle
of axons
Endoneurium
Layer surrounding a single axon

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Figure 14.5a Anatomy of a Peripheral Nerve

Blood vessels

Connective Tissue
Layers
Epineurium covering
peripheral nerve
Perineurium (around
one fascicle)
Endoneurium

Schwann
cell
Myelinated
axon
Fascicle

a A typical peripheral nerve and its

connective tissue wrappings
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 Spinal Nerves

Peripheral Distribution of Spinal Nerves

Spinal nerves from two branches
Dorsal ramus
Ventral ramus
Spinal nerves T1 to L2 have two additional
branches
White ramus
Gray ramus
White and gray rami are collectively called rami
communicantes

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 Spinal Nerves

Peripheral Distribution of Spinal Nerves

Motor impulses leave the spinal cord via the
ventral root
Sensory information enters the spinal cord via the
dorsal root
Rami communicantes (white and gray rami)
Innervates smooth muscles, glands, and organs
Dorsal ramus
Innervates skeletal muscles of the neck and back
Ventral ramus
Innervates skeletal muscles of the limbs

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Figure 14.6a Peripheral Distribution of Spinal Nerves

Motor Commands

Postganglionic fibers To skeletal

to smooth muscles, muscles of back
glands, etc., of back Dorsal Visceral Somatic
Dorsal root root motor motor
ganglion

Dorsal ramus

Ventral ramus

To skeletal
muscles of body
wall, limbs Ventral
root

Postganglionic fibers to
smooth muscles, glands,
etc., of body wall, limbs
Spinal nerve

White ramus Sympathetic ganglion

(preganglionic)
Rami
Gray ramus Postganglionic fibers
communicantes
(postganglionic) to smooth muscles,
glands, visceral organs
Sympathetic nerve in thoracic cavity

KEY
Somatic motor Preganglionic fibers to
commands sympathetic ganglia
innervating aboomino-
Visceral motor
commands
pelvic viscera

a The distribution of motor neurons in the spinal cord and

motor fibers within the spinal nerve and its branches
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Figure 14.6b Peripheral Distribution of Spinal Nerves

Sensory Information

From interoceptors From exteroceptors,

of back proprioceptors of back Dorsal Somatic Visceral
root sensory sensory

Dorsal ramus
Ventral ramus

From exteroceptors,
proprioceptors of
body wall, limbs Dorsal
root
ganglion
From interoceptors
of body wall, limbs

Rami
communicantes
Ventral
KEY root
Somatic
sensations
Visceral From interoceptors
sensations of visceral organs

b A comparable view detailing the distribution of sensory neurons and sensory fibers
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 Spinal Nerves

Dermatomes
Each pair of spinal nerves monitors specific
surface areas
These are clinically important areas regarding
surgery

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Figure 14.7 Dermatomes
C2C3
NV

C2C3
C2
C3 C3
C4
T2 C4
C5
T1 T3
T4
T2
T5 C5
T3 T6
T4 T7
T5 T8
T6 T9 T2
T2 T7 T10
T8 T11
T9 T12
L1 C6
T10 L2
T11 L4L3 T1
C6 L5 C7
T12
L1
SS
43
L2 S2
C8
L3 C8
T1 L1 S5
C7
S1L5
L4
L2 S2

L5 L3

S1

L4

ANTERIOR POSTERIOR

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 Nerve Plexuses

There are four nerve plexuses

Cervical plexus
Brachial plexus
Lumbar plexus
Sacral plexus
Sometimes the lumbar and sacral are combined to
form the lumbosacral plexus

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Figure 14.8 Peripheral Nerves and Nerve Plexuses

C1 Lesser occipital nerve

C2 Great auricular nerve
Cervical C3
plexus C4 Transverse cervical nerve
C5 Supraclavicular nerve
C6
C7 Phrenic nerve
Brachial
plexus C8
T1
T2
T3 Axillary nerve
T4
T5
T6
T7 Musculocutaneous
T8 nerve

T9 Thoracic nerves
T10
T11
T12

L1 Radial nerve

Lumbar L2
plexus Ulnar nerve
L3
Median nerve
L4
L5
S1 Iliohypogastric
Sacral nerve
plexus S2
S3
S4 Ilioinguinal
nerve
S5
Co1 Genitofemoral
nerve
Femoral nerve

Obturator nerve

Superior
Gluteal
Inferior nerves

Pudendal nerve

Sciatic nerve

Lateral femoral cutaneous nerve

Saphenous nerve

Common fibular nerve

Tibial nerve

Medial sural cutaneous nerve

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 Nerve Plexuses

The Cervical Plexus (C1C5)

Consists of cutaneous and muscular branches
Cutaneous branch innervates:
Head
Neck
Chest

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 Nerve Plexus

The Cervical Plexus

Consists of cutaneous and muscular branches
Muscular branch innervates:
Omohyoid, sternohyoid, geniohyoid,
thyrohyoid, sternothyroid
Rhomboids
Serratus anterior
Sternocleidomastoid
Diaphragm (controlled by the phrenic nerve of the
cervical plexus)

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Figure 14.9 The Cervical and Brachial Plexuses

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 Nerve Plexus

The Brachial Plexus (C5T1)

Innervates the pectoral girdle and upper limbs
The ventral rami emerging from C5 to T1 form the
trunks
Superior trunk
Middle trunk
Inferior trunk

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 Nerve Plexus

The Brachial Plexus (C5T1)

The trunks form the divisions
Anterior
Posterior
The divisions form the cords
Posterior
Lateral
Medial
The cords form the spinal nerves

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Figure 14.9 The Cervical and Brachial Plexuses

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Figure 14.10a The Brachial Plexus
Dorsal scapular nerve
C4
Suprascapular nerve C5
Superior trunk C6
BRACHIAL Middle trunk C7
PLEXUS Inferior trunk C8
T1

Musculocutaneous
nerve

Median nerve

Ulnar nerve
Radial nerve

Lateral antebrachial
cutaneous nerve

Anterior antebrachial
interosseous nerve
Superficial branch
of radial nerve Ulnar nerve

Median nerve
Palmar digital
Anterior interosseous
nerves
nerve

Deep branch of ulnar nerve

Superficial branch of ulnar nerve

Radial
nerve
Ulnar
nerve
a In this anterior view of the
brachial plexus and upper
limb, the distribution of major Median
peripheral nerves can be seen. nerve

Anterior

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Figure 14.10b The Brachial Plexus
b This posterior view of the brachial
plexus shows the location and
distribution of the nerves.

Musculocutaneous
nerve

Axillary nerve

Branches of
axillary nerve

Radial nerve

Ulnar nerve
Median nerve
Posterior antebrachial
cutaneous nerve

Deep branch of
radial nerve

Radial Superficial branch

nerve
of radial nerve
Ulnar
nerve Dorsal digital nerves

Median
nerve

Posterior

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 Nerve Plexus

The Cords of the Brachial Plexus (details)

Lateral cord: extends to form the
musculocutaneous nerve
The lateral cord and medial cord extend to form
the median nerve
Medial cord extends to form the ulnar nerve
Posterior cord: branches to form the radial
nerve and axillary nerve

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Figure 14.9 The Cervical and Brachial Plexuses

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Figure 14.10a The Brachial Plexus
Dorsal scapular nerve
C4
Suprascapular nerve C5
Superior trunk C6
BRACHIAL Middle trunk C7
PLEXUS Inferior trunk C8
T1

Musculocutaneous
nerve

Median nerve

Ulnar nerve
Radial nerve

Lateral antebrachial
cutaneous nerve

Anterior antebrachial
interosseous nerve
Superficial branch
of radial nerve Ulnar nerve

Median nerve
Palmar digital
Anterior interosseous
nerves
nerve

Deep branch of ulnar nerve

Superficial branch of ulnar nerve

Radial
nerve
Ulnar
nerve
a In this anterior view of the
brachial plexus and upper
limb, the distribution of major Median
peripheral nerves can be seen. nerve

Anterior

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Figure 14.10c The Brachial Plexus

Cervical plexus Right common

carotid artery
Clavicle, cut
and removed Brachial plexus
(C5T1)
Deltoid muscle
Sternocleido-
Musculocutaneous mastoid muscle,
nerve sternal head

Right axillary artery Sternocleido-

over axillary nerve mastoid muscle,
clavicular head
Median nerve

Radial nerve

Biceps brachii, Right subclavian

long and short heads artery

Ulnar nerve

Coracobrachialis
muscle Retractor holding
pectoralis major
muscle (cut and
Skin reflected)
Right brachial
artery

Median
nerve

c This dissection shows the major nerves arising

from the cervical and brachial plexuses.
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 Nerve Plexus

The Lumbar and Sacral Plexuses (T12S4)

Also called the lumbosacral plexus
Lumbar plexus arises from L1 to L4
Sacral plexus arises from L4 to S4

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Figure 14.11 The Lumbar and Sacral Plexuses

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Figure 14.11 The Lumbar and Sacral Plexuses

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 Nerve Plexus

The Lumbar and Sacral Plexuses (T12S4)

Lumbar plexus nerves L1 to L4
Genitofemoral nerve
Lateral femoral cutaneous nerve
Femoral nerve
Iliohypogastric nerve
Ilioinguinal nerve
Obturator nerve

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 Nerve Plexus

The Lumbar and Sacral Plexuses (T12S4)

Sacral plexus nerves L4 to S4
Sciatic nerve (branches to form the common
fibular nerve and the tibial nerve)
Pudendal nerve
Superior gluteal nerve
Inferior gluteal nerve
Posterior femoral cutaneous nerve

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Figure 14.12a Peripheral Nerves Originating from the Lumbar and Sacral Plexuses

Nerves Originating
from the Lumbar Subcostal nerve
Plexus
Iliohypogastric nerve Nerves Originating
Illioinguinal nerve from the Sacral Plexus
Superior gluteal nerve
Genitofemoral nerve
Inferior gluteal nerve
Lateral femoral Posterior femoral
cutaneous nerve cutaneous nerve
Femoral nerve Pudendal nerve
Obturator nerve Sciatic nerve

Saphenous nerve

Common Fibular
Nerve and
Its Branches
Common fibular
nerve

Superficial fibular
nerve

Deep fibular nerve

a The lumbar and sacral

plexuses, anterior view
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Figure 14.12b Peripheral Nerves Originating from the Lumbar and Sacral Plexuses

Nerves Originating
from the Sacral Plexus
Superior gluteal nerve
Inferior gluteal nerve
Posterior femoral
cutaneous nerve
Pudendal nerve
Sciatic nerve

Branches of
the Sciatic
Nerve
Tibial nerve
Common fibular
nerve
Medial sural
cutaneous nerve
Lateral sural
cutaneous nerve

Sural nerve

Medial plantar nerve

Lateral plantar nerve

b The sacral plexus,

posterior view
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 Nerve Plexus

Summary of the Spinal Nerves

Cervical spinal nerves emerge from C1C8
Thoracic spinal nerves emerge from T1T12
Lumbar spinal nerves emerge from L1L5
Sacral spinal nerves emerge from S1S5
Coccygeal spinal nerves emerge from Co1

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 Nerve Plexus

Summary of the Nerve Plexuses

Cervical plexus nerves emerge from C1C5
Brachial plexus nerves emerge from C5T1
There is not a thoracic plexus
Lumbar plexus nerves emerge from T12L4
Sacral plexus nerves emerge from L4S4
There is not a coccygeal plexus

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Figure 14.3 Posterior View of Vertebral Column and Spinal Nerves

Occipital bone

Spinal cord
emerging from
foramen magnum

Cervical
plexus
(C1C5) Cervical
spinal
nerves
(C1C8)

Brachial
plexus
(C5T1)

Thoracic
spinal
nerves
(T1T12)

Lumbar
plexus Lumbar
(T12L4) spinal
nerves
(L1L5)

Sacral
plexus Sciatic
(L4S4) nerve

Sacral spinal
nerves (S1S5)
Coccygeal nerves emerging from
(Co1) sacral foramina
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 Reflexes

Reflex
An immediate involuntary motor response
Reflex Arc
The neural wiring of a single reflex
Begins at a sensory receptor and ends at a
peripheral receptor

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 Reflexes

Pathway of a Reflex Arc

1. Activation of a sensory receptor
2. Relay of information to the CNS
3. Information processing
4. Activation of a motor neuron
5. Response by the effector

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 Reflexes

Classification of Reflexes
Reflexes are classified according to:
Their development
Innate or acquired
The site where information is processed
Spinal or cranial (cerebral)
The nature of the resulting motor response
Somatic, visceral, or autonomic
The complexity of the neural circuit
Monosynaptic or polysynaptic

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Figure 14.13 A Reflex Arc

1 Arrival of 2 Activation of a Dorsal Sensation

sensory neuron root relayed to
stimulus and
activation the brain by
of receptor collateral

REFLEX
ARC
Receptor
Stimulus

Effector Ventral
3 Information processing
root
in CNS

4 Activation of a
5 Response
motor neuron
by effector KEY
Sensory neuron
(stimulated)
Excitatory
interneuron
Motor neuron
(stimulated)

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Figure 14.14 The Classification of Reflexes

Reflexes

can be classified by

Development Response Complexity of Circuit Processing Site

Innate Reflexes Somatic Reflexes Monosynaptic Spinal Reflexes

Genetically Control skeletal muscle contractions One synapse Processing in

determined Include superficial and stretch reflexes the spinal cord

Acquired Reflexes Visceral (Autonomic) Reflexes Polysynaptic Cranial Reflexes

Learned Control actions of smooth and Multiple synapses Processing in

cardiac muscles, glands (two to several hundred) the brain

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 Reflexes

Classification of Reflexes
Spinal reflexes can be:
Monosynaptic
Involves a single segment of the spinal cord
Polysynaptic
Integrates motor output from several spinal
segments

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Figure 14.15 Neural Organization and Simple Reflexes

CENTRAL NERVOUS
Ganglion
SYSTEM
Sensory
neuron

Ganglion CENTRAL NERVOUS

Interneurons
SYSTEM Sensory
Sensory receptor
neuron
Motor Circuit 2
neuron

Circuit 1
Motor
neurons

Sensory
receptor
(muscle
spindle)
Skeletal muscle 1

Skeletal muscle
Skeletal muscle 2

a A monosynaptic reflex circuit involves a peripheral b A polysynaptic reflex circuit involves a sensory neuron,
sensory neuron and a central motor neuron. In this interneurons, and motor neurons. In this example, the
example, stimulation of the receptor will lead to a stimulation of the receptor leads to the coordinated
reflexive contraction in a skeletal muscle. contractions of two different skeletal muscles.

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 Reflexes

Spinal Reflexes
Stretch reflex
1. Stimulus stretches a muscle
2. Activates a sensory neuron
3. Information is processed in the spinal cord
4. Motor neurons are activated
5. Muscle (effector) contracts

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Figure 14.16a Stretch Reflexes

1 Stimulus.
Stretching
of muscle
stimulates
2 Activation of a
muscle
spindles sensory neuron

3 Information
processing at
motor neuron

4 Activation of
motor neuron

5 Response.
Contraction
of muscle

a Steps 15 are common to all stretch reflexes.

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Figure 14.16b Stretch Reflexes

Stretch Receptor (muscle spindle)

Stimulus
Spinal cord

REFLEX
ARC

KEY
Effector Sensory neuron
(stimulated)
Motor neuron
Contraction
(stimulated)

b The patellar reflex is controlled by

muscle spindles in the quadriceps
muscle group. The stimulus is a
Response
reflex hammer striking the muscle
tendon, stretching the spindle fibers.
This results in a sudden increase in
the activity of the sensory neurons,
which synapse on spinal motor
neurons. The response occurs upon
the activation of motor units in the
quadriceps group, which produces
an immediate increase in muscle
tone and a reflexive kick.
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