WASTE, MANAGEMENT. PERGAMON ‘Waste Management 21 (2001) 161-174 sor chovenal loonie wa Deep soil compaction as a method of ground improvement and to stabilization of wastes and slopes with danger of liquefaction, determining the modulus of deformation and shear strength parameters of loose rock Michael Lersow * [BUL Sahsen Gb, German; Sera Sura, D9 Phebe, OF Sala Gran Accept 19 June 2000 Abstract For tbe stabilization of dumps with the constructioa of hidden dams and for building ground impeovement, for instance for teafic hres oer dumps, nearly all applied compaction methods have the aim to reduce the pore vokime inthe Toose rock. With these methods, homogenization oF the cormpacted loose rock will be ebtaired too, The compaction methods of weight compaction by falling weight, compaction by vibration and compuciion by blisting have beew introduced, and thelr applications und efficiencies have beea shown. For the estimation of the effcctive depth of the compaction and for a safe planning of the bearing layer, respec tively tho necessary material parameters have to be determine far each deep compaction method, Proposes forthe determination Dl these parameters have been made within this paper, In connection with the stabilization of How-slie-prone damp slopes, as well as for the Improvement of dump areas for the use as building sound, its necesery tw assess the deformation bekavios and the bearing capacity. To assess the resulting buikling ground improxenent, deformation indexes (sessment of tke flow-prone layer) and strength indexes (assessment of the bearing cipsety) have to be determined with soil mechanical texts, FSrsier ind Lerrow, [Patenischrift DE 197 17 9K8, Verlabren, sul der Grundlage las andjoder weogesteuerter Platterdruckversuche auf der Bohrlochsoble, zur Ermittlung des Spannungs-Verformungs-Veraltens undsoder von Deformavionstoduln undieder vou esligkeitseigenschaften in verschiedenen Tefen insbesondere von Lockergesicinen und von Depoaiekérpern in sit; Forster W. Lersow M, Plattendruck versich au der Bohriochsohle, Ermitilun des Spuanungs-Verformings-Verhaltens von Lockergestein und Deponiemateria! Briunkohle — Sustace Mining, 1098:S0(4): 369-77: Lersow M. Verfahren zur Ermittlung soa Scherfostigéeit. sparameern von Lockergestein und Deponizmaterial aus Platiendruckversuchet aut der Botocksoble, braurkoble — Surface Mining, 1999:51(1}:39-47] umpoved « direcr procedure, the so-called plate-loaing test. With tis anproved procedure, itis possible to produce profiles of deformation parameters and chear-strength parameters of the loose rock. On this basis the settlement Jbehavior and the hearing hakavior of the ground can be described. The PDV-BS cone-penetration test and the pressiometer tes! s+ compared and the reliably of the soil mechanical indexes are assessed critically. The PDV-BS can be used 36 ealihration tes Jot vore peueiration tests 38 Well as for the calibration of pressiometer tests, With the application of a PDY-BS aad 4 pressicmeter ‘est in combination ip testing field, the unisotropy properiis of the loose cock can he proved. (2001 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved esworas: Geomechanics; Soll mechanical tests: Grouns improvement: Deep sol compaction; Rehabilitation: Danger of ieusfacton: Brown coal, Damp: Loose roek 1. Introduetion teldeutschiand” and “Lausitz” had to be closed. The amount of energy produced from brown coal was With the re-unification of both German states, the restricted for some reasons. The legal owner of aban- majority of brown-coal open pits in the regions “Mit- doned. mining influenced areas became the Fedezal Republic of Germany. Due to the “Bundesbergueset2" (mining Act), the = Tels 75304-50980 re F48-so9e ANIA owner of mining sites has 10 rehabilitate these abane Email addons lowed bul de doned areas. The arcas have to be given back to public ps6-439%,01/3 - see front mater 2001 Elsevier Seence Lud AI sighs reserve Pil: §49s6.083¥(00)00088-0168 M,Lersow Waste Mamagement 21 2001) 161.174 use, This means that all connected dangers have to be removed. First then these areas are released from the supervision of the mining authority. Dangers for the public arise fom: ‘© abandoned open pits, dumps and slopes itself. © the inclination of uncompacted dump-slopes (flow- slide-prone areas). especially in the Lausitz area, © shock-waves into water-filled open pits, formed from great-volume slidings of dump slopes. induced by flow-sliding, ‘© the possibility of the failure of dams. for instance between two open pits. ‘#4 disturbed groundwater balance in the browne coal area and neighboring regions. the production of acid water after a re-rising of around water ‘Therefore, the following main tasks for the rehabili- tation of abandoned mining sites arise: ‘© removal of the danger of landslides, to secure the sliding-prone areas. mainly by deep-soil compac- tion methods, @ recultivation and landscaping of former mining sites, ‘© cstablishment of a self-regulating groundwater balance with a suitable water quality, ete. Therefore, the requirements for the deep compaction methods, which are used in these special case, are defined former mining areas should be released from the supervision of the mining authority, and former dump areas from brown coal mining operations should be used for the construction of traffic lines. special requirements are established on the settlement behavior and/or strength properties of the building ground. The deep-soil compaction methods and geophysical testing ‘methods have 10 be able to establish and to prove the required deformation andior strength parameters Differences in the general procedures do not arise, but the danger for men and equipment is often greater if dump slopes have to be secured, whereby more strict requirements on safety measures arise. However. it is advantageous 10 combine the process of rehabilitation and the establishment of a settlement-stable building ground, because the Federal Republic of Germany is the owner of these sites. released from the supervision of the mining authority and subsequent constructions of traffic lines will be paid by the state with public money. As already mentioned, lignite open-pit mining activ- ities in the Lusatian area as well as processing of lignite and electricity production have drastically changed the natural grown landscape. In many areas, a public use is not possible. For this reason, the slopes have to be sta- Dilized. This is especially necessary on flow slide-prone dumps, summing up to a total length of 100 km in this region (Fig. 1), One stabilization method is the creation ‘of so-called hidden dams. Furthermore, the construc- tion of trafic Tines (like highways and railway lines) is planned (Figs. 2 and 3) ‘A number of soibimprovement methods are used to guarantee the function and the proposed lifetime of the constructions and to reduce secondary costs 2. Building ground improvement, stabilization of dumps 2. Objectives Building ground improvement and the stabilization of slopes with hidden dams are necessary if the expected settlement is too high or if the load on the ground exceeds its load capacity. The load capacity of the ground can be improved to that amount that a shear failure of the ground can be prevented, but settlements can only be prevented gradually. The expense increases with the thickness of the sensible layer and it increases with the restriction of the allowed settlement oF sete- ment velocity of buildings [1]. To stabilize dump slopes usually a four-step proce- dure is applied: |. establishment of « supporting body by compaction by blasting, 2. stabilization of the zone in front with compaction by blasting, 3. decreasing of the slope angle for the construction of a plane for the compaction with vibration (RDY). 4. final slope shaping. Tig. Sting. in 1998 (about 48 milion mon Koschsn-dam near SentenbergAM. Leraoe Waste Manageme 29 2001) 160-174 6 ig, 2 Locaon ofthe “Lasitan-Rg in the Lusatan lignite mining cisrct Fig. 4 shows possible steps for the rehabilitation of a dump [2} 22, Stability anelesis Stabiity tests are nevessary for the flow-slide-prone dumps. These tests have to be orientated to the neces- ary piece of work and to the technological order oF the technological order is the cesul: of the tests ‘The safety of the workers and of the machines has to be guaranteed in all steps of the working process ‘Therefore stability assessments will be carmed out for the slope: before blasting during blasting after blasting and during subsequent works, Calculation models for flowslide-prone dump slopes will be established and differen’ alternatives will be compared. Fig. 5 [2] shows an example of a caleulation model of a dump slope. A frequently used procedure is that established from JANBU. This procedures assume a balance of the forces and forced ciscular cylindrical failure planes. The safety is defined according to Eq, (1) leh (N= why Reta] om where radius of the siding plane N normal foree pore water pressure WW weight of the segment x hortzontal distance of the middle ine of the sogment te the pivot rectangular distance of the normal force to the pivot EW horizontal dynamic force ¢sertial distaree of the middle to the pivot outer line load rectangular distance of the lite load to the pivot outer waterforee rectangular distance to the pivot ‘width of the segment, ¢ of the segment rea The geometrical and mechanical relationships accord- ing to the introduced safety-deinition Eq, | fare shown in Fig. 6, The influence of the eghesion ard the fetion angle of the loose rocks on the safety definition of the ‘dump slope, according to Eq, (1), cun be seen clearly164 M. Leraom | Waste Management 21 (2001) 161-174 Fig. 3. Future line ofthe Highway A3S. south of Leipzig Soe a0 13 Canpanttsen ncaa 197 Wt. Conpacton my baseg sre oe Sort Fig. 4, Posible restoration procedure (or the residual pit Burghammmer (2 Tablet Strength parameters of dierent Joose rocks from diferent dump slopes [3] Number Parameters of sll mechanics Water saturated e-9 C=UKNm? = 1KN Water saturated rf e=0kNm! eo 1SAN iw Tables | and 2 summarize some soikphysical para- meters of loose rocks. 2.3. Deep soil compaction methods For the stabilization of dumps and for building ground improvement (for instance for traffic lines over dumps), neurly all applied compaction methods have the aim to reduce the pore volume in the loose rock. With the input of a load of an energy. the soil can be compacted this way so that the grains will be forced to seek a more dense arrangement and thereby its defor- mation tendency will be reduced,los ee a a ear) tance (m) Fig. 5. Calculation model for a dump slope, residual pit Burghaenmer (2). Fig. 6, Safety definition for citculaeylndrical siding planes. Three deep-compaction methods and its combina- tions have been succeeded. These methods are com- monly used in civil construction engineering, but their use in rehabilitation mining is something very special because of the great depth to be compacted (up to 70 m with compaction by vibration). For this reason. extreme powerful and mighty machines have to be used. 2.3.1. Compaction by falling weight This compaction method is very effective for large- scale building-ground improvement of the upper dump sections (up to a depth of 15 m below ground). Recently BUL Sachsen GmbH carries out extensive compaction activities by falling weight at a site which is called Lusatian Ring”, future Formula | and Indyear course (Fig. 7). With this technique, the compaction procedure can be adapted to the soil composition. The compaction depth can be assessed with (16): ee ° Ay ‘compaction depth (m) h reference length (= 1m) « ‘material parameter me ‘ass of the falling weight (metric tons) hy falling height of the falling weight (m) m, reference mass (I metric ton).166 M,Lersowe ‘The value of the material parameter depends on the kind of the loose rock to be compacted, and it reaches values between 0.5 and 1.0, The value is often higher for dump soils, At compaction works at the dump Table 2 Strength parameters of loose hed-rocks in the Lusatian area (2), Loose rock ° « O aNm) Plesccene sand and gravel «SSN Chay 2» 00 Brown coal om ‘owndary laser coal-= 42; in this case =¢=6R was chosen, ‘The formula for the calculation under a rigid plate is swsed, This si ok i= F + aD y), -(e:)" " Unfortunately, a closed solution is not available, but, using the Simsons rule for the numerical integration, gives: 5@) “Hw (re) The parameters v and w have to be determined this ‘way, s0 that the integral error of the calculated settle- ‘ment curve 5(q) against the measured curve s(q) becomes 4 minimum in the region of the loading, ¢ = 0... nus- ‘The further solution can be found in (12) and should not be discussed here. The same applies to the deterii= nation of the influences on the in-situ. determined deformation modulus. 3.2.1.2. Determination of shear strength parameters with PDV-BS. ‘As shown in Fig. 9, basically three regions with different ‘material behaviors can be distinguished during the PDV- BS. The non-linear primary loading branch is valid until a given yield criteria is fulfilled. In this first region, a deformation remains even after disloading, With further louding. a non-linear plastic yield ‘appears. For loading and disloading, an approximately linear elastic material behavior is assumed. In Fig, 12 the distinction in an clastic sf! and a plastic part sj! of the settlement determined in point P is shown. 1 Loading plate 2 Pressure measuring system (he. piezoeectrical) 3 Pore pressure measuring device 4 Bore hole bottom 5 Mabie experimental system 5 Pipe 7) Ground sutace 8 Loading device and dri equipment 9 Settlement measuring sytem 10 Bore hole Fig. 11. General set-up of the equipment fr the plae-oading test atthe bottom of the hare hole (6,ia M, Lersow Waste Management 21 (2001, 8/178 im en as} oe 1 o ig 12 Division of seulement, masmuced with PDV-BS at pois P (13) ‘The linea elasticity theory gives the Following settle. rents for an isotropic matcrial under a cegular loaded circular plane with the radius & on aa elastic halt-area (Fig. 10) (10). In the middle of the loading-plate ar) sir= yk (sa) At the edge of the loading-plate a sins @) =a geR (8b) For the plate-losding (st, it is usual 10 determine a deformation modulus by kelp of the elasticity theory, according 19 DIN 18134. According to formula (8a) with v= 0.5, the deformation modulus is calculated: B= 1s-eot The following procedure is now offered: with a PDV. [BS the pressure settlement curve of loose rock is deter mined in the depth h, For the loading stes g.. the set- tlements 4, are recorded, From the disloading branch, the disloaling modulus can be determined with Eq. (9) (sa) Ione assumesan imaginary disloaging in point P (see 12) of the disioading branch, this will follow a straight ine with the inchnation of the disleading branch. This gives the elastic pare of the settlement in the point P. te _ Asta aise ting lea ale Cs (9b) Now the plastic portion of the settlement 5) can be calculated with t= os (8c Now the question is where the yielding starts, The determination of the limiting load qi can be done as follows: Fig. 13 shows the known behavior of loose rocks [11]. The PDV-BS can also prove the material behavior of loose rocks shown in Fig. 13, The inelastic portion of the seitlement of the loose 10ck ayainst the loading is shown in Fig. [4 ‘The relation between inelastic settlement and loading, which was found by a division of the determined settle rent sp in an ekistic portion and an inelastic portion, gives a similar curve to the curve for the change in Volume. shown in Fig. 13 (L1} AL the reloading branch, no further plastification appears Plastification first appears if the pressure- settlement curve follows the initial louding branch, ‘The limiting toad, which initiates yielding, is that load above the positive inelastic settlement. Further discus- sion can be found in (13] 2.2. Cone penetration tesis Until now, no common theory kas been introduced for cone-pressute tests which takes into account the quantitative influence of loose reck properties on the progress of the pesk pressure. For this reason, one often tries to correlate measured peak pressures of the dump material or the puilding ground to the mechanical properties of the loose rock, but first of all this correla. tion is unkaown, In the German Stanard DIN 4094 aAM. Lersow (Waste Management 21 2004) 161-76 m correlation relation for the determination of stiTness of non-cohesive and cohesive loose rocks with ceriain rain-size distribution is proposed, based on in-situ tests in virgin ground and on calibration measurements. A quantitative interpretation shows that this correlation gives insufficient results for cone-penetration tests in dumps. A quantitative assessment requires, therefore, the establishment of specific correlation systems for dumps, With the help of the established peak-pressure curve, the determination of the stiffness-modull is possible in wo ways (14): the determination of pressure-cependent stiffness moduli and the determination of depth-depen- dent stiffness moduli 3.221. Derivation of stvess-dependent stiffness modu For the derivation of stress-dependent stilasss moduli from cone-peretration tests. 10 correlation relations are necessary: Relation betseen vertical sess and peak pressure 9% Pr Ay (10) where 4g. —peak pressure 2, telerence sires A) function ©} effective vertical stress Relation between peak pressure stiffness modulus * = «hy ay mR where Es sliffnass modulus 2) funetion Roth relations ean be calculated with a power series expansion 3.2.2.2. Derivation of depiledependent stiffness modi. The starting point for the determination of the stffnoss moduli from cone-penetration tests are the calculated, slifneses, obtained from settlement-level results for certain depth steps, and from the results fram peak pressure curves, ‘A common provedure would be to caleulate the stiff: ness modulus with a power series expansion af the peak pressure Es) ‘ Gel. on Ler } “ The unknown cociiiemts Q, can be obtained from test loadings, whereby the peak pressures (2) as well as the umounts of the setilements s, can be measured at cone point (because of the increase of the elective stes- ss ower the depth as a result of the surface load g), The solution gives & non-bnear optimization problem with unknowa coeffiients Q,. One of the simplest solutions would be the introduc- tion of a proportionality factor. which gives relation between the peak pressures and the sliffness mieduli Este) = Bragc=) «a 3.2.2.3. PBV-BS calibration test for eone-penerrtion ests. Starting trom the modified correlation faccording 10 Formula (16)) itis proposed to determine B by help of calibration test with the PDV-BS. The peak pressure is obtuined fom cone-penetration tests. By help of a regression analysis, g(=) can be determined! glch=anbe ay where = dapth 4,h regression coefficients In Table 4, the regression coeflicients of eone-pene- lations tests at the disposal site Grabern (southern area of the eity of Leipzig) are shown, ‘Taking into account the results of the PDV-BS, for- ‘mula (Sc), the following relation for the depth =, is obtained: fo’ ton] is He =ta+ bape, 15 of22] lan bara as ‘Now the proportionality factor can be determined B= Ayo") 06 Ic is now possible to extablish a profile of fas func tion of the effective stresses for the tested loose rock. 3.2.3, Pressionieter tests With such a test, the amount of the horizontal stresses and therefore the stfTaess of the herizontal plane can be determined Recause of the anisotropy of the loose rock, this value cantiot be transferred to the vertical direction but, inm (M, Lersoe Waste Management 21 (2001) 161-174 Va Original volume an = Volume change mr © > Void ratio % + Shear stress Fig 13, Volume change t shear tex in ose rock (MPa DS number Correlation coecent 2B 0.935095 » 0.689819 Ma oas2se 2 oss202 2 0496726 2 0.56491 » 9480 20 0932856 3” ome 3h 0.765381, Mt 0932122 8 0.706540Me Lerso Weste Management 21 2001) 101-174 ny connection with other tests, it is possible to prove the anisotropy of the loose rock. ‘The interpretation of the pressiometer test curves based on the assumption of an isotropic. linear elustic bbchavior of the loose rock. “The elasticity moduli £,., and £y y, determined from these pressiometer tests have to he converted into stiff: ness moduli Esey and Esp. A relation between pressiometer moduli and by re-calculation, determined stiffness moduli can be found in formulas (17) and (18) a7) Bay =o i (BS) (18) 2 where Hp (iter eMonreresd Ese stiffness modulus from in-situ tests dnd) coeiceni, 3.23.1. Pressiometcr test as supplement for PDI-BS. With the combination of pressiometer tests for the determination of the horizontal elusticity indexes and the PDV-BS tests for the determination of the vertical ehsticity indexes. the degree of anisotropy canbe determined. Furthermore, for a transversal-isotropie behavior (see Fig. 15), the following formula is vali: Handing tiger Fig. 15. Transvemal inotropic behasior of loose reek of the Former ‘opec-pit dump “Espeahain™ projet Grobers [3 oa 2B za < EU) ay where £, elasticity modulus in the isotropic plane Fy elasticity modulus in the anisotropie plane Poisson's ratio in the isotropic plane Poisson's ratio in the anisotropic plane. Dumps are often layered. The Poisson’s ratio for the anisotropic plane ean be assessed with Eq. (19). If one assumes the dump as an isotropic body (or Slightly anisotropic). then the stiffness modulus deter= mined with PDY-BS becomes an in-situ modulus, whieh ‘can be used as an input parameter for the cone-pene- tration test, Consequently. the PDV-BS test cun be used. a calibration test for the pressiometer test. The cvell- cients 4y, and 4; can be calculated according to Ea. (18) 4. Summary For the stabilization of dumps with the construetion of hidden dams and for building ground improvement. for instance for trafic lines over dumps. ncacly all applied compaction methods have the aim to reduce the ‘pore volume in the loose rock. With these methods, a homogenization of the com- pacted loose rock will be obtained too. The compaction methods of compaction by falling vveight, compaction by vibration and compaction by blasting have been introduced, and their applications and efficiencies have heen shown. For the estimation of the effective depth of the com- paction and for @ safe planning of the bearing layer. respectively, the necessary material parameters have to be determined for each deep compaction method. Pro~ posals for the determination of these parameters have been made within this paper. Jn connection with the stabilization of ow-stide- prone dump slopes, as well as for the improvement of ‘ump areas for the use a5 building ground, it is neces- sary To assess the deformation behavior and the bearing capacity, To assess the resulting building ground improvement, deformation indexes (assessment of the How-prone layer) and strength indexes (assessment of the bearing capacity) have 10 be determined with soil ‘mechanical tests. Forster and Lersow [6.12.13] improved a direct pro- cedure. the so-called plate-londing test. With this improved procedure. itis possible to produce profike of elormation parameters and shear-strength parameters ‘of the loose rock. On this basis the setilement behavior ‘and the bearing behavior of the ground can be deseribed.114 M, Lersow | Waste Management 21 2001) 161-174 ‘The PDV-BS cone-penetration test and the pressi ‘ometer test ure compared and the reliability of the soi mechanical jndenes are assessed critically, The PDV-BS can be used as a calibration test for cone-peneiration tests as well as for the calibration of pressiometer tests, With the application of a PDV-BS and a pressiometer test in combination in a testing field, the anisotropy properties of the loose rock can be proved. References (0) Spesing G. Voge! W. Zur Bebawung von Tageboukippen. Bau plamung und Bauthonk [985.39:497 4 EL NN. 5, Nachirag zur Stundacherbeiscinschitzung, Sicherung ‘yon Kippenbdschungen des RL Burghammer im Vorfek der mn ‘NondSidbereich der Rutschung_ vow 04091996 herpstellen ‘Swotskorpers Bericht der BIUG GmbH, Freiberp im Auftrage {dee LMBV mbH. 14 October 1997, [8] NN. Empfeblangen und Bemessunesrundlacen fe die Gestal tung von Tagebaucesticen, im Auftrage der LMBV mbH. Berlin, Frankfur Oder) Dresden Senflenberg. 15 Sepiembe 1997 [4] Smotezxk U. Grundbuch Taschenbuch, (Herausgeber) Teil 2, ert Auge. Berlin: Ernst & Sohn Verlag. 1991, (5) Lensow, M. Voriag 49. Berg- und Hittenminnischer Tag. Frei- berger Forshungshe A 848.1998 p. 97-128, (6) Patentrboifh IIE 197-17 S88. Verahren, suf dor Grandlge lasts undoder eggesieverer Plattendrucksersche auf der Bohwlochsobie, aur Ermitiung dex Spannungs-Verformungs- Veraltens undioder von Deformationsmoduln ndjoder on Festgheiveigenchaflen in verschiedenen Tilen inshesondere ‘vom Lockerpetcinen und won Depomxkorpern ia ita. (TL NN. Zosdvaliche technische Vorschnften und Richlinien for Edarbiten im Stalenbau. Bonn- Bad Godesberg: Kirschbaum Verlag 1979. (8) Obde J. Granbsumochanik in Hatte IM. Berlin Withelm Ernst lund Sohn Verlag, 1956, (b] Forster W. Lehrbviete Bodenmechanik, Heft 3. 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