CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 64 (2015) 629653

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CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology

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Metal forming beyond shaping: Predicting and setting product properties

A.E. Tekkaya (1)a,*, J.M. Allwood (1)b, P.F. Bariani (1)c, S. Bruschi (2)c, J. Cao (1)d, S. Gramlich e,
P. Groche (1)f, G. Hirt (2)g, T. Ishikawa (2)h, C. Lobbe a, J. Lueg-Althoff a, M. Merklein (2)i,
W.Z. Misiolek j, M. Pietrzyk (1)k, R. Shivpuri (1)l, J. Yanagimoto (1)m
a
Institut fur Umformtechnik und Leichtbau, Technische Universitat Dortmund, Dortmund, Germany
b
Department of Engineering, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
c
Department of Industrial Engineering, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
d
Mechanical Engineering Department, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, USA
e
Institut fur Produktentwicklung und Maschinenelemente, Technische Universitat Darmstadt, Darmstadt, Germany
f
Institut fur Produktionstechnik und Umformmaschinen, Technische Universitat Darmstadt, Darmstadt, Germany
g
Institut fur Bildsame Formgebung, RWTH Aachen, Aachen, Germany
h
Metal Forming and Processing Laboratory, Nagoya University, Nagoya, Japan
i
Institute of Manufacturing Technology, Friedrich-Alexander-Universitat Erlangen-Nurnberg, Erlangen, Germany
j
Institute for Metal Forming, Lehigh University, Bethlehem, PA, USA
k
Department of Applied Computer Science and Modelling, AGH University of Science and Technology, Krakow, Poland
l
Department of Industrial Engineering, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA
m
Institute of Industrial Science, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Metal forming is not only shaping the form of a product, it is also inuencing its mechanical and physical
Metal forming
properties over its entire volume. Advanced analysis methods recently enable accurate prediction of
Product
these properties and allow for setting these properties deterministically during the forming process.
Properties
Effective measurement methods ensure the setting of these predicted properties. Several real examples
demonstrate the impressive achievements and indicate the necessity of a paradigm change in designing
products by including manufacturing-induced effects in the initial dimensioning. This paradigm change
will lead to lightweight components and serve environmentally benign designs.
2015 CIRP.

1. Introduction Back in 2002, Zeng et al. [234] demonstrated the described

importance of including information about manufacturing-
Most of the energy embedded in a product is hidden in the induced properties in a crash simulation. The simulation result
primary energy of fabricating the material itself [7]. In this sense, in Fig. 2a is based on nominal thickness and material properties of
metal forming is one of the most environmentally benign class of virgin sheet metals and showed that severe buckling occurred in
manufacturing processes due to its high material utilization the middle of the supporting beam. Fig. 2b used the tube thickness
[91]. Metal forming as Net-Shape Manufacturing Process has been obtained after hydro-forming and manufacturing-induced mate-
largely recognized as a process that shapes the nal geometry of a rial properties in the crash simulation. The simulation predicted
product by plastic deformation. The fact that plastic deformation
alters the mechanical properties of the product over its volume is
not yet widely appreciated in design of products [24]. In the
conventional cycle of product design, the designer develops the
product geometry on the basis of specications of loading
conditions and material properties (material ability) of virgin
materials (Fig. 1a). Due to uncertainties, a safety factor greater
than 1 is applied to the nominal load, resulting in an increase of
dimensions in the nal design, and embodying more energy than
necessary. Generally, the manufacturing process is not considered
in specifying the material ability in the design process although it
can substantially alter this ability.

* Corresponding author. Phone: +49 231 7552681; fax: +49 231 7552489. Fig. 1. (a) Conventional product design and manufacturing. (b) New approach in
E-mail address: erman.tekkaya@iul.tu-dortmund.de (A.E. Tekkaya). designing and manufacturing products,[24].

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cirp.2015.05.001
0007-8506/ 2015 CIRP.
630 A.E. Tekkaya et al. / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 64 (2015) 629653
Fig. 2. Crash simulation and test [234]: (a) simulation with nominal properties. (b)
Simulation with manufacturing properties. (c) Experiment.
that buckling did not occur in the middle section, instead it
occurred at the corner section. This is due to the fact that over 20%
thinning existed at the corner during the hydro-forming process.
Fig. 2c shows a photo of the real crash test, which conrmed the
results of the simulation which used information about the
manufacturing-induced properties. Without knowing the inu-
ence of the manufacturing process on the material properties and
thickness distribution, one would arbitrarily choose a high-value
safety factor to uniformly increase the thickness across the entire
tube in order to be on the safe side.
In order to close the gap between the product design and the
manufacturing process, the specication of the material ability and
after-forming dimensions have to be incorporated in the
manufacturing process, as illustrated in Fig. 1b.
Given the ability of metal forming in changing mechanical
properties over the entire volume of the product, a great
opportunity lies in the design process if one can take a holistic
approach seamlessly integrating the design of forming processes
and the design of a product. This requires, on the one hand, the
prediction of these properties and, on the other hand, the control of
these properties in the manufacturing process. The knowledge of
local material properties such as strength, formability, damage,
residual stresses, texture, and microstructure can be transferred to
the early stages of manufacturing and tailor-made products can be
manufactured. This approach delivers a high potential to provide
the sound technological basis for selecting the realistic safety
factor and, hence, lightweighting the product [213].
Metal forming consists of a process chain that primarily
includes thermal and mechanical processing. Table 1 summarizes
the mechanical, surface, and physical product properties that can
be changed by these two types of processes.
Table 1
Product properties changed during forming by thermal and mechanical processes.
Mechanical properties Surface properties
 Mechanical resistance  Surface topography
 Impact resistance  Wear resistance
 Creep resistance  Corrosion resistance
 Fatigue resistance  Hydrophobic resistance
 Formability Physical properties
 Toughness  Electrical properties
 Residual stresses  Magnetic properties
 Anisotropy  Optical properties
 Accumulated damage
Thermal processing consists of heat treatment processes. These
processes are either applied before (annealing) or after the metal
forming process (hardening or annealing). Sometimes the heat
treatment is conducted together with the forming process:
thermo-mechanical processing is basically used for semi-nished
products (by primary forming processes), such as in rolling,
extrusion, but also in part forming (secondary forming processes),
such as in forging and hot stamping. Mechanical, surface, and
physical product properties are nally set by cold forming
processes, such as impact forging, wire drawing, roll forming,
and sheet forming (Fig. 3). Machining and surface treatment
processes occasionally follow the nal metal forming process but
basically inuence only the near-surface properties.
The objective of this paper is to reveal the potential of
predicting and setting the mechanical and physical properties in
Fig. 3. Chain of product manufacturing by thermal, thermo-mechanical, and
mechanical processing.
metal formed products. Thermo-mechanical and metal forming
processes are in the focus and mere thermal processing is not
covered by this paper. Several other properties, like Youngs
modulus and density, that are not listed in Table 1 can be changed
by plastic forming and heat treatment. However, these parameters
are out of the scope of this paper.
The starting point of this paper is a comprehensive knowledge
about the metallurgical basis of material properties (Section 2).
With the knowledge about the inuencing mechanisms on the
micro-scale, the prediction of macro-scale mechanical product
properties during manufacturing processes becomes possible
(Section 3). The achievement of the desired properties needs to
be measured during the processes, requiring special monitoring
techniques (Section 4). Several examples of forming processes and
process chains, where the prediction and control of mechanical
product properties during the forming process are already
successfully performed, are reviewed (Section 5). Next, a paradigm
change in the design process of products utilizing the manufactur-
ing properties is proposed (Section 6). The paper is concluded by
providing conclusions and an outlook.
2. Metallurgical basis of material properties
The entire casting and deformation history has a strong
inuence on the mechanical and physical properties of the product
achieved during forming as well as during the subsequent heat
treatment operations. In general, the effects of the chemical
composition of the material and mechanical process parameters on
the product microstructure and nal mechanical properties are
very complex, but they can be simplied and conceptually
illustrated as in Fig. 4.
This multistep process sequence of converting a cast structure
into a wrought one is often known in literature as thermo-
mechanical treatment. This section aims at giving a basic review of
the fundamental metallurgical phenomena affecting the mechani-
cal properties of products formed under mechanical/thermo-
mechanical processing conditions [98].
Fig. 4. Inuence of the alloying elements as well as casting and forming parameters
on the microstructure and properties of a steel product.
 A.E. Tekkaya et al. / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 64 (2015) 629653
2.1. Chemical composition
The chemical composition is a primary factor determining the
physical properties of structural metals. On the basis of the chemical
composition of the alloy and phase diagram characteristics, the
major strengthening mechanisms, such as solid solution, phase
transformation, and/or precipitation hardening, can be predicted.
Furthermore, the chemical composition controls the microstructure
evolution including work hardening, dynamic recovery, dynamic
recrystallization, static recovery, and static recrystallization result-
ing in the nal grain size, rate of grain growth, formation of
precipitates, rate of phase (e.g., ferrite) nucleation, rate of second
phase grain growth, and so on.
The composition-tailoring approach has been used in the
development of different generations of sheet steels devoted to
automotive applications, including three generations of Advanced
High Strength Steels (AHSS). Fig. 5 indicates different automotive
sheet steels developed in the last 30 years in which the chemical
composition, structure, and phases were manipulated to create
various combinations of ductility and strength. The area of the
third generation of AHSS with yield strengths of over 2000 MPa
and around 25% elongation is still under development.
Fig. 5. Combination of ductility and strength for various sheet steels for automotive
applications [155].
Another example of the use of the composition-tailoring
approach is given by low-alloyed steels, such as the CSiMn
steels, added with micro-alloying elements, such as Nb and/or V,
which retard the recrystallization and grain growth since they
form carbides that precipitate at the grain boundaries during
forming at the elevated temperature. Therefore, this precipitation
enables these micro-alloyed steels to retain higher strengths when
cooled in the air after hot deformation, and, consequently,
eliminates the need for quenching and tempering treatments. A
similar precipitation induced hardening approach is frequently
used in nonferrous metals, where the alloying elements are used to
control the recrystallization kinetics or phase transformation
leading to higher hardness and strength.
2.2. Work hardening
Plastic deformation of crystalline materials is a function of active
slip systems, which provide the ability for the dislocation motion
[45]. During plastic deformation, dislocations propagate from the
source, interact and stick to each other as well as with solutes/
precipitate particles and pile up at grain boundaries. The dislocation
density, which is the amount of the length of dislocations per unit
volume, increases as the plastic deformation increases, and this can
be seen as the quantitative description of the plastic deformation
from the metallurgical viewpoint. It lies roughly between 108 cm/
cm3 (annealed state) and >1012 cm/cm3 (cold deformed state) in
steels. Resistance to the motion of dislocations increases due to the
increase in interactions between dislocations and other dislocations,
grain boundaries, precipitations, and other defects. The metallurgi-
cal phenomenon of work hardening is the effect of the mentioned
dislocations interactions during forming.
Different hardening mechanisms become relevant for loading
involving one or more strain path changes. Inter-granular and intra-
granular inhomogeneities lead to transient work hardening.
631
Phenomena such as the Bauschinger effect [20], the retardation of
hardening after loading path changes, and increases of the yield
stress after certain types of loading path changes (e.g., cross
hardening), are induced by the interaction of different populations of
dislocation during quasi-static loading of common metals at the
room temperature [89,174]. Oriented dislocation structures develop
in metals during plastic deformation. The intra-granular Bauschin-
ger effect, i.e. the lower magnitude of the yield stress after load
reversal, and the absence of hardening after a load reversal are
explained by the interaction of dislocations in cell-block boundaries
(Fig. 6) [163]. Cell-block boundaries (CBBs) are planar arrangements
of dislocations with a high relative dislocation density. According to
Peeters et al. [163], dislocations with opposing Burgers vector are
stopped on either side of the CBB (Fig. 6b). Upon load reversal,
dislocations originally located within the core of the CBB, disloca-
tions at the boundary and dislocations between two neighboring
CBBs interact. Due to the different Burgers vector or polarity of these
dislocations, annihilation takes place. This leads to the observed
transients in hardening. Obviously such phenomena affect the
product properties after plastic forming signicantly.
Fig. 6. (a) TEM after a tensile test. (b) Schematic representation: cell-block
boundaries (CBBs) and cell boundaries (CBs) [163].
2.3. Damage
The prediction of failure and the knowledge of failure mecha-
nisms are essential for successful design. Failure of a manufactured
part means that it is not capable to maintain one of its functions. A
classic case of mechanical failure is the occurrence of cracks in a
sheet metal part. Before part failure, physical phenomena occur
covering local material failure development that leads nally to part
failure. As a working denition, all phenomena which contribute to
the mechanical weakening of the material due to the existence or
propagation of defects are summarized as damage. Common defects
with such a weakening effect on different scales are: voids, cavities,
micro cracks, and shear bands. Metal forming changes the damage
level of workpieces and this effect can be predicted and controlled.
2.4. Recovery, recrystallization, and grain growth
During forming processes carried out under hot conditions and
possible soaking at different levels of elevated temperatures,
metallurgical phenomena such as recovery, recrystallization, and
grain growth, which are governed by diffusion, do play a role
during and after deformation. Recovery reduces the energy stored
in the deformed grains by a rearrangement of defects in their
crystal structure and is a necessary prerequisite for recrystalliza-
tion to take place. Recrystallization is the metallurgical phenome-
non that allows replacing deformed grains by small dislocation free
equiaxed grains at elevated temperatures. There are basically two
types of recrystallization: static/metadynamic recrystallization,
that occurs after plastic deformation during exposure to elevated
temperature, and dynamic recrystallization, that occurs during
plastic deformation at the elevated temperature. Grain growth
may occur after deformation at the high temperature to further
decrease the stored energy by reducing the grain boundaries
extension. The effect of dynamic recovery and recrystallization on
the ow stress at elevated temperatures has been studied and the
role of the Stacking Fault Energy (SFE) is widely reported in
literature. For the specic range of temperatures and strain rates,
the balance between the two competing mechanisms of work
632 A.E. Tekkaya et al. / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 64 (2015) 629653
hardening and softening can be achieved resulting in a usually
constant ow stress and signicantly improved ductility. Numer-
ous studies in literature report the effect of the microstructure
evolution and its inuence on mechanical properties [193,208].
2.5. Phase transformation and precipitation
Phase transformation may take place during and after plastic
deformation, both at the room and the elevated temperature. As an
example, Fig. 7 shows that the microstructure of a carbon steel after
hot forming may change widely on the basis of the hot forming and
interpass (the state between two forming stages) parameters,
resulting in different phases like ferrite, pearlite, bainite, and/or
martensite depending on the applied cooling conditions [45]. Phase
transformation can also be driven by straining, as it happens for some
classes of steels, where the forming history dependent phenomenon
of Transformation Induced Plasticity (TRIP) takes place, leading to the
formation of a complex microstructure characterized by high
combination of ductility and strength (see Fig. 5).
Fig. 7. Microstructural evolution of carbon steels during and after hot forming [227].
The principle of microstructure control in aluminum alloys at
the elevated temperature is similar to steels in terms of control of
recrystallization during interpasses. But, as aluminum is not
subjected to phase transformation during cooling, the microstruc-
ture controlling strategy during cooling is quite different from that
of steels. In case of aluminum alloys, solution treatment and aging
are used to control the size and distribution of precipitates and
intermetallic particles, which, in turn, are responsible for the nal
properties of aluminum alloys products [57].
2.6. Development and role of texture
Crystallographic texture represents a preferred crystallographic
orientation of the grains in a polycrystalline material. Examples of
strong textures can be found in cold deformed wires and cold
rolled sheets, which present a crystallographic orientation in the
same direction as the main deformation and show a measurable
degree of anisotropy. Both the presence of texture and its intensity
have a signicant inuence on the material physical properties,
leading to performances close to the ones of a single crystal in case
of strong anisotropy. On the contrary, a material characterized by a
random grain orientation exhibits isotropic physical properties.
Texture plays a very important role in controlling quality and
properties of semi-nished and nished products. For example, the
use of aluminum sheets characterized by planar anisotropy close
to zero allows manufacturing beverage cans with limited earing
defect (Section 5.3); electric silicon steel sheets with a reduced
anisotropy present reduced magnetic hysteresis useful for
manufacturing of transformer cores (Section 5.6). The mechanical
strength of a part after forming is also strongly inuenced by the
texture since the hardening behavior of the metals varies on the
basis of the plastic anisotropy.
Fig. 8. Grain maps generated across the extrusion weld showing the texture of the
various regions [65].
The local texture, also known as micro-texture, is formed as a
material response to localized straining and can be characterized in
forged and extruded parts by the Electron Backscatter Diffraction
(EBSD) technique, compare Section 4.2. This relatively new tool
allows better understanding and control of metal forming opera-
tions, which results in controlling the physical properties of
products. An example of application of the EBSD technique is
shown in Fig. 8, which presents h1 0 0i texture of individual streams
of aluminum alloy extrusion welded within a porthole die [65]. The
area of the weld is represented by h1 1 1i and random texture.
2.7. Thermo-mechanical processing for microstructure and
mechanical property control
It is evident from the metallurgical phenomena described above
that different metal products with various mechanical properties
can be manufactured by controlling their microstructures making
use of processes combining large plastic deformation and
controlled cooling. The thermo-mechanical process should be
designed accordingly, in terms of deformation and cooling
conditions, besides the choice of the proper chemical composition
of the alloy. In this context, the material microstructure occupies
the intermediate position in the chain between the process and
the mechanical properties.
For example, in case of rolling, to obtain a product with adequate
mechanical properties, the sequential hot rolling process conditions
must be controlled by properly selecting the hot rolling parameters,
such as thickness reduction, rolling speed, rolling temperature, and
interpass time, as well as the cooling conditions in terms of
temperature history, cooling rate, and cooling shutdown tempera-
ture. The temperature history of such a combined process is
schematically shown in the CCT diagram in Fig. 9. The temperature
history of a conventional hot rolling process is represented by line
(1). Graphs (2)(4) are the temperature histories of the thermo-
mechanical processing of plate rolling, whereas (5)(7) are the
temperature histories of ausforming processes.
Fig. 9. Temperature histories of combined thermo-mechanical processing applied
to rolling [149].
3. Prediction methods
Various models of different complexity and predictive capabili-
ties are now available for determining the product properties after
 A.E. Tekkaya et al. / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 64 (2015) 629653 633

metal forming and in combination with heat treatment processes.

Prediction of the product properties is usually fullled in two steps.
The rst step comprises the modeling of mechanical response and
microstructure evolution during processing, whereas the second
step tends to provide the correlation between the microstructural
parameters of the material and the in-service properties of the
product.
The objective of this section is to provide a classication and a
brief description of available models with respect to their
predictive capabilities and computing costs, having in mind
prospective applications.

3.1. Classication and prospective application of models

Historically, up to the 1990s, modeling of metal forming

followed a phenomenological approach, which did not distinguish
between phenomena occurring at various dimensional scales and
did not account directly for the material microstructure. The rst
developed approaches were based on analytical methods, such as
the slab [27] and upper bound methods [13], which were used for the
calculation of the macro-scale parameters in metal forming, namely
the strain and stress elds, usually using empirical constitutive laws
to describe the material mechanical response to deformation. At the
same time, JohnsonMehlAvramiKolmogorow (JMAK) based
models [14] were developed further to predict the microstructure
evolution, and phenomenological damage models were introduced
to predict the fracture occurrence, e.g., [38,80], but without being
coupled with the material mechanical response.
Since the early 1970s, the Finite Element Method (FEM) has
become the most popular simulation technique in metal forming
[114]. Subsequently, alternative numerical methods were devel-
oped, such as the Boundary Element Method (BEM) or the Finite
Volume Method (FVM), but FEM still remains the most popular
approach to estimate metal ow and forces during forming. In their
earlier formulations, these numerical methods made use of
empirical laws (Section 3.2) to describe the material behavior and
predict the macro-scale state parameters, including the temperature
eld. Starting from the late 1990s, microstructural models, both
phenomenological and physically-based, have been implemented
into the FE codes making it possible to carry out fully coupled
thermal-mechanical-microstructural simulations [168], giving rise
to new challenges in modeling materials processing since they
allowed to predict the evolution of the microstructural constituents
(Section 3.3).
At the beginning of the 21st century, the prediction of
phenomena accounting explicitly for the granular structure of
polycrystals was the main challenge, which led to the development
of polycrystalline modeling of material behavior allowing fully
multi-scale predictive models (Section 3.4). In multi-scale
modeling, FE codes are still used to predict the macro-scale
parameters, but they are coupled with discrete methods, such as
the phase-eld approach, Cellular Automata (CA), Monte Carlo
(MC), or Molecular Dynamics (MD), which account for the behavior
of each microstructural constituent at the micro-scale level
[6,130]. The symbiotic relationship between modeling granularity
or delity and the computational efciency is shown pictorially in
Fig. 10, where efcient applications of these models are shown at
the bottom of the plot. As expected, the increase of the models
predictive capabilities results in increasing computing costs.
Fig. 10. Classication of models in metal forming with respect to their predictive
capabilities and computing costs.
size is rened. However, it has been noted that, for very small grain
sizes (in the nanometer range), yield stress falls with reducing grain
size. This is known as the inverse Hall-Petch relationship.
For low carbon steels (C < 0.2%) produced as at hot rolled
products, Pickering [167] proposed well-known empirical equations
that relate chemical compositions and grain diameters to the yield
and ultimate strengths, and elongations in the rolling and transverse
directions. He provided the relations for low carbon low-alloy mild
steels, low carbon ferritic-pearlitic steels including high-strength
low-alloy steel (HSLA), and medium-high carbon ferrite-pearlite
steels. Using a similar empirical approach, Gladman [66] derived the
relations between composition, thermal processing, and mechanical
properties for air hardening microalloyed steels produced as hot
rolled bars or sheets. These relations are also applicable to medium
carbon (0.35 < C < 0.50%) vanadium, niobium, and/or titanium
modied micro-alloy steels used in forgings. Due to structural
transformations during rapid cooling and tempering, these relations
are not available for Quenched and Tempered (Q&T) steels.
Fig. 11 shows a schematic of the computer assisted transition
from microstructure and chemical composition to stress-strain
curves. In this investigation, 15 kinds of steel sheets with different
chemical compositions and phases like ferrite, pearlite, martensite,
and bainite are tested, and they are integrated in the prediction
system for stress-strain curve at cold state by using the mixture
rules. The coefcients of the Swift equation for ow stress can be
predicted by the state of the microstructure (grain size, phases,
etc.) and the empirical equations for various steel grades. Similar
empirical equations were obtained for monolithic bainitic and
martensitic structures. The kinetic properties of a ferrite-pearlite
structure can be estimated by the mixture rules, but they cannot
reect the morphologies of steels.

3.2. Empirical models

The simplest approach to predict mechanical properties of
formed products is to carry out controlled forming experiments,
determine microstructural changes, and derive relationships
between microstructure and the resulting product properties using
regression analysis. A widely used empirical relationship is the Hall-
Petch equation that relates the yield stress (initial ow stress) and
ultimate tensile strength (UTS) inversely to the square root of the
grain size [1]. Consequently, the yield stress increases as the grain
Fig. 11. Computer-assisted transition from microstructure and chemical
composition to stress-strain curve [217].
3.3. Mechanical and microstructural predictions during processing
Constitutive laws implemented in the models of metal forming
processes are used to relate the process parameters to the material
ow stress [169], to the evolution of microstructural features and
634 A.E. Tekkaya et al. / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 64 (2015) 629653
phenomena, such as the grain size [160], phase transformations
[48,117], precipitation kinetics [50], and to the damage evolution
[231], which, in turn, provide the basis for the prediction of the
mechanical properties in the product, such as yield strength and
ductility, fatigue and fracture resistance. When processing under
cold conditions, the modeling of material texture assumes
importance, especially in case of sheet forming processes [34].
The constitutive laws describing the material ow behavior and
evolution of microstructural characteristics, including damage, can
be broadly classied into statistical, phenomenological, and
mechanistic models [63].
Statistical models: Statistical models require a large amount of
experimental data to derive a mathematical relationship through
regression tting between the independently varied process
parameters and the resulting microstructural features. For multi-
variable analysis, well known statistical techniques, such as the
Design of Experiments (DOE), Response Surface Method (RSM), and
analysis of variance (ANOVA), are used for selecting the most suitable
process parameters (e.g., heat treatment parameters [125]). The
statistical models are effective for process optimization at reasonable
computational costs, however, they present several drawbacks, e.g.,
the experimental data may mask second order or coupling effects
making it difcult to capture fundamental physics, the lack of prior
knowledge on the dominant metallurgical phenomena makes the
selection of a suitable tting function rather difcult, and the
extrapolation outside the range of the process parameters used for
their validation may introduce considerable prediction errors. The
rst two drawbacks may be mitigated using Articial Neural Network
(ANN), based on multi-variable non-linear regression models.
Recently, phenomena-based ANN models have been developed to
predict material transformations with higher accuracy [23].
Phenomenological models: The phenomenological models
dene the relationships between the process variables and the
microstructural characteristics, making use of equations describ-
ing microstructural phenomena, such as recovery, recrystalliza-
tion, grain growth, and precipitation, even if not directly derived
from fundamental theory. These models are implemented into the
process models to predict the evolution of the microstructural
state and, possibly, the mechanical properties in the product, both
off-line and in-line, e.g., in hot rolling of rods and strips
[160,166]. They have two main drawbacks: rst, their material
parameters have to be determined empirically, and second the
form of the regression t may not capture the possible changes in
the underlying microstructural phenomena.
Most of the phenomenological microstructural models are
based on the JMAK theory [14] or further modications for a
more accurate description of recrystallization, phase transfor-
mation, and precipitation kinetics, with particular emphasis on
strain induced precipitation [51]. In case of most non-ferrous
alloys, the description of precipitation hardening that may take
place during the deformation process itself or the heat treatment
becomes mandatory for the prediction of the product properties.
Phenomenological models used to describe damage evolution
and fracture when a damage variable reaches a critical value are
based on fracture mechanics [134], which is usually derived from
energy calculation assuming that the deforming material is porous-
free [43,159]. Although the damage variable is history dependent, it
is not coupled to deformation and it does not modify the yield
function. However, the easy calibration and implementation of
fracture mechanics models into FE codes favors their wide
utilization. The basic challenge in fracture mechanics is that
displacements are discontinuous through the crack, and more
accurate modeling needs special techniques such as remeshing,
meshless or extended FE method (xFEM) to model this discontinuity.
Mechanistic models provide the fundamental understanding
of the physics governing the phenomena involved in the process to
be modeled. Mechanistic models have the ability to extrapolate
beyond their calibration range as long as the controlling
phenomenon remains unchanged. Their major drawback lies in
a large amount of computational resources usually needed to solve
even the simplest problems. They can present different levels of
complexity, from the mentioned Hall-Petch relationship for the
yield strength prediction, to strain and strain rate hardening
models based on dislocation mechanics, crystal plasticity models
based on texture evolution [175], and the more recent phase eld
approach. Internal Variable Methods (IVM) are models based on
dislocation mechanics: they combine the material ow stress with
the microstructure, being the dislocation density as the measure of
the material deformation. In IVM, the material response is a
function of external variables, internal variables, and time,
therefore accounting for the process history. Single internal
variable models, accounting for the average dislocation density,
are based on the fundamental works of Mecking and Kocks [139],
Estrin and Mecking [58], and Sandstrom and Lagneborg [184], but
approaches based on two state variables, three state variables, and
distribution function for dislocation density have been recently
introduced [176,178]. The capability to describe the material
behavior and microstructural evolution during the interpass time
between subsequent deformation steps and prediction of product
properties combined with reasonably low computing costs are the
main advantages of the IVM models (Fig. 12).
Fig. 12. Mechanistic models.
In recent years, the phase eld approach [148] has emerged as
one of the most powerful methods for modeling many types of
microstructure-evolution processes, including the austenite de-
composition. The phase-eld model treats a polycrystalline system,
containing both bulk and boundary regions, in an integral manner.
Mechanistic models to predict fracture are void-growth based
criteria and Continuum Damage Mechanics (CDM) based criteria;
the former predicts the evolution of voids in porous ductile
materials and uses analytical formulae describing isolated unit
cells with voids under remote stress and strain elds. Since local
stresses at micro-scale may differ from the stresses at macro level,
a partial insight into the underlying micro mechanisms is needed
for fracture modeling, see Gursons model [80] and its improve-
ment by TvergaardNeedleman [153]. On the other hand, in the
framework of CDM, according to [104], the amount of damage can
be characterized by the area fraction of voids at the considered
cross section. Chaboche proposed a similar approach [38], using
Youngs modulus in the denition of damage. Models based on
CDM modify both the yield function and the elastic behavior as the
deformation and damage progress, thus providing a full coupling
with the material constitutive behavior [124,231].
3.4. Multi-scale, multi-physics, and multi-resolution models
Multi-physics and multi-resolution models are located at the
right top corner in Fig. 10. These models have wide predictive
capabilities and are considered the most novel solutions in the eld
 A.E. Tekkaya et al. / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 64 (2015) 629653
of metal forming. On the other hand, they require very long
computing times, which may reduce their practical application.
The idea of the multi-scale approach is applied now in all novel
solutions involving multi-physics and multi-resolution problems.
Multi-scale modeling is carried out for the purpose of capturing
fundamental aspects of the material behavior under heterogeneous
deformation. Nano- and micro-scale models based on discrete
methods are introduced to describe mechanisms such as grain
boundary sliding and rotation, interactions between dislocations
and grain boundaries, micro-cracks initiation and propagation, and
many more. As a consequence, several inaccessible deformation
modes can be simulated by the unied constitutive equations. The
general idea of the multi-scale modeling is presented briey below,
whereas more details can be found in [31,130].
Fig. 13. Multi-scale modeling: upscaling models and concurrent multi-scale
computing.
The methods are usually classied into two groups: upscaling
methods and concurrent multi-scale computing (Fig. 13).
In the upscaling class of methods, constitutive models at higher
scales are constructed from observations at lower, more elemen-
tary scales by employing the concept of Representative Volume
Element (RVE). The computational homogenization methods [147]
are considered to belong to this group. Simulation of dynamic
recrystallization during hot rolling using FE in the macro scale and
CA method in the micro scale [64], so-called CAFE method, is a
typical example of the upscaling approach.
In concurrent multi-scale computing, the problem is solved
simultaneously at several scales by an a priori decomposition of
the computational domain. Two-scale methods, whereby the
decomposition is made into coarse and ne scales, have been
considered so far. The method used in the ne scale is applied to a
part of the whole domain of the solution. It can be either the same
method, which is used in the coarse scale, for example, the FE
method, or it can be a discrete method (CA, MC). In the former case,
the extended nite element (xFEM) and the multi-scale extended
nite element (MS-xFEM) methods can be distinguished. An
approach presented in [93] for incremental bulk metal forming is
an example of the concurrent computing.
Cellular Automata (CA) is one of the commonly used methods
for modeling micro scale phenomena. The CA lattice of cells
represents a two- or three-dimensional microstructure and
reproduces topological relations between grains. These relations
include the length of the grain boundaries as well as selected
properties, e.g., misorientations. The state of each CA cell is
described by the state variables, each cell is described by its state
and the values of the internal (state) variables. The state of the cell
at each time step is controlled by the transition rules [225].
The CA method was widely used in various elds of research,
and in metal forming, it was successively applied to simulate strain
localization [132], dynamic recrystallization [84], cold deforma-
tion and annealing [129], and other phenomena.
Monte Carlo (MC) is a general name for a group of algorithms
based on a random sampling of a solutions space V for application
635
in mathematical and physical simulations [62]. In the case of
microstructure evolution models, the algorithm usually follows an
iterative procedure over a computational domain composed of
lattice sites in a specic dened orientation (state).
In the rst step, a random lattice site is selected and the energy
for that site is computed. In the second step, the selected lattice site
is reoriented to the orientation chosen randomly from possible
states. The new site orientation is accepted when the new energy is
not higher than the previous one. With successive MC steps, the
energy value of the entire system is reduced, and, e.g., the digital
microstructure with clearly visible grains can be observed.
The MC method is very similar to the CA method and has
analogous advantages when modeling of material properties is
considered. However, the MC method uses arbitrary units and the
basic rule for this method is energy minimization. On the contrary,
the CA technique uses physical units and it cooperates with
analytical equations, thus it provides greater possibility for
practical applications.
The Digital Material Representation (DMR) approach allows a
description of real material morphology with different micro scale
features directly included (e.g., precipitates, inclusions, big and
small grains, grain boundaries, crystallographic grains orienta-
tions, phases boundaries). DMR can be dened as a material
description, based on measurable quantities, which provides the
link between the simulation and the experiment (Fig. 14) [194].
The DMR allows a virtual analysis of real material behavior, while
errors of calculations are minimized [207]. Numerical models based
on the DMR give more detailed predictions than those based on
conventional closed form or differential equations based approaches
because they take into account complex microstructure morphol-
ogies in an explicit manner during simulation [131]. The validation
of simulation results obtained by DMR can be done using Digital
Image Correlation (DIC) combined with an in-situ tensile test inside
a scanning electron microscope, which allows the observation of
microstructure deformation during loading [128].
Molecular Dynamics (MD) is another simulation method,
which is extensively applied at the atomistic level. Applications are
found for simulating plastic damage [127] or the interface and
lubricant behavior [229].
Fig. 14. General idea of the Digital Material Representation.
Multi-resolution models belong to the concurrent computing
group, as well. Recent work has successfully integrated material
design with the shear instability or nal fatigue/fracture properties
[54,137], and subsequent stress collapse. The former is responsible
for dynamic adiabatic shear band propagation and are captured by
including the effects of shear driven micro void damage in a single
constitutive model [138].
The multi-resolution approach improves not only the speed but
also the accuracy, to which the nal behavior of complex materials
and material systems designs through the forming processes can
be predicted. The physics is captured at different resolutions, for
636 A.E. Tekkaya et al. / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 64 (2015) 629653
example, void mechanics, dislocation mechanics, dislocation
density, fracture prediction, damage accumulation, material
localization, and fatigue life, see Fig. 15.
Fig. 15. Illustration of multi-scale domains in the physical model and in the
computational domain [220].
Embedded constitutive models implicitly predict scale separa-
tion through homogenization such that scale specic physics can
be retained without modeling explicitly, history variables such as
volume fraction can be tracked at their respective levels, the
impact of mesh dependence and traditional scale separation issues
are reduced, and inhomogeneous deformation can be analyzed
naturally. The theory was used to predict the fracture behavior and
improve the fracture toughness of steel alloys designed by
experimentally reconstructing the microstructure of the materials
to yield a hybrid multi-scale mechanics-experimental analysis, as
shown in Fig. 16 [215].
Fig. 16. Multi-scale simulation of three-dimensional ductile fracture process.
(a) Experimental specimen. (b) Microstructure reconstruction at crack tip.
(c) Simulation results of process zone. (d) Simulation results of microstructure
deformation and evolution inside process zone. [215].
3.5. Deterministic and probabilistic predictions
Multi-physics modeling allows capturing different physical
phenomena that may arise during the technological process. Typical
processes that require multi-physics simulation tools are welding,
solid structure interactions, or solidication. As far as metal forming
is concerned, thermal-mechanical-microstructural coupling has
been used for decades to capture various phenomena occurring
during deformation [169]: Fig. 17 represents this coupling, which
employs FE models to describe the mechanical and thermal
phenomena, while a variety of methods described above is used
to account for the microstructural phenomena. As new forming
processes are emerging that exploit energy means different from the
Fig. 17. The idea of the multi-physics modeling of metal forming, sstress, e
strain, Ttemperature, Qheat generated due to transformations, Xvolume
fractions of phases.
mechanical one (e.g., electro-magnetic forming [171] or electro-
plasticity-based processes [44]), the effects of the electrical or
magnetic elds on the material behavior, both in terms of mechanical
response to deformation and microstructural evolution, can be
captured only if fully coupled multi-physics models are developed.
Process optimization: While most of the effort in process or die
optimization in metal forming uses FE based approaches, these
efforts are often trial and error type. More formal use of the
design methodology and articial intelligence (AI) in the optimal
design of a die or a forming process include sensitivity analysis (e.g.
in the design of hot rolling passes [102]), genetic algorithmic
search (e.g. optimal design of drawing dies [179] and multi-stage
processes [180]), knowledge based design, ANN, fuzzy reasoning
[200] and reverse engineering. Metamodeling is commonly used in
optimization, as well [116].
Process uncertainty, variance, and risk: Experimental evalu-
ation of product properties and performance shows considerable
variance or scatter in the results. Knowledge discovery models [3]
have been used in investigating the role of material and process
uncertainty in scatter. A simple approach is to introduce
uncertainty in a deterministic process model through variance
in the material and process properties and constants. Alternatively,
the material and process constants can be taken as statistical
distributions: often assumed to be normally distributed with two
independent parameters (mean and variance). Using established
methodology of statistics, material (mechanical properties and
microstructure) and process (friction, die velocities, blank holder
pressure, etc.) variance can be converted to variance in the product
properties and tolerance.
Material and process uncertainties in forming processes can
also have considerable inuence on the fatigue and fracture
performance of safety-critical parts. The failure of these parts can
lead to the failure of the entire system, increasing societal risk. In
developing models for such applications, forming models have to
be linked to the probabilistic models of system performance. An
example of such a probabilistic model is the hierarchical Bayesian
model developed for estimating failure risk in hot forging of a
titanium aeroengine disc with hard alpha inclusions, see Section
5.5. An alternative approach is to explicitly model the cause of
failure, such as inclusion or voids, to model their evolution of voids
during processing, and to model their effect on product failure.
Many higher level methods have been developed for modeling
defects such as level set methods and multi-body methods.
Examples of probabilistic design and process reliability in sheet
metal forming control include those of Zhang et al. [235].
4. Property monitoring
A large number of measurement principles is available for the
determination of mechanical properties. Table 2 summarizes
applicable measurement principles and categorizes them according
their capability into in-situ or ofine as well as destructive (DT) or
nondestructive (NDT) specimen testing. A measurement principle is
 A.E. Tekkaya et al. / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 64 (2015) 629653 637

Table 2 with fast data processing, this method is useable for an in-situ
Available measurement methods for mechanical product properties and their
measurement. The same applies to the photometric technique
capability of measurement.
[157]. In contrast, near eld scanning optical microscopy, with a
Property Measurement principle Application Type
lateral resolution better than 80 nm [191] is, based on its
In-situ Ofine DT NDT
Surface White-light interference microscopy X X X
elaborated test setup, only useable ofine [112].
morpho- [40,103]
logy Tactile prolometer [74,136] X X X
4.2. Measurement procedures for microstructures
Photometric technique [157] X X X
Laser triangulation [198] X X X Measurement procedures for microstructures, like the electron
Electronic speckle pattern X X X
interferometry [94,165]
backscatter diffraction (EBSD), are essential for understanding
Near eld scanning optical X X material behavior during a forming process and the resulting
microscopy [94,191] properties. EBSD is founded on the physical principle that
Atomic force microscope [41,86] X X
Micro- Electron backscatter diffraction [81] X X X X
accelerated electrons get characteristically diffracted when
structure Thermal etching [22] X X striking crystallographic planes.
Scanning electron X X EBSD has become a well-established technique in order to
microscope + focused ion beam [87]
Yield and Tensile test [95,221] X X obtain crystallographic information, such as structure and
ultimate Compression test [34,111] X X orientation, from samples. A new method for analyzing micro-
strength Hardness measuring [214] X X X X structure evolution of aluminum during deformation (dynamic
Creep rupture test [135] X X
Shear test [32] X X recrystallization) is presented by Guzel [81]. In this case, the
Plane torsion test [170,230] X X X determination of microstructure serves to estimate the hardness of
Impact test [39,204] X X
nal aluminum proles (see Section 5.1). EBSD itself is a non-
X-ray diffraction [77,99] X X X X
Magneto-inductive testing [42] X X X destructive procedure. However, for analyzing grain structure
Defects Thermography [75,79] X X X evolution, a section needs to be prepared, whereby the procedure
(cracks) Ultrasonic [21,28] X X X
could not be classied as non-destructive.
and damage Radiographic inspections [67] X X X
voids) Vibrometry [110,226] X X X In Fig. 19, the combined conguration of a scanning electron
Acoustic emission [108] X X X microscope (SEM) and a focused ion beam (FIB) for microstructure
Eddy current techniques [233] X X X
analysis is given. This arrangement has the benet that high
Magnetic leakage-ux [210,216] X X X
Observation of micro-sections [126] X X resolution and high contrast can be obtained.
Density measurement [209] X X
Residual X-ray diffraction [16,185] X X X X
stresses Hole drilling [16] X X X
Neutron diffraction [16] X X
Focused acoustic waves [185] X X

categorized as in-situ if process control is feasible without specimen

sampling and if the evaluation time is shorter than the time during
which process parameters change signicantly. For an ofine
measurement, the specimen is sampled and investigated outside
the production line. Hence, the evaluation time can be longer than
the time during which process parameters change [109].
In the following sections, selected new methods of measure-
ment that are signicant for the determination of mechanical
properties in metal formed products will be discussed.
4.1. Measurement principles of surface morphology
Surface morphology is usually determined by mechanical or
optical means. An often-used principle for surface observation,
with a topography resolution between 0.1 nm and 100 mm [74], is
white-light interference microscopy (WLIM). By using chromatic
white light (CWLIM), an inline measurement is possible due to the
omission of the measurement orthogonal to the surface. CWLIM is
a non-destructive method and is based on the evaluation of
different wavelength intensities depending on the surface
topography (Fig. 18).
Another non-destructive principle for surface roughness is laser
triangulation. This technique bears on the measurement of elapsed
time of laser light or the detection of different light intensities due
to reection [198]. As a result of using laser light in combination
Fig. 19. Schematic illustration showing the combined conguration of the SEM and
FIB (left) and an example of observation [87].
4.3. Measurement principles for yield strength
Yield strength measuring procedures are required to charac-
terize new materials or to ensure that properties correlate with the
ones assumed during product dimensioning, respectively.
Due to the fact that the measuring procedure is heavily
dependent on the eld of application, many different measuring
procedures are available. The procedures can be grouped by the
type of load (tension, compression, bending, shearing, and torsion)
and the stress time (quick, steady, abruptly and oscillating). Most
of the procedures are destructive and cannot be used for in-situ
measurements (see Table 2).
An approach to measure the yield strength of cold formed
products locally is using hardness measurements [214]. Fig. 20
shows the determination of the strength of a cold extruded rod.
The hardness values are converted to the strength by

Fig. 20. Measurement of the local strength of a cold extruded product by Vickers
Fig. 18. Schematic of a chromatic-confocal displacement sensor [103]. hardness measurements [214].
638 A.E. Tekkaya et al. / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 64 (2015) 629653
9:81  HV
s f e 0:112
2:475
where HV is the Vickers hardness number and s f is the ow stress
at an offset of strain e = 0.112. This method is ofine and non-
destructive if the strength is measured on the surface of the
product and destructive if measured in the interior.
A recently developed online method based on X-ray diffraction
[77,99] allows the measurement of surface stresses during plastic
deformation. The application of this novel technology as presented
in [78] to a bending process is shown in Fig. 21.
Fig. 21. X-ray diffractometer mounted on the bending machine [78].
Magneto-inductive testing is a NDT procedure for the in-situ
measurement of hardness or UTS. The method is based on the
correlation of electro-magnetic eddy current parameters and
mechanical material characteristics. By the so-called harmonics
analysis, parasitic couplings like temperature can be eliminated.
An example of application is the measurement of the hardness of
press-hardened B-pillow parts [42].
4.4. Measurement principles for defect and damage detection
Several non-destructive techniques are available to detect
defects (cracks) and damage [209] inside a component after the
production process. Vibrometry and acoustic emission are based
on the observation that a defect part has a different acoustic
ngerprint than an undamaged part [108,110]. Both procedures
are basically capable for inline quality assurance. Certainly, due to
external vibrations, examination may have to be conducted
outside the production line (ofine). Another common procedure
to detect defects is the use of micro-sections. Owing to the fact that
the generation is time-consuming and it is a DT procedure, it only
can be used ofine.
In contrast to that, thermography is a non-destructive and non-
contact method to analyze subsurface defects in almost all
materials by detecting emitted infrared radiation. For detecting
defects, the component needs to be thermally activated. In the case
of active thermography, the thermal load is applied by an external
heat source [75], in the case of passive thermography, the heat is
generated due to the conversion of mechanical energy (e.g.,
ultrasonic waves) into thermal energy [79]. Due to the fact that
different materials have various thermal coefcients, which lead to
different heat uxes and subsequently to different surface
temperatures, defects are detectable. In Fig. 22, a schematic test
setup for an active thermography observation is given.
Fig. 22. Test setup for an active thermography observation [9].
Like thermography, ultrasonic testing is a non-destructive
(1)
technique. The procedure is based on the interpretation of
reected ultrasonic waves. For undamaged regions, it is typical
that there is only a front surface and back wall echo. In case of an
existing damage, an additional wave is reected or the back wall
echo is reected earlier. By analyzing several process parameters
also the depth of damage can be deduced. To launch the waves into
a specimen, a coupling medium is almost always required [28]. The
coupling medium can be placed on the surface or the whole
specimen is placed in a liquid [21]. Since it is not always possible to
use a coupling medium, air-coupled varieties have also been
developed [28]. Thereby, the application of ultrasonic testing is
capable for inline measuring [46,88].
Computed-tomography (CT) is a radiographic inspection
principle. Like all radiographic testing, CT is a NDT technique.
This technique relies on the measurement of the intensity of X-
rays, which is affected by the density distribution in a defective
specimen (e.g., aws or cavities). In contrast to conventional X-ray
studies (two-dimensional images) CT compiles a volumetric image
of the specimen [67]. Beside fault detection, CT is also useable for
three-dimensional geometrical form surveying [152]. By using
micro experimental setups, in-situ measurements are feasible
[120]. In the eld of metal forming, the main area of application of
the micro-CT is the characterization of damage evolution and
ductile fracture in terms of identication of nucleation, growth and
coalescence of micro-voids. This technique can be applied either
during the deformation itself in order to track the progression of
damage as it evolves, providing in-situ measurements [120], or
after xed levels of deformation in order to evaluate the
accumulated damage, providing ex-situ measurements [107]. In
both cases, the measurements provide the data for the calibration
of models predicting the material formability.
4.5. Measurement of residual stresses
Due to the fact that a considerable part of the total stresses during
operation are residual stresses, their observation is important. Two
techniques are mostly used. One is the hole-drilling. The principle is,
due to small hole-diameters, a semi-destructive technique [101]. By
drilling a hole in the surface, existing stresses will relax. This
relaxation can be detected using, e.g., strain gauges. As the
deformations are small, this technique requires expertise.
On the other hand, X-ray diffraction (XRD) is an NDT which is
applicable in an industrial environment. To determine residual
stresses by XRD, an X-ray beam is adjusted to the surface. Due to
diffraction on crystallographic planes, the beam is characteristi-
cally reected as a function of the Bragg angle. Differently
orientated planes cause different diffraction patterns on a detector.
By comparing the pattern of an unloaded specimen with that of one
with residual stresses, the value of the residual stresses can be
determined. Likewise, an NDT method is the measurement of
residual stresses by ultrasonic waves (UW) [101]. This method is
based on the fact that the travel time of UW is dependent on the
stress. By knowing the travel time of UW in an unstressed
specimen, changes in the stress level can be determined.
5. Application to forming processes
Products are manufactured in process chains. The nal product
properties are inuenced at the beginning by producing the semi-
nished products such as sheets, wires, and proles. Subsequent
changes of properties occur in component forming processes such
as forging, stamping, and bending. Dependent on the temperature,
the forming processes are divided into thermo-mechanical and
mechanical processes, in which different principles govern the
nal properties.
The following examples cover the controlling and prediction of
hardness, formability, anisotropy, residual stresses, damage, and
electromagnetic properties (Fig. 23). Besides rolling, extrusion and
severe plastic deformation processes to manufacture semi-nished
 A.E. Tekkaya et al. / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 64 (2015) 629653
Fig. 23. Overview of discussed properties and processes.
goods, also the possibilities of forging, stamping, and bending
techniques are summarized to enhance the product quality through
dened product characteristics.
5.1. Product property: Hardness
Beyond the shaping of products, several forming processes are
designed to obtain a predened hardness distribution. The
following examples depict the setting of hardness through
thermo-mechanical processing. In this context, the processes such
as hot forging, thermo-mechanical rolling, hot stamping, and hot
extrusion present the effect of controlled grain size and volume
fractions on mechanical strength properties.
Hardness control in hot forging: The prediction of hardness
and control of microstructure of steel alloys during hot forging
processes has been in the focus of research for decades. Wang et al.
[224] deliver empirical formulae (see Section 3.1) for the
microstructural effects during multi-stage hot forging of micro-
alloyed steel and set them into correlation with the resulting
workpiece hardness. The formulae are incorporated into the
thermo-coupled rigid-plastic FEM code DEFORM-2D. Starting from
an expression for the austenite grain size as a function of forging
temperature and holding time, the volume fraction of ferrite grain
Vf is obtained:
V f 13:6 0:5 mm=Dg  5:5 s=K  u
here Dg is the austenite grain size in mm and u the cooling rate. The
relation between Vickers hardness HV and volume fraction of
ferrite grain is expressed by:
HV 281  103  V f
The complete forging process can be modeled by combining the
FEA with the analytical grain size estimation model for each time
step. Fig. 24 shows the comparison of simulated and experimental
hardness distribution in a workpiece obtained by a four-stage
forging process.
Fig. 24. Hardness (HV) in forged part. Original billet size: 46  64.8 mm [224].
639
Yukawa et al. [232] present a so-called Virtual Laboratory
System (VLS) for the FEM-based calculation of recrystallization
and precipitation behavior as well as the transformation
behavior of steel during forging processes. The strength
distribution of the nal product is predicted. The VLS consists
of different modules covering different aspects of a hot forging
process of medium carbon steel adding the micro alloying
element vanadium. Fig. 25 shows the different VLS modules,
which are based on different thermodynamical and mechanical
equations (see Section 3.3).
Fig. 25. Image chart of VLS modules [232].
The VLS is used for the analysis of a forging process aiming at
manufacturing of graded products that combine high strength and
good machinability. Fig. 26 shows exemplary temperature-time-
courses for the fabrication of graded workpieces.
(2)
(3)
Fig. 26. Examples of forgings with graded strength and controlled forging process to
produce them [232].
Microstructure control in thermo-mechanical rolling: A
process specically designed to control the product especially
microstructural properties, is called thermo-mechanical (TM)
rolling. TM rolling is not only used to obtain the desired nal shape of
the product but is also an important tool to inuence the nal
strength. Important properties that are tailored by the rolling process
are microstructure in terms of grain size and phase composition.
Conventionally, reheating and quenching are employed used after
hot rolling to obtain the nal product properties. TM rolling aims at
achieving the nal product properties during hot rolling, circum-
venting further processing. The microstructure is very sensitive to
the process parameters, and thus understanding and controlling the
inuence of the process parameters, hence, is crucial for obtaining
the desired product properties [158].
A typical TM rolling setup consists of a reheating furnace, a
reversing roughing mill, a nishing mill, a runout table for laminar
640 A.E. Tekkaya et al. / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 64 (2015) 629653

Table 3
Measured ferrite grain size after thermo-mechanical hot rolling for different stand
numbers and nishing temperatures [197].

Number of stands Measured ferrite grain size in mm for different

nishing temperatures

750 8C 800 8C 850 8C

6 18.9 11.4 12.1

5 14.5 9.1 8.6
4 8.25 6.43 7.13

cooling, and, nally, a down coiler. To illustrate the enormous

possibilities for varying the process parameters (rolling schedule,
cooling temperatures and rates, etc.) the process chain to manufac-
ture a crash box starting with the nishing mill is shown in
Fig. 28. The mechanical property control is mainly achieved in the
nishing mill and by laminar cooling afterwards. The inuence of
both will now briey be discussed on the basis of two case studies.
The abilities of subsequent combined cold rolling and continuous
annealing processes to generate nal properties will be shown
afterwards.
The effect of thermo-mechanical hot rolling compared to
Fig. 29. Micrographs for (a) conventional hot rolling with 6 stands and TM
conventional rolling was investigated by Shahtout et al. [197] for
controlled hot rolling with 4 stands for (b) 850 8C, (c) 800 8C and (d) 750 8C nishing
ten different rolling schedules with regard to the nal microstruc- temperature [197].
ture of high strength, low carbon micro-alloyed steel (see Table 3).
The effect of the laminar cooling was studied by Sha et al. [196] microstructure, as clearly visible in Fig. 29. According to the Hall-
using a low-carbon strip steel. The authors kept all process Petch relation, the corresponding strength alters for the four-stand
parameters constant while varying the coiling temperature. The schedules from 603 MPa (750 8C) to 632 MPa (800 8C) and up to
nishing mill delivery temperature was around 870 8C and the time 618 MPa (850 8C) [197].
for laminar cooling was 17.7 s yielding different cooling rates for all The semi-empirical models (see Section 3.1) used by Sha et al.
three cases. accurately predict properties like the volume fraction of phases or
Increasing cooling rates lead to decreased ferrite volume fractions the average grain sizes. On this basis, furthermore, an estimation of
owing to a much faster phase transformation from austenite to mechanical properties, like tensile strength or elongation, is
ferrite (Table 4 and Fig. 27). The prediction by the used fast semi- achieved [196].
empirical model is in good agreement with the measurements, too. Microstructure control during nishing operations: Beyond
hot rolling, important product properties are also tailored during the
Table 4 combined cold rolling-continuous annealing sequence. This se-
Cooling rate (CR), cooling temperature (CT), and measured volume fraction for
quence allows controlling phase composition and inuencing
ferrite and pearlite as presented in [196].
product quality. AHSS are a spectacular example of improvement
CR in K/s CT in 8C Ferrite vol. frac. Pearlite vol. of properties by control of phase transformations [97]. These steels
in % frac. in %
are subject to complex thermal cycles which give a combination of
Meas Sim Meas Sim the soft ferrite and hard constituents (bainite, martensite, retained
(a) 10.5 680 87.3 85.5 12.7 14.5 austenite). There are still possibilities of improvement of these steels
(b) 13.5 625 84.7 84.6 15.3 15.4 by control of morphology and composition of hard constituents.
(c) 18.7 540 82.9 82.5 17.1 17.5
Modeling of manufacturing and exploitation of an automotive part
(crash box) was selected to demonstrate capabilities of multi-scale
modeling in prediction of product properties (Fig. 28). Parameters
transferred between operations are: austenite grain size, ow stress,
strain, ferrite and martensite volume fractions. Control of properties
in the hot part is described previously and modeling of this process
can be found in [118]. The results of modeling of nal operations of
cold rolling, continuous annealing, and stamping are presented
below together with the results of simulations of crash test.
FE was used for macro scale and CA for micro scale analysis, see
Section 3.4. Modeling started with generation of the ferritic-pearlitic
Fig. 27. Microstructure of the nal product for different cooling rates before the microstructure after hot rolling. Here, the idea of the representative
nishing mill [196]. volume element (RVE) was used (1 in Fig. 30). This element was
deformed in cold rolling. FE mesh reproduced grain structure and
The number of stands has signicant inuence on the local accumulation of the energy of deformation was calculated.
microstructure. Using less stands decreases the grain size in all These data were transferred to the CA model, which simulated
cases due to increased strains and, therefore, promotes recrystalli- ferrite recrystallization (2 in Fig. 30) [129] followed by phase
zation in every pass. In the later passes, precipitates of micro-- transformation (3 in Fig. 30) [84] during heating in the continuous
alloying elements hinder grain growth, resulting in a ne-grained annealing. Ferrite-austenite microstructure was calculated,

Fig. 28. Typical process steps for thermo-mechanical hot rolling followed by cold rolling, continuous annealing and manufacturing of nal product.
 A.E. Tekkaya et al. / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 64 (2015) 629653
Fig. 30. Multi-scale modeling of the manufacturing cycle of AHSS products for
automotive industry [84,129].
including non-uniform carbon distribution in the austenite in the
intercritical temperature. These data were the input for the CA
model for the phase transformation during cooling (4 in Fig. 30).
The model predicted ferritic-martensitic microstructure as well as
carbon distribution in the martensite. Local carbon concentration
in the martensite allowed calculating the distribution of the ow
stress in this phase.
The RVE with the microstructure after continuous annealing
was attached to the FE code, which simulated the stamping process
and crash tests of the nal product (Fig. 31). The relation between
microstructure (volume fraction and morphology of phases and
properties of martensite) and capability of steel to accommodate
energy of deformation was evaluated. Accounting for the local
hardening during stamping and crash test improved the agreement
of predictions with experimental data for energy accumulation.
Fig. 31. Manufacturing of AHSS products for automotive industry.
Tailored hardening in hot stamping: Hot stamping is an
established manufacturing process to adjust the hardness of nal
products [105]. Direct and indirect hot stamping are the two main
process variants to manufacture high-hardness parts such as
safety-relevant components like the B-pillar (Fig. 32). The direct
hot stamping process consists of three steps.
Firstly, an aluminum-silicon-coated blank of boron-manganese
steel 22MnB5 is austenitized in a roller hearth furnace by conduction
or by induction [115]. Afterwards, the heated sheet is transferred to
the forming press, in which it is formed and quenched simulta-
neously. If the cooling rate of the boron-manganese steel is higher
than 27 K/s, a martensitic microstructure [142] with a hardness of
641
Fig. 32. Direct (a) and indirect (b) hot stamping process [145].
470 HV (1500 MPa) develops out of the soft raw material (170 HV,
600 MPa) [19]. Since the forming operation takes place at the
elevated temperatures, also forming limits are increased, while
springback is reduced, additionally. Finally, the component is cut to
its nal geometry. Within the indirect process, the component is
formed in cold condition to 90 % of its end shape rst. Afterward, the
conventional hot stamping is performed, in which the forming of the
last 10% to the nal geometry takes place [154].
Because of the poor ductility of 5% to 6% of hot stamped
components, extensive efforts are made to produce components
with locally adjusted hardness complying with the requirements
of a good crash-performance regarding structural integrity and
energy absorption [146]. One solution is to manufacture tailored
welded blanks or intrinsic tailored blanks.
Tailored welded blanks include a welding step before the
conventional hot stamping process to produce a blank out of two
different materials [119]. A characteristic is the sharp gradient of
hardness between the different steel grades, which can also be
associated with negative effects like notching under certain load
paths. If HSLA-steel is combined with boron steel, complex
stamping products with a locally high degree of deformation are
achievable [29]. Nevertheless, due to the thermal expansion and
phase transformation a sequence of tension, compression and
tension while quenching occurs, whereby inhomogeneous residual
stresses and a complex springback behavior result. In order to
predict the nal geometry after cooling and unloading, a numerical
analysis with coupled thermo-mechanical-metallurgical effects is
suitable to map the stress-strain state in the press hardening
process. Based on this model, the stress-strain state during phase
transformation and cooling can nally be adapted through
adjustment of the temperature-time history [29].
The concept of intrinsic tailored blanks is the adjustment of
mechanical properties by inuencing the time-temperature prole,
leading to the development of different microstructures within the
sheet. The change in the time-temperature prole can be done
before, during, or after the hot stamping process [181]. Partial
austenitization strategies of the blank take place before the hot
stamping process. Thereby, the sheet is heated above Ac3 tempera-
ture in certain regions where martensitic transformation should
occur, while the other regions are kept below Ac3 temperature to
prevent martensitic microstructure development resulting in lower
hardness but higher ductility. During the hot stamping process, the
mechanical properties are adjusted by controlling the cooling
conditions of the sheet with a locally heated tool [18]. According to
Newtons cooling law, a smaller temperature difference between the
tool and the blank results in lower cooling rates and in a different
microstructure development. Additionally, small gaps between the
tool and the blank surface lead to hot spots, which are slowing down
the cooling speed of the component, inuencing the microstructure
development, too [146].
Finally, an annealing operation after the conventional hot
stamping process of the structural part is possible. The annealing
process is promising regarding adjustment and controllability, but
distortion of the component is possible and also an additional
process step is needed [237]. All intrinsic strategies will result in a
gradient of hardness of different extent between the different
treated zones because of the inner heat conduction, which should be
642 A.E. Tekkaya et al. / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 64 (2015) 629653
considered during dimensioning of the component. As an advantage,
the notch effect of the weld seam of tailored welded blanks is
avoided. Depending on the strategy, different tensile strengths and
elongations are adjustable, as shown exemplarily in Fig. 33.
Fig. 33. Resulting mechanical properties in dependency of process strategy and
used process parameter settings [143].
Prediction of hardness in hot extrusion: In hot forward
extrusion of aluminum alloys with secondary quenching, the
process parameters such as extrusion ratio, punch speed, and
temperature control the balance between the main forming
mechanisms strain hardening and thermal softening [65]. Due
to the complex characteristics, the recrystallization has been in the
focus of several investigations [37,69]. The renement of grains
and deformation induced subgrains regulate nally the hardness of
the product. Guzel et al. investigated the dynamic grain structure
evolution of EN AW-6082 alloy experimentally and numerically
[81]. Obtained EBSD maps positioned on a ow path show the
alternation of boundary misorientations besides the reduction of
grain and subgrain sizes (Fig. 34a). The microstructure evolution
results from a dynamic equilibrium, whereupon the continuous
and geometric recrystallization softens the material in conse-
quence to the poor nucleation of new grains and the low effect of
discontinuous dynamic recrystallization [49,183]. The EBSD
analysis shows, on each position aside from the initial state, the
development of low angle grain boundaries beside in ow
direction elongated grains. Other EBSD analyses show that both
grain and subgrain size decrease for accumulating deformation,
while the low angle boundaries are stagnating and high angle
boundaries are rising. The mechanism for grain renement is
directly linked to the deformation driven high angle boundaries.
To predict and control microstructural parameters, the
simulated state-dependent variables are lled in relation laws.
Sellars and Zhu [192] and Velay [219] described microstructural
parameters in correlation to plastic strain and the temperature
compensated Zener-Hollomon parameter. Thereby, an advanced
thermo-mechanical coupled simulation delivers the misorienta-
tions, grain and subgrain sizes in addition to state-dependent
variables. With empirical equations, a connection between the
hardness and the process parameters is drawn, see Section 3.2.
Fig. 34b shows the grain and subgrain size as a function of
equivalent plastic strains, whereupon increasing strains lead to a
ner structure. After passing the orice, a coarsening of grains due to
static recrystallization is avoided by quenching [100]. Fig. 34c shows
the Vickers hardness dependent on the subgrain size. To adjust the
Fig. 34. (a) Analyzed microstructure by EBSD along a steady state ow line. (b) Computed grain and subgrain size over the equivalent plastic strain. (c) Vickers hardness
measurement over subgrain size [81].
hardness and the subordinated yield or ultimate tensile strength,
parameters like the temperatures and the punch speed represent
simple actuating variables. In consequence to an actuating variable,
the balance between strain-induced hardening and temperature-
time dependent softening as the nal material properties is
regulated. In addition to the hardness prediction, recent investiga-
tions focused on the numerical simulations enhance the accuracy
[113], allow the weld prediction [76], and determine the grain size
distribution [187].
5.2. Product property: Formability
In general, an increased hardness is accompanied by a reduced
formability, as the previous thermo-mechanical processes
revealed. With the objective of high ductility and strength at
the same time, severe plastic deformation (SPD) processes are of
great importance [15]. The examples of equal channel angular
pressing (ECAP), continuous bending drawing (CBD), and accumu-
lative roll bonding (ARB), make the signicant inuence of grain
renement on ductility visible.
Control of formability in hot extrusion: The hot forward
extrusion with integrated ECAP is used to recycle and shape
aluminum chips to proles with high quality mechanical properties
in one step [82]. ECAP is a variant of the group of SPD processes,
which enables a grain renement with grain sizes below 1 mm
through strong shear strains [15]. Extremely positive effects occur
when ECAP is used in chip extrusion because a reliable solid state
bonding of the chips is ensured. A feature of the ECAP extrusion is the
multiple deection of the chip based material with an upstream
rising hydrostatic pressure, which is caused by the huge amount of
shearing at every ECAP turn (Fig. 35). This high backpressure and the
repeating shear strains allow dened bonding although low
extrusion ratios are used.
Fig. 35. Hot extrusion of chip-based billets with different dies [82].
To control product properties, e.g., ductility, hardness, or
strength, the process combination of forward extrusion and equal
channel angular pressing can be modied by the sequence,
numbers, and angles of deection, respectively.
Haase et al. [82] investigated the combined extrusion and ECAP
of cast and chip-based billets with at-face, porthole, and ECAP
dies (Fig. 35). In addition to the four times redirecting ECAP die,
several modications with variable angles and numbers of
deections, an inverse sequence and varying channel areas are
imaginable, which allow multiple variations to control micro-
structure evolution. In every ECAP turn, an additional plastic strain
is imposed, which can be calculated to etot  0.9 by using the upper
 A.E. Tekkaya et al. / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 64 (2015) 629653
bound method according to Eivani and Karimi for an ECAP turn
angle of 908 and friction factor m = 1 [53]. As Fig. 36 shows, the
ECAP extruded specimen reach a superior ductility for chip-based
billets, which is 71% higher in comparison to at-face extruded
specimens. Nevertheless, the strength of all extrusions is on similar
levels and not inuenced by secondary parameters like tempera-
ture or ram speed. In relation to the hardness, no correlation to the
tensile test results can be obtained. Further measurements
demonstrate that the micro hardness intensely alternates with
the inhomogeneous microstructure.
Fig. 36. Tensile test results of extrudates fabricated with different extrusion dies [83].
Paydar et al. [161,162] investigated the integration of ECAP
upstream and downstream of forward extrusion, whereby an
alternating ductility of the pure aluminum resulted.
Tailored sheet metals by use of accumulative roll bonding:
Accumulative roll bonding (ARB) belongs to the group of SPD
processes [182]. The key idea of this processing strategy similar to
cladding is the production of multi-layered sheet metal with a
nanocrystalline grain structure. In Fig. 37a, the processing strategy
is illustrated. Following a surface treatment for removing the oxide
layer and to roughen the surface, the stacked sheets are joined in a
rolling operation. These steps are carried out several times until a
certain number of layers and specic product properties are
achieved, respectively. Huge shear deformations can be accumu-
lated in the sheets during the rolling cycles. In general, an
enhanced strength can be obtained due to work hardening and an
increased dislocation density on the one hand and a reduced grain
size on the other hand. The nal properties depend, in particular,
on the thickness reduction and the rolling temperature. Grain size
and recrystallization effects, work hardening, and the bond
strength are directly inuenced by these two parameters.
Fig. 37b shows the change of strength and elongation of two
aluminum alloys with total equivalent strain etn, which is given by
Eq. (4). In this equation n is the number of ARB cycles, h0 is the
thickness of the initial specimen and hn is the thickness of the
specimen after n cycles, [123].
!
2 2n1 h0
etn p ln (4)
3 hn
Fig. 37. (a) Scheme of the Accumulative Roll Bonding and a local heat treatment
[182]. (b) Changes in mechanical values of 1100 pure aluminum and 6061 alloy
with total equivalent strain in the ARB process [123].
643
Amongst others, the ARB process can be applied to different
aluminum alloys, titanium, copper, and steel. Moreover, the ARB
process allows the combination of different metals or alloys such
as the 5000 and 6000 series aluminum [90] and tailored alloying by
means of particles such as copper between the different layers
[188].
Regarding 6000 series aluminum alloys, there is a signicant
loss in ductility accompanying the increased strength. In this
context, the Tailored Heat Treated Blanks (THTB) technology
[222] was applied to nanocrystalline aluminum in order to locally
regain the ductility and enhance the formability of the blank using
a local short term heat treatment [144]. For nanocrystalline
6000 series aluminum besides the well-known dissolution of the
precipitates, there is another softening effect, namely local
recrystallization [133]. The combination of ARB and THTB allows
the production of tailored sheet metal with a specic layer
structure and property distribution optimized for the subsequent
forming process and the nal product properties. In this
connection, property gradients in thickness direction and over
the plane can be created. For the prediction of the properties after
the roll bonding process, the FE simulation with a multi-scale
approach (see Section 3.4) is used [189]. Concerning the design of
subsequent forming processes, the Hill90 criterion was identied
as an applicable approach for modeling the mechanical behavior
of ARB processed AA6016 [141].
Control of elongation through continuous bending drawing:
Yanagimoto et al. [228] introduce a new method for the
manufacturing of ultrane electric wire called continuous bending
drawing (CBD). Wires with diameters less than 0.3 mm combined
with excellent electrical and mechanical properties are more and
more requested by the automotive industry. The proposed process
combines an SPD process (see [15]) and a draw bending process,
allowing for the control of formability and strength by plastic
deformation induced in different loading directions.
Fig. 38 shows a schematic of the process. In order to control
the bending radius at the last stand, the positions of the dies A, B,
and C are exible.
Fig. 38. Continuous bending drawing (CBD) process [228].
During the CBD process, a deformation induced softening can
be observed, depending on the equivalent bending strain ebending:
ebending ln1 da =Rn  1 db =Rn (5)
here Rn stands for the curvature radius of a neutral plane of the
wire specimen and da and db are the radii of the specimen during
bending and unbending. An increase of ebending leads to an increase
of the formability and a signicant decrease of the ow stress,
compare Fig. 39.
Thermal effects can be excluded as a reason for the softening. A
qualitative explanation of the observed phenomenon is based on
grain and dislocation structures of the material. Unlike during
general plastic deformation, no sub-boundaries may be formed
[85], but many incidental dislocation boundaries (IDBs) penetrate
the elongated grains. The grains become elongated and the
intervals between the IDBs increase. During draw-bending, the
grains and dislocations are subject to compressive/tensile or
tensile/compressive stresses in the longitudinal direction. The
residual drawing stress may be reduced rapidly during reverse
loading, resembling the Bauschinger effect observed in conven-
tional cold forming, see Fig. 40, [228].
644 A.E. Tekkaya et al. / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 64 (2015) 629653
Fig. 39. Nominal stress-strain curves of Cu-0.3 wt%Sn alloy CBD specimens
processes at equivalent bending strains (according to [228]). WD = wire drawing.
Fig. 40. Appearance of grain subdivision due to plastic deformation. (a) General
plastic deformation. (b) Combined wire drawing and draw-bending process, [228].
5.3. Product property: Anisotropy
The anisotropy has an inuence on mechanical properties
(Section 2.6) and is important for both the quality assurance of
nished products and the defect-free forming. The following
examples give a detailed insight of controlling textures in rolling
and forging in order to enhance the functional characteristics.
In the already mentioned ARB, besides strength and ductility,
there is also a shift regarding the texture. The products reveal a
strong texture with grains elongated in rolling direction and,
furthermore, there are texture gradients in thickness direction due
to repeated stacking. The lattice structure and the relation of r0, r45,
and r90 change during the ARB cycles. With respect to thinning of
the material in a deep drawing process, the sheets with higher
number of ARB cycles are advantageous. In contrast, low-cycle
sheets tend to show less earing [202].
Texture control in rolling: Rolling is one effective instrument to
inuence the nal texture, which is signicant in most sheet forming
processes to control the forming limits. The texture development
within a process chain is inuenced by the forming conditions, i.e.,
the temperature and strain, applied to a certain material. Every
process step like casting, rolling, and heat treatment leads to a
specic texture based on the process conditions and, therefore,
affects the nal product properties in a way that cannot be described
by isotropic concepts like ow stress or a macroscopic failure
criterion. A typical experiment incorporating the anisotropy of
rolled material is cup drawing with earing. Several models (e.g.,
Taylor model, self-consistent method, crystal plasticity FEM) have
been developed to cover this effect (compare Section 3) [17].
The major impact on the texture development during hot
rolling is temperature and strain [150]. Fig. 41 shows the inverse
Fig. 41. Inverse pole gures in the core of a 430 stainless steel for different
temperatures by thermo-mechanical compression. Given intensities are in multiple
of random distribution [150].
pole gures of a stainless-steel hot strip sample in a thermo-
mechanical plane strain compression test representing different
nishing delivery temperatures during hot rolling in a tandem mill.
It is obvious that different temperatures result in different
textures. The scope of this study was to control the ridging
phenomena, i.e., a surface defect in rolling direction. Here, lower
nishing temperatures results in lower ridging height.
To consider the inuence of different strain states within the
roll gap on texture, the rolling schedule has to be taken into
account. Especially the shear prole depends on the geometry of
the roll gap [195]. Fig. 42 shows the shear prole in the roll gap for
different initial thicknesses.
Fig. 42. Grid distortion and net shear strain through the roll gap for thick plate
(400 mm, 20% reduction) and thin plate (10 mm, 20% reduction)[195].
Consequently, the properties of a rolled product are not only
determined by the rolled nal geometry but also by the rolling
schedule and the resulting texture.
Control of anisotropy in aluminum sheet production:
Standard beverage can bodies are made from aluminum sheets
by a sequence of drawing processes. The efcient material usage is
signicantly inuenced by the anisotropy of the sheet material
since possibly occurring earing tips have to be clipped off. The
amount of earing is controlled by the texture in the hot strip and by
the degree of successive cold working [55].
Minimal earing after cold rolling can be achieved by an optimum
combination of strength of the initial cube texture and rolling
reduction. With a visco-plastic self-consistent polycrystal-plasticity
earing model (see Section 3.3), a very accurate prediction of the cup
height prole is possible, see Fig. 43d and e. The model also captures
the transformation from 08/908 earing to 458 earing at approx. 85%.
The analysis consists of FEM computations, which are used to analyze
the evolution of stresses and strains during the drawing process. The
idealized stress/strain history is imposed on the textured material at
different angles. The earing proles are then computed from the
variations in radial elongation under different in-plane angles [56].
Inuence of ber ow on static and dynamic properties of
forged steel components: Another process example to control the
textured mechanical properties is forging of steel. The mechanical
properties of forged steel parts are regarded as advantageous
compared with workpieces manufactured by machining or casting
due to an uninterrupted ber ow, which follows the surface
contour in forged components. Schuster et al. prove that stretched
manganese sulphides (MnS) are responsible for the ber ow in
 A.E. Tekkaya et al. / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 64 (2015) 629653
Fig. 43. Rolling of aluminum EN AW-3104 (H19). (a) Aluminum beverage cans. (b)
Distinct earing. (c) Reduced earing. (d) Measured earing prole with cold rolling
direction (RD). (e) Simulated values. [59,92,156].
sulfur-containing steels [190]. The shape and orientation of MnS
has a strong inuence on the impact toughness. The crack
propagation in longitudinal impact toughness samples runs
perpendicular to stretched MnS and requires much energy
whereas the energy consumption of crack propagation along
elongated MnS is much lower.
Schuster et al. dened a factor of anisotropy AK according to
Eq. (6), exposing the dependency of the notch impact energy on
strain during cold upsetting and on the shape of MnS [190].
KV l
AK (6)
KV t
KVl represents the measured impact energy of impact
toughness samples oriented in rolling (longitudinal) or upsetting
direction and KVt the impact energy transverse to these directions.
Fig. 44 shows that an increase of the strain leads to a decrease of KVl
while KVt changes only little, resulting in a lower value of AK in cold
upset workpieces compared to rolled material.
Fig. 44. Dependency of notch impact energy and factor of anisotropy on strain [190].
After cold upsetting, MnSs are completely crushed and
reshaped, their inuence on the fracture behavior is overlain by
attened grains of the steel microstructure (Fig. 45).
Fig. 45. Fracture surfaces of tested notch impact samples of 16MnCr5 at w = 0 (a and
b) and w = 0.75 (c and d). Longitudinal (a and c) and transverse oriented samples (b
and d). [190].
645
In hot forged parts, attened MnS with a very small nose radius
can be responsible for crack initiation between the component and
its burr, as shown in [173]. By the example of a common rail, the
detrimental effect of extreme attening of MnS under high strain is
visible, Fig. 46. If the pressure in the rail rises, cracks form along the
MnS leading to damage. The potential formation of attened MnS
in regions with elevated stress levels should be avoided and
considered during design of components.
Fig. 46. Detail of a common rail (a), orientation of MnS (b) and shape of MnS (c) [190].
5.4. Product property: Residual stresses
Residual stresses result from inhomogeneous plastic deforma-
tion over the cross-section of the formed workpiece. Their impact
can be both positive and negative. On the one hand, they can lead
to distortions or even failure when superposed by a service load
[121]. On the other hand, compressive stresses at the surface have
a positive effect on the fatigue behavior of cold forged parts
[96]. Cold forming processes are particularly suitable for setting of
different residual stress states.
Control of residual stresses in cold forming processes: In
processes such as reducing, forward rod extrusion, or wire
drawing, residual stresses can be controlled via the strain,
geometric parameters (e.g., die angle a), and stiffness of the tools,
friction, and material characteristics [212].
Figs. 47 and 48 show that the residual stresses induced by the
extrusion process are reduced by the small plastic deformation of the
ejection stage. As shown in Fig. 49, the stiffness of the die inuences
the degree of reduction of the induced residual stresses [212].
Fig. 47. Residual stresses during extrusion [211].
Fig. 48. Residual stresses during ejection [211].
646 A.E. Tekkaya et al. / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 64 (2015) 629653
Fig. 49. Inuence of the die stiffness on axial residual stresses during cold extrusion
[211].
5.5. Product property: Damage
Damage accumulates with progressing cold plastic deformation
in manufactured parts. This damage affects the service properties
such as fatigue strength, static strength, and yield strength.
Especially those defects which cannot be easily identied by non-
destructive testing should be avoided to prevent failure during the
service life of the product. In the following, exemplary processes
are presented in which defects are inhibited by a modication of
the stress state, implemented by innovative tooling concepts. The
damage accumulation in the interior of a bulk metal part and on
the surface of a bent sheet were reduced.
Damage reduction in cold forward extrusion: Material failure
in the form of holes or cracks occur in cold forward extrusion when
a critical point of damage is exceeded. These main defects are
observed on the surface (snake-skin or r-tree) or within an
extruded part (chevron cracks or central bursts) depending on the
process parameters such as reduction in area, die semi-cone angle,
friction at the die and workpiece interface, working temperature,
material ductility, etc. [203].
Although the surface cracks can be detected directly by
standard surface inspection, the internal cracks require additional
investigations, such as nondestructive ultrasonic testing. Inter-
nally occurring arrow-shaped central cracks result in a decrease in
the load carrying capacity of the product. To investigate central
crack formation mechanisms, several studies including experi-
mental, analytical, and numerical methods were conducted
[11,12,236]. These studies reveal that the positive triaxial stress
state at the area reduction zone promotes the crack formation
during plastic ow. Although low area reductions using high
semi-cone angles enhance central damage accumulation, the
friction motivates surface, rather than central, damage accumu-
lation [203]. Without promoting the surface damage, super-
imposed hydrostatic pressure can be applied to modify the
damage coupled plastic behavior of the material. While the effect
of superimposed hydrostatic pressure differs with respect to
material characteristics, it has been generally accepted that
increased ductility and delay in nucleation, growth, and coales-
cence mechanisms for microvoids are gained utilities [61,164].
For certain die geometries and process parameters, the
hydrostatic compression can be achieved by employing counter
pressure at the extruded nose part of the workpiece. The
experimental studies of [223] show that the application of counter
pressure promotes material formability in extrusion so that it
becomes possible to extrude even relatively brittle materials. Fig. 50
shows the calculated damage accumulation of an extruded part with
consideration of friction, whereby a minimum counter pressure to
avoid fractures could be determined [203]. Here, a counter pressure
above 125 MPa was sufcient to decrease the damage accumulation
below the critical value of 0.27 and avoid cracks. Counter pressure
can be applied not only for the hindrance of the central crack but also
for the reduction of damage accumulated in the product in order to
increase further product life in service.
Fig. 50. Effect of counter pressure on damage with consideration of friction
(m = 0.04) [203].
Damage reduction in bending process: Experiments show
that damage development in bending of modern alloys and
polycrystals usually is motivated by intense strain localization at
the free convex surface. Cracks initiate in the form of orange peels
and lead to gradually growing undulations parallel to the bend
axis [47]. As before, the Bridgmans nding of higher ductility and
delay in nucleation achieved by superimposed hydrostatic
pressure allows the usage of compliant tools (e.g., PVC, PUR) for
extended process limits. Application of additional controlled
compression over the outer surface of a bent material with a
counterholder lowers the circumferential stress at the outermost
ber of the material. Fig. 51 shows the damage according to
Lemaitre in air bending, which is signicantly reduced by
counterpressure through elastomer tools [35]. Consequently,
the fracture is prevented unlike in conventional bending
processes [186]. The superposition of hydrostatic pressure can
inhibit cracking during working of brittle materials [172].
Fig. 51. Numerical analysis of damage evolution in air bending without and with
elastomer-tool [35].
This additional hydrostatic pressure makes all the principal
stresses more compressive and hence reduces the tensile stresses
below the critical value for cracking [33]. On the basis of this
principle, an adjustment of the hardness of the elastomer
counterholder is possible in order to control the superimposed
stresses and to avoid crack occurence [36].
Modeling of damage during forging: An FEM based modeling
approach which relates the process conditions during forging of
titanium aeroengine disks to the mechanics of melt related failure
(hard-alpha inclusions) is presented in [199]. The whole process
chain from the billet to the nal product is represented in a
numerical framework, and the inuence of each single forming
step on the nal material properties and the risk for failure (see
Section 3.5) can be visualized and optimized regarding maximized
durability, Fig. 52. An appropriate selection of process parameters
and design of the forging sequence can signicantly reduce the
failure risk [4].
A variance-based Bayesian hierarchical modeling approach (see
Section 3.5) of a hot bar rolling process is presented in [5]. This
 A.E. Tekkaya et al. / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 64 (2015) 629653
Fig. 52. Micro-modeling based approach to access product life [199].
model allows the online control of material properties that affect
surface defect formation in hot strip mills.
5.6. Product property: Electromagnetic properties
Electromagnetic properties such as magnetic ux density B and
core losses W are important parameters of electrical steels. For a
high effectiveness of electrical machinery cores, high B-values and
low W values are aimed at. These electromagnetic material
properties are determined by the microstructure (grain size and
texture), and thus, can be controlled by suitable forming processes,
e.g., rolling operations.
In most cases, grain sizes between 80 and 120 mm and u- and h-
bers are desirable, while a-, a*- and g-bers result in unfavorable
magnetic properties. For non-grain orientated (NO) electrical
steels with high silicon content (no phase transformation), Sidor
et al. [201] showed that the whole production chain, including slab
reheating, hot rolling, cold rolling, and nal recrystallization (RX),
annealing affect the microstructure.
In this investigation, electrical steel was hot rolled with
different nishing temperatures, then cold-rolled and annealed.
The different rolling conditions inuence the hot rolled state as
well as the properties after cold rolling and annealing. Fig. 53
shows the texture in the annealed state for 3.0 wt.% Si steel. In (a)
the coiling temperature after hot rolling was 860 8C, while in (b)
the temperature was 820 8C. Both texture and grain size (61 mm in
(a) and 31 mm in (b)) differ, although, after hot rolling, the same
cold rolling and annealing conditions were applied. On the basis of
the microstructure properties the magnetic properties were
calculated. For this calculation, the quality of texture is described
by the minimum angle Au(g) between the applied eld and the
closest h1 0 0i direction of the crystal. The calculated values for B50
are similar, but the core losses W15/50 differ by approximately 10%,
with 3.70 W/kg for (a) and 4.00 W/kg for (b).
Fig. 53. Inverse pole gure of 3.0 wt.% Si steel after cold rolling and annealing. (a)
Coiling temperature 860 8C. (b) 820 8C [201].
Similar results are shown by Lee et al. [122]. Cold rolling was
performed in hot rolling direction and rotated by 908 to achieve
different hot rolling textures. The texture was expressed by the
anisotropy parameter Ah ~ and correlated to the measured
magnetic properties. The results show that an increasing
anisotropy parameter Ah ~ results in decreasing magnetic ux
density and increasing core losses (Fig. 54).
647
Fig. 54. Magnetic ux density B50 (a) and core loss W15/50 (b) as function of
~ [122].
anisotropy parameter Ah
6. Integration of manufacturing-induced properties in product
design
Metal forming technologies have inherent potentials for
innovative products based on the product properties which are
signicantly inuenced or modied during manufacturing process-
es by specic technologies (manufacturing-induced properties)
[72]. Therefore, aside from the geometric properties, that are usually
targeted in the design process, the microscopic and material
properties need to be focused on as well to tap the full technological
potential. Hence, one of the central challenges is to integrate these
properties systematically into the product development process.
6.1. Classical product development and design approaches
Classical product development and design approaches, e.g., Pahl
and Beitz [60], VDI recommendation 2221 [218] and axiomatic
design [205], recommend a stepwise procedure, starting from a
product idea and the customer needs. Therefore, they are principally
market-pull-oriented and do not include many aspects of a
technology-push.
Axiomatic design: Axiomatic design theory and methods focus,
like other classical product design approaches, on meeting the
customer needs by providing the product function. The designers
task is described as a structured mapping over four dimensions
between what we want to achieve and how we want to achieve
it. As shown in Fig. 55, manufacturing technologies are considered
within the process domain, i.e., the last of the four domains. After
the design parameters are chosen, appropriate manufacturing issues
are considered in terms of process variables [205,206]. Modications
of the design parameters, based on specic manufacturing
technology aspects, can be performed by iterations. The physical
domain comprises a group of design parameters (Fig. 55 highlight
(a)) that is achievable by geometric product design and can be
manipulated in manufacturing by conventional process control.
Further design parameters (Fig. 55, highlight (b)) are linked to
material properties, especially to material property variation. Their
provision requires a monitoring and process control of material
properties. There is an underestimated need to focus on these design
parameters. Dening an appropriate set of adjustable parameters
allows to meet all functional requirements in a one-to-one mapping
without exceptions.
VDI 2221: The recommended design process of VDI 2221 is
structured in the phases of clarication of the task, conceptual
Fig. 55. Four domains in axiomatic design [205].
648 A.E. Tekkaya et al. / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 64 (2015) 629653
design, embodiment, and detail design (see Fig. 56). As a basis for
innovative and successful products, the early phases, especially the
clarication of the task and the conceptual design phase, have to be
intensied [52].
Fig. 56. Iterations of Design for Manufacturing (DfM) in the product design process
of VDI 2221 according to [72].
Important decisions are made in these phases, that inuence the
functionality, the costs, and the quality of the product. Because the
focus is placed on the product function, the nal conceptual design is
only marginally affected by the manufacturing. Manufacturing
technology aspects and information about the achievable product
properties are incorporated only in later stages of the product design
process, i.e., in the embodiment and the detail design [70,72]. Here,
the manufacturing technologies are considered in terms of design
rules and guidelines [60,177].
Design for Manufacturing: The basic idea of Design for
Manufacturing (DfM), including also Design for Forming [8], is to
feedback and to integrate information about the manufacturing
technologies into the product design process. It must be carefully
noted that this approach adapts the design process for easy
manufacturing and not for deterministic superior product proper-
ties. Therefore, the manufacturing processes should be linked to the
product design process. Reducing manufacturing time and costs as
well as time-to-market constitute the targeted objectives of DfM.
Thereby, the quality characteristics depending on manufacturing
have to be ensured [60,140].
As shown in Fig. 56, DfM result in time consuming iterations
that mainly affect the detail design and sometimes the embodi-
ment design. The effect on determining the conceptual design is
usually irrelevant [72].
A huge number of rules [60], guidelines [30], design references
[177], advices and tools [140] exists in the literature. They support
designers to generate a manufacturing-compliant solution. For
example, DfM guidelines place emphasis on issues like process
limits, advantageous part geometries, machine capabilities, energy
consumption as well as ecological aspects.
6.2. New manufacturing integrated design approaches
New product design approaches proposed by [72] expand
existing approaches with special focus on the manufacturing
technologies. The objective is to incorporate and to integrate the
specic manufacturing-induced properties including the mechani-
cal properties into the design process systematically. They use
the characterization of manufacturing technologies by their
manufacturing-induced properties to identify appropriate technol-
ogies for the specic design task at an early stage of the product
design process. The selection of the manufacturing technology after
the development task has been claried allows the systematic
integration of the manufacturing-induced properties into the
further design process and reduces the number of iterations. The
approach, shown in Fig. 57, is combined with mathematical
Fig. 57. Manufacturing integrated product design approach [72].
optimization algorithms which support the goal-oriented exploita-
tion of manufacturing-induced properties [72].
The procedure of property-mapping as the step to identify
tting manufacturing technologies and to integrate manufactur-
ing-induced properties is described in [70]. In general, a product or
its elements have to be attributed to function-required properties,
that are necessary to provide the product function. Property-
mapping allows the identication of appropriate technologies by
mapping the function-required properties on the respective
manufacturing-induced properties systematically. This mapping
allows to operate in both directions. On the one hand, starting from
the function-required properties (market-pull), an appropriate
manufacturing technology can be identied. On the other hand,
starting from the manufacturing-induced properties, innovative
product ideas can be systematically generated. Thus, the approach
incorporates equally a technology-push.
A case study in which a multi-functional linear guiding system
has been developed illustrates the benet of the approach. A
process chain of linear ow splitting and linear bend splitting,
coupled with subsequent roll-forming processes, is suitable to
realize the function-required properties [72]. Because of the ultra-
ne grained structure, linear ow split anges, which are
characterized by an increased hardness and ductile behavior at
the same time [151], are predestined to be used as rolling contact
surfaces. The manufacturing-induced properties go along with an
increased rolling and sliding contact fatigue strength [106]. The
selected technologies allow the manufacturing of bifurcations in a
continuous process [71,73] and allow manufacturing of multi-
chambered proles in integral style [68]. In the case study, these
chambers are used to provide an integrated breaking function by
clamping the slide. With the aid of pressure generation, the side
walls of two chambers are displaced outwards and used to
generate a clamping force [72].
By manufacturing with the appropriate technologies, the
physical product inherits the benets of the manufacturing-
induced properties and exploits the technological potentials in
terms of realizing additional functional benets and reducing
weight, safety factors, or process steps, for example [70].
The systematic and comprehensive integration of manufactur-
ing-induced properties allows a more detailed analysis of the
products behavior and lifetime prediction. As a following step, the
approaches can be expanded towards the entire life cycle in order
to generate an integrated product (and process) development.
These approaches are similar to [2,10,25], (Fig. 58), and focus on
anticipating and inuencing the entire process chain of the product
life cycle during the product design process.
 A.E. Tekkaya et al. / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 64 (2015) 629653
Fig. 58. Integrated product and process development [26].
7. Summary and future perspectives
The paper shows that metal forming, besides mere
manufacturing of the desired shape, has the powerful ability of
simultaneously setting desired mechanical and physical proper-
ties over the whole volume of the product. Today it is possible to
set selected material parameters (e.g., ductility, strength, and
residual stresses) of semi-nished products, like sheets and wires,
in a homogenous manner. Fig. 59 summarizes the product
properties and the process parameters, which are indirectly
linked through the evolution of micro- and macrostructure. The
control of properties is possible through the achievements of
computational methods for predicting and controlling the
properties (such as multi-scale or multi-physics modeling) as
well as novel methods to measure the properties (e.g., based on
optical, X-ray, or ultrasonic principles).
Fig. 59. Relationship between product properties and metal forming parameters.
Inhomogeneous setting and prediction of the properties is still
at the beginning. In order to enhance the capabilities of predicting
not only global, but local product properties of complex parts, the
multi-scale methods must be improved with regard to precision
and computation performance. Also the measurement methods to
predict the in-volume properties need to be improved. Neverthe-
less, the presented developments mark the starting point of a
paradigm change in the design of formed workpieces. Including
this fact in the design process would allow a considerable
reduction of safety factors of products and, hence, contribute
signicantly to the development of lightweight products that are
environmentally benign.
Current applications for predicting and setting product
properties in metal forming can be considered as open-loop
control of the product properties (Fig. 60a). It can be envisioned
that, in the next decades, the paradigm shift will be accomplished
by the nal step of closed-loop control of the properties (Fig. 60b).
The fundamentals of closed-loop control to adjust product
properties will be discussed in the CIRP keynote 2016.
649
Fig. 60. (a) Open-loop and (b) closed-loop control of product properties. (CIRP
keynote 2016).
Acknowledgments
The authors wish to thank Prof. K. Osakada (Osaka University,
Japan) for initiating the paper and all CIRP STC-F members for their
valuable contributions during the discussions about its content.
Mr. K. Isik and Mr. T. Clausmeyer (TU Dortmund University,
Germany) are thanked for their support in preparation of
the paper. The authors appreciate the thorough editing by Prof.
D. Y. Yang and Prof. S. Smith, members of the Editorial Committee
of the CIRP Annals.
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