Notebook 8

Detail

Recorded detail is a geometric property of image quality that is known as definition, sharpness, spatial
resolution, and detail. In digital imaging spatial resolution is a term used to describe detail. Pixel size,
matrix size, and grayscale bit depth are used to determine the amount of detail on an x and y axis.
Detail is described in terms of spatial frequency which is the lines per millimeter. If an image has
penumbra it means that the sharpness is not there and the image has less detail.

Factors that affect recorded detail are as follows:

-Geometry of the beam

distance
focal spot size

-Image receptor

film/screen systems
digital systems

-Motion

voluntary
involuntary
equipment
communication
exposure time reduction
immobilization

Geometry of the beam is the factor that establishes the level of resolution desired for the recorded
detail. Distance and focal spot size are factors that are associated with geometry of the beam. You can
use the inverse square law to describe the beam divergence because of the geometry of the x-ray beam.

-Recorded detail takes into consideration the source-to-image distance (SID), source-to-object
distance (SOD), and object to image
distance (OID). When the OID decrease the
resolution increase; SID increases,
resolution increases (48 is preferred over
the typical 40).

-Focal spot size is controlled by the line

focus principle which is used to reduce the

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 effective area of the focus spot. The umbra is a sharp area around the shadow of the object and
the penumbra is the shadow around it (edge gradient). As the focal spot size decreases the
penumbra decreases and resolution increases. Width of the penumbra is calculated as such: P=
Focal spot size X OID/SOD.

Image receptor in film/screen systems is classified by the speed resolution combination. Slower film
screen makes better resolution. The intensifying screens power is based on three main factors which
are phosphor size, phosphor layer thickness, and phosphor concentration. The table below has the
effect of each on resolution.

When low mAs are used intensifying screens quantum mottle affects recorded detail because
the amount of emitted photons is not enough for a good image. Digital systems main factor
affecting recorded detail is the geometric properties and imaging process. In indirect DR the
system has the same limitations that affect recorded detail as a film/screen because of the CCD
system. The silicon/scintillator/TFT systems also have limitations because of the fill factor. When
the fill factor is high the resolution will also be high. This leads into the detector element which
is a major limit of indirect DR systems. In processing the recorded detail is limited because of the
matrix size, pixel pitch, and grayscale bit depth.

Motion affects the recorded detail because there is not enough time for a good image to form, resulting
in a blurred image.

Voluntary motion is controlled by the patient. During the exam it is important to talk through
the exam and tell the patient what you are doing and what you need them to do at all times.

Involuntary motion is under the involuntary nervous system and is physiological. The patient
may twitch when in a position that is uncomfortable. Heartbeat or peristalsis are examples of
involuntary motion which can be fixed by reducing the exposure time.

Equipment motion is a problem although not one that happens often. The grid can cause the
vibration of the cassette or the mount the x-ray equipment is on may not be as stable as it
should be.

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 Communication is the most effective way to reduce motion on an image. The patient will know
exactly what they need to do which gives them comfort and will make them twitch less. Giving
patients pads or supports for their body parts are great for patient comfort.

Exposure time reduction is reduced to decrease motion on an image. When exposure time is
more the patients movement will be recorded longer. When the patient cannot cooperate
increasing mAs in addition to reducing exposure time is the most effective way for a good
image. Other factors to consider are using high-speed film and screens and decreasing SID.

Immobilization the patient and/or devices can significantly reduce motion. Using foam pads,
lead, tape, tongue depressors etc. are all good objects to use for an optimal image. There are
some devices to immobilize a patients whole body such as pig-o-stats and compression bands if
a last resort is needed. Other resources such as parents or other technologists can help hold in
no other options are working.

Distortion

The distortion of an object is the second geometric property that is a misinterpretation of the size or
shape of the structures.

Factors affecting size distortion are as follows:

-source-to-image distance (SID)

-object-to-image distance (OID)

Factors affecting shape distortion are as follows:

-alignment

central ray
anatomical part
image receptor

-angulation

-direction

degree

Size distortion is only possible with magnification because of the divergence of the x-ray photons. The
magnification size distortion is controlled by minimizing OID and maximizing SID. Source-to-image
distance has a prominent effect on magnification. As the SID increases, the smaller the magnification,
because as the SID increases, the percentage of the total distance that makes up the OID, decreases. The
object-to-image distance is critical for both magnification and resolution and there are two major
factors. These are when objects within structure are at different levels they are projected onto the

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image as different sizes. The farther the objects are from the image
receptor the more magnified it is. To calculate the distortion size the
following formula is used: M= SID/SOD. A pyramid is used to help
remember the calculation.

Shape distortion is the misinterpretation by unequal magnification of the actual shape of the structure
being examined. It displaces the objects actual position as either elongation or foreshortening.
Elongation is when the tube or image receptor is improperly aligned and foreshortening is when the part
is improperly aligned.

Alignment is a distortion that is caused by central ray alignment in accordance to the anatomical
part and image receptor. When the central ray is perpendicular to the part, alignment will not
be an issue. In certain examinations that require an angle of the tube required it is used to
minimize the distortion of an object. The anatomical part is meant to be parallel to the IR and
perpendicular to the central ray. When the image
receptor is not parallel to the part, the area of interest
may be cut off resulting in a second exposure.

Angulation refers to the direction and degree of the

tube which is a controlled way to make appropriate
distortion to prevent superimposition create certain
magnification. Direction is on a longitudinal or
transverse plane that is either cephalad/caudad or
left/right. The degree is to specify the exact amount of
angulation of the tube for the appropriate exam. Take in
to consideration the SID when adjusting the angulation of the tube as it may increase which will
reduce magnification.

When distortion appears on an image the two main factors are size distortion which involves
magnification and resolution and shape which involves elongation and foreshortening.

What are similarities between distortion and detail?

Both of these geometric properties are affected by the SID and OID. In all, we want the patient part of
interest close to the IR.

Differences include factors that affect them. Detail is affected by more mechanical issues whereas the
distortion is affected by position of the tube and/or patient.

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 References

1. Carlton, R. R., Adler, A. M., & Frank, E. D. (2006). Principles of radiographic imaging: an art and a
science. Clifton Park, NY: Thomson Delmar Learning.

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