Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
NG STUD
HYDWAULlC ENGINEERING SERIES NO. 17
B3106 BCm
808 B. Bo~nrsSt-
@ 12
by
Sponsored by
SCIENCE FOUNDATION
NATIONAL
WESWWCH GRANT GK-1155
UNIVERSIW OF ILLINOIS
URBANA, ILLINOIS
JUNE, 1968,
by
BEN C H l E YEN and VEN TE CHOW
DEPARTMENT OF C I V I L ENGINEER
U N I V E R S I T Y OF l L L D N O l S
URBANA, I L L I N O I S
JUNE, 1968
ABSTRACT
quently of the surface runoff, vary with the movement of the rain-
ical analyses.
tion of these equations for the flow over watersheds due to rainstorms
di scussed.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The s t u d y d e s c r i b e d i n t h i s r e p o r t is a p a r t 06 a c o n t i n -
u i n g r e s e a r c h d i r e c t e d by D r . Ven Te Chow a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f
Illinois. 'The r e s e a r c h has been s u p p o r t e d s i n c e 1963 by t h e N a t i o n a l
Science F o u n d a t i o n w i t h two g r a n t s : NSF-GP-1464 on a p r o j e c t e n t i t l e d
"Basic I n v e s t i g a t i o n o f Watershed H y d r a u l its" and NSF-GK--1155 on a
p r o j e c t e n t i t l e d "Mechanics o f S u r f a c e R u n o f f . I ' The ma i n p u r p o s e o f
t h e r e s e a r c h i s t o i n v e s t i g a t e t h e b a s i c mechanics o f f l o w o f s u r f a c e
w a t e r o v e r a r t i f i c i a l d r a i n a g e b a s i n s by c o n t r o l l e d e x p e r i m e n t s and
hydrodynamic a n a l y s i s o Under t h e g r a n t NSF-GP- 1464, t h e des i g n and
c o n s t r u c t i o n o f a u n i q u e "Watershed E x p e r i m e n t a t i o n System" (WES) was
m o s t l y completed. The WES i s t h e p r o d u c t o f a system d e s i g n i n t e g r a t -
ing the electronic, hydraulic, pneumatic and s t r u c t u r a l subsystems.
As a t o o l f o r r e s e a r c h on h y d r a u l i c and h y d r o l o g i c problems d e a l i n g
w i t h f l o w o f w a t e r i n watersheds, t h e WES can g e n e r a t e a u t o m a t i c a l l y ,
under e l e c t r o n i c c o n t r o l , an a r t i f i c i a l r a i n s t o r m w i t h g i v e n t e m p o r a l
and s p a t i a l d i s t r i b u t i o n s o f r a i n f a l l i n t e n s i t i e s and move i t i n any
d e s i r e d d i r e c t i o n o v e r a l a b o r a t o r y d r a i n a g e b a s i n area o f 40 f e e t by
40 f e e t o r l e s s , The r u n o f f f r o m t h e b a s i n i s i n s t a n t a n e o u s l y measured
by sonars and a u t o m a t i c a l l y t r a n s m i t t e d t o an e l e c t r o n i c computer f o r
p r o c e s s i n g and r e c o r d i n g t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l r e s u l t s . The WES was used
f o r t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l study d e s c r i b e d i n t h i s r e p o r t , w h i l e t h e r e p o r t e d
s t u d y i t s e l f was l a r g e l y s u p p o r t e d by t h e g r a n t NSFGK-1155.
For t h e e n t i r e c o n t i n u i n g r e s e a r c h p r o j e c t on w a t e r s h e d hydrau-
lics, t h e NSF g r a n t s have s u p p o r t e d t h e work o f f o u r f a c u l t y members, t e n
graduate students, f i f t y - e i g h t u n d e r g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t s , and f i v e t e c h n i-
cians, The e f f o r t s and c o n t r i b u t i o n s o f t h e s e p e o p l e t o t h e success o f
t h e r e s e a r c h must b e h e a r t i l y acknowledged. For t h e r e s e a r c h , three
d o c t o r a l theses have been c o m p l e t e d and s e v e r a l papers p u b l i s h e d . One
d o c t o r a l t h e s i s by D r . Nachman Marcus, d e a l i n g w i t h t h e same s u b j e c t
o f i n t e r e s t on s u r f a c e r u n o f f under moving r a i n s t o r m s , c o n s t i t u t e d a
p i l o t study o f t h e present i n v e s t i g a t i o n . Experimental data c o l l e c t e d
by D r . Marcus f o r h i s t h e s i s , when he was a r e s e a r c h a s s i s t a n t o f t h e
p r o j e c t , were a d o p t e d i n t h i s s t u d y b u t a n a l y z e d d i f f e r e n t l y . Addi-
t i o n a l e x p e r i m e n t s f o r t h i s s t u d y were p e r f o r m e d and t h e r e s u l t s were
c o l l e c t e d by Research A s s i s t a n t , M r . A r i e Ben-Zvi. Another Research
Assistant, Mr, Robert E. Grace, helped i n p r e p a r i n g t h e experimental
hydrographs. A l l o f t h e i r e f f o r t s a r e s i n c e r e l y appreciated, Grat i -
tude i s a l s o due P r o f e s s o r V, J, McDonald, Research A s s i s t a n t M r , A.
R . Rao, P h y s i c a l Science S t a f f A s s i s t a n t M r . Jay W, M i l l e r , and
Instrument Technician M r . Glen H. Lafenhagen f o r v a r i o u s aspects o f
t h e i r a s s i s t a n c e t o t h e experimental work. The a u t h o r s a l s o wish t o
thank Mrs. Joanne Garth f o r t y p i n g t h e manuscript.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapter Page
1 . Introduction ........................ 1
Dimensional Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
t o Cover t h e Watershed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Data A n a l y s i s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
2 E v a l u a t i o n o f Storage C o e f f i c i e n t s
i n t h e Systems Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Discussions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
. . . . . . . . . .
65
~ ~ u i v a l e nS t a t i o n a r y Rainstorms
7.6 . Discussion o f Systems Approach
. . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
t o Synthesize Hydrographs
Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
L I S T OF TABLES
Table Page
Figure Page
2. D e f i n i t i o n s k e t c h o f t h e channel f l o w ............ 8
3. D e f i n i t i o n s k e t c h o f a two-dimensional s p a t i a l l y -
v a r i e d unsteady f r e e - s u r f a c e f l o w w i t h
l a t e r a l inflows ..................... 8
............:... 73
................ 74
Wx/i=-880, iL/v = 4 4 0 . . . . . . . . . O . . O . . . .
76
W/i=-630,
X
iL/v=4600 . . . . ~ . . . . . O . . . . .76
.
E x p e r i m e n t a l hydrographs f o r a square watershed,
W / i =.4900, i b / v = 2 4 0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
................. 79
Figure Page
X
E x p e r i m e n t a l hydrographs f o r a square watershed,
W / i = 4 9 5 0 , i L / v = 230
Y
. . . . . . ~ . . ~ . . ~81 ~ . . .
E x p e r i m e n t a l hydrographs f o r a square watershed,
W / i = 2600, i L / v = 440
Y
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
W/i=2500,iL/v=240
Y
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
W / i = 1650, i L / v = 230
Y
.............. .. . 82
E x p e r i m e n t a l hydrographs f o r a s q u a r e ' w a t e r s h e d ,
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
W / i = 1250, i L / v = 230
Y
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
W / i = 8 6 O , i L / v = 450
Y
................. 84
W / i = 640, i L / v = 450
Y
................. 84
E x p e r i m e n t a l hydrographs f o r an a p p r o x i m a t e
t r i a n g u l a r watershed, W x / i = 4900, i L / v = 240 .. . 85
E x p e r i m e n t a l hydrographs f o r an a p p r o x i m a t e
t r i a n g u l a r watershed, W l i = 2600, i L / v = 450 . . . . . . 85
x
E x p e r i m e n t a l hydrographs f o r an a p p r o x i m a t e
t r i a n g u l a r watershed, W x / i = 2400, i L / v = 240 . . a a 86
E x p e r i m e n t a l hydrographs f o r an a p p r o x i m a t e
t r i a n g u l a r watershed, W x / i = 1600, i L / v = 240 . . . . . . 86
E x p e r i m e n t a l hydrographs f o r an a p p r o x i m a t e
E x p e r i m e n t a l hydrographs f o r an a p p r o x i m a t e
E x p e r i m e n t a l hydrographs f o r an a p p r o x i m a t e
Exper i m e n t a l hydrographs f o r an a p p r o x i m a t e
X
H a l f recess i o n t ime vs. v e l o c i t y o f upstream-movi ng
rainstorms f o r a square watershed . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
H a l f r e c e s s i o n t i m e vs, v e l o c i t y o f downstream-moving
viii
Figure Page
rainstorms forasquarewatershed. . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
triangular watershed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
a square watershed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
P
A
Figure Page
W i t h t h e i n c r e a s i n g awareness o f t h e w a t e r r e s o u r c e s problems
i n the present century, t h e s u r f a c e r u n o f f f r o m watersheds, t h e most im-
p o r t a n t source o f water, has r e c e i v e d i n t e n s i v e s t u d i e s i n r e c e n t y e a r s .
These s t u d i e s a r e aimed a t o b t a i n i n g i n f o r m a t i o n w h i c h can be a p p l i e d t o
t h e d e s i g n , p l a n n i n g , and management o f w a t e r r e s o u r c e s p r o j e c t s . It i s
hoped t h a t w i t h adequate h y d r o l o g i c i n f o r m a t i o n on s u r f a c e r u n o f f f r o m
watersheds, b e t t e r methods can be developed f o r t h e e n g i n e e r i n g d e s i g n o f
t h e p r o j e c t s c o n c e r n ing f l o o d c o n t r o l , f a r m and urban d r a inage, w a t e r
supply, s o i l c o n s e r v a t i o n , w a t e r p o l l u t i o n c o n t r o l , and many o t h e r w a t e r
resources problems.
R u n o f f f r o m a s u r f a c e due t o r a i n f a l l i s a f f e c t e d by t h e p h y s i o -
g r a p h i c c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e s u r f a c e as w e l l as by t h e h y d r o m e t e o r o l o g i c
characteristics o f the ra i n f a l l . Numerous t h e o r e t i c a l s t u d i e s based on
hydrodynamic c o n c e p t s have been conducted on watersheds o r l a n d s u r f a c e s
under r a i nstorms, '
to 12" and e x p e r i m e n t a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n s have been p e r -
16, 1 7
formed by Mamisao, l3 Harbaugh and Chow, 14' l 5 Eagleson and Grace,
chery,18 and o t h e r s . I n addition, t h e r e a r e many e m p i r i c a l o r semi-
e m p i r i c a l approaches, w h i c h have been summarized and d i s c u s s e d by Chow. 19, 20
The i n c r e a s i n g a t t e n t i o n b e i n g p a i d t o t h e r u n o f f p r o b l e m can be observed
f r o m t h e l a r g e number o f p a p e r s and d i s c u s s i o n s on t h e s u b j e c t p r e s e n t e d
a t t h e r e c e n t I n t e r n a t i o n a i i - i y c i r ~ i v y y Syiiipas i urn he16 a t Fort Co:! i ~ s ,
Colorado, U.S,A. i n September, 1967.
Most o f t h e above-mentioned s t u d i e s do n o t e x p l a i n s u f f i c i e n t l y
t h e e f f e c t s o f t h e s p a t i a l o r temporal d i s t r i b u t i o n s o f r a i n f a l l on s u r f a c e
runoff. I n particular, t h e i n f l u e n c e o f t h e movement o f r a i n s t o r m s has n o t
been i n v e s t i g a t e d s p e c i f i c a l l y . To d a t e (1968) t h e o n l y p u b l i s h e d paper on
t h e s u b j e c t o f r u n o f f f r o m a moving r a i n s t o r m i s t h a t by ~ a k s i m o v ' ' and t h e
o n l y e x p e r i m e n t on t h i s s u b j e c t was performed a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f I l l i n o i s
by arcu us" under t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h 8 a u t h o r s . Using a n u m e r i c a l example
f o r oversimplified conditions, Maksimov demonstrated t h a t t h e movement o f
t h e r a i n s t o r m a l t e r s t h e maximum r u n o f f r a t e . For a d o c t o r a l d i s s e r t a t i o n
- - - -- -
o ~ u m b e r sr e f e r t o t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g e n t r i e s i n References l i s t e d a t
t h e end o f t h i s r e p o r t .
which constituted a prel iminary investigation of the present study,
varies with the physiographic properties of the watershed and the local
includes not only the size spectrum and the temporal and spatial distri-
butions of raindrops but also those factors such as the ambient wind
,,, ,,4-a,
,.,- a
,s
,,I,- o f simple gemetr';
c ~ , 3 ~ c under mcvina
"3-r a l n f z l l nf simp1 Y f l e d p a t -
terns would be desirable. In the present study the rainstorms are assumed
to have uniform intensities moving at constant velocities across the
watershed. The raindrops are assumed to have a given constant size,
being uniformly distributed i n space and falling vertically to the water-
shzd surface. The ambient wind velocity is assumed to be zero. The
evapotranspiration in the laboratory is neglected as its amount is often
small as compared to the total volume of runoff or rainfall during the
period of experiment. The land surface is assumed to be uniformly sloped
and impervious, so that there is no infiltration loss, Furthermore,
other meteorological factors such as the temperature and pressure of the
air are assumed to be varying in such small ranges that they cause no
additional effect on the behavior of the falling drops and the flowing
water. With these assumptions the hydrometeorolog i c factors are then
reduced to the intensity of the rainfall i; the duration of the rain-
fall T; the size and concentration (defined in Chapter 6) of raindrops,
d and c, respectively; and the velocity of the rainstorm with components
Wx and W , in which x and y are two orthogonal directions on a horizon-
Y
tal plane,
from the upstream edge to the outflow section and uniform lateral slopes,
i n which A = wL i s t h e a r e a o f t h e b a s i n .
Similarly, t h e peak d i s c h a r g e , Q., and t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g t i m e
t o peak, t , o f t h e r u n o f f can b e expressed n o n d i m e n s i o n a l l y as
P
The p h y s i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e terms i n t h e f u n c t i o n s on
t h e r i g h t s i d e o f t h e equation i s as f o l l o w s : The f i r s t t h r e e terms
r e p r e s e n t t h e e f f e c t o f t h e b a s i c geometry o f t h e b a s i n . The n e x t t h r e e
i n which s i s t h e energy g r a d i e n t o f t h e f l o w , o r t h e g r a d i e n t o f t h e
f
e n e r g y l o s t w h i c h cannot b e r e c o v e r e d . Since t h e f l o w cross s e c t i o n i n
t h e c o n t r o l volume changes, t h e r e i s a p r e s s u r e f o r c e a c t i n g on t h e s i d e
Fig, 2. Befini t ion sketch o f t h e channel Plow
X Y
i n which Q = UA i s t h e djscharge;
I n watershed h y d r a u l i c , p a r t i c u l a r i l y f o r t h e o v e r l a n d f l o w , how-
ever, t h e w i d t h o r t h e cross s e c t i o n o f t h e f l o w i s u s u a l l y not w e l l defined
and t h e f l o w is t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l . Therefore, i t i s o f t e n more c o n v e n i e n t
t o c o n s i d e r a c o n t r o l volume w i t h two p a r a l l e l s i d e s e c t i o n s spaced a t a
d i s t a n c e ~ y a p a r t ( ~ i3 )~
. .Consequently, Eqs. (3.1) and ( 3 , 2 ) s h o u l d be
modified t o s u i t the present condition. The s i d e - w a l l p r e s s u r e term i n
Eq. (3.1) v a n i s h e s as t h e s i d e s o f t h e c o n t r o l volume a r e p a r a l l e l . Never-
theless, t h e r e can e x i s t shear f o r c e imposed by t h e n e i g h b o r i n g f l u i d on
the side sections. If the x-component of the shear stress acting on a
force is
AM3 = p iAxAyu
approximately
Substituting the appropriate terms into the above equation and then
dividing it by p u a y and neglecting the high-order terms, one obtains
-
a " +Jhh + i ahu2
_ + -i- ahuv ah
at hat h ax h ay + 9 ~
and
Thus,
i n which q = Uh i s t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l d i s c h a r g e p e r u n i t w i d t h and
x
= Vh i s t h e t r a n s v e r s e d i s c h a r g e p e r u n i t l e n g t h . E q u a t i o n (3.5)
q~
can a l s o be d e r i v e d by c o n s i d e r i n g t h e c o n s e r v a t i o n o f mass o f t h e
con t r o l v o l ume.
W i t h t h e a i d o f Eq. (3.5), Eq. (3.4) can b e r e w r i t t e n as
w h i c h i s t h e momentum e q u a t i o n a l o n g t h e x - d i r e c t i o n o f an unsteady
s p a t i a l l y varied flow. Simi larly, t h e momentum e q u a t i o n a l o n g t h e
y-direction is
There are many difficulties involved in solving watershed
runoff problems mathematically using strictly hydrodynamic principles
through Eqs. (3.1) and (3.2) or Eqs. (3.3), (3.5), and (3.7). To date (1968)
no satisfactory general solution of these equations has been obtained.
The flow usually varies both spatially and temporarily and it can assume
any one of the six possible regimes of free-surface flow:24 laminar
subcri t ical, laminar supercri tical, turbulent subcri t ical, turbulent
supercritical, laminar unstable and turbulent unstable flow with roll
waves. Within a watershed different regimes can occur at different
places or times, Moreover, the depth of water on the physical boundary
of the basin need not be zero even if there is no surface inflow through
the boundary. In other words, an assumption of h = 0 along the boundary
adopted by many investigators in an attempt to solve these equations is
physically unrealistic.
Even if the initial and boundary conditions are properly defined,
two difficulties still exist which hinder the development of a numerical
solution of the problem, The first is that the two-dimensional unsteady
spatially varied flow problem as expressed in Eqs. (3.1) and (3.2) or
Eqs. (3.3), (3.5), and (3.7) which are highly nonlinear, requtres a large
capacity computer to solve it numerically and is beyond the capacity of
the present (1968) commercially ava i lable computers. However, unless there
is a well defined channel, surface runoff can be approximated as one-
dimensional and thus the one-dimensional equations corresponding to
Eqs. (3.1) and (3.2) can be adopted in solving the problem approximately.
For the one-dimensional case, considering a unit width, one has A = h = D,
2= h/2, V = 0, T = 0, and px = 0. Thus, Eqs. (3.1) and (3.2) or
x
and
The o t h e r d i f f i c u l t y i n v o l v e d i n s o l v i n g t h e p r o b l e m i s t h a t
t h e energy g r a d i e n t s changes i n b o t h t i m e and space. The l o s s o f
f
energy i n t h e f l o w , o r the value o f s actually consists o f three parts:
f9
l o s s t h a t would o c c u r i n t h e steady u n i f o r m f l o w o f t h e same v a l u e s o f
t h e Reynolds and Froude numbers as t h e i n s t a n t a n e o u s v a l u e s a t t h e p o i n t
under c o n s i d e r a t i o n , l o s s due t o a c c e l e r a t i o n o f t h e f l o w , and l o s s as a
r e s u l t o f r a i n d r o p impact o r l a t e r a l i n f l o w , This c l a s s i f i c a t i o n i s
s u b j e c t i v e and an a c c u r a t e s u b d i v i s i o n o f t h e t o t a l energy l o s s e s w o u l d
be d i f f i c u l t t o achieve, p a r t i c u l a r l y because t h e y a r e i n t e r r e l a t e d ,
The r e s i s t a n c e t o t h e steady u n i f o r m f l o w has been s t u d i e d i n and
the resistance coefficient, i n t h e f o r m o f Darcy-Weisbachls f , ~ h & z ~ C,
' s
or Manning" n, can b e e x p r e s s e d as a f u n c t i o n o f t h e Reynolds number,
t h e Froude number, a n d t h e r e l a t i v e roughness o f t h e s u r f a c e w i t h a s u f -
f i c i e n t degree o f c e r t a i n t y and a c c u r a c y .
For a f l o w under a c c e l e r a t i o n , l o c a l l y o r convectively, the
work w h i c h i s done b y t h e f o r c e s i n v o l v e d i n t h e a c c e l e r a t i o n i s b o t h con-
s e r v a t i v e and d i s s i p a t i v e , The c o n s e r v a t i v e work i s r e c o v e r a b l e and hence
contributes nothing t o the value o f s considered. The d i s s i p a t i v e work,
f
w h i c h i m p l i e s a d d i t i o n a l r e s i s t a n c e t o t h e flow, should be considered
s e p a r a t e l y f o r c o n v e c t i v e and l o c a l causes f o r i t s e f f e c t on t h e v a l u e o f
For a g r a d u a l l y v a r i e d f l o w such as t h e t y p e o f f l o w c o n s i d e r e d i n
sf'
t h e p r e s e n t study, t h e a d d i t i o n a l f l o w r e s i s t a n c e r e s u l t i n g f r o m c o n v e c t i v
a c c e l e r a t i o n i s presumed r e l a t i v e l y s m a l l .
However, t h e a d d i t i o n a l energy l o s s due t o t h e l o c a l a c c e l e r a t i o
may n o t be n e g l i g i b l e when i t i s h i g h . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , j u s t l i k e t h e case
o f an immersed body a c c l e r a t i n g i n a v i s c o u s f l u i d f i e l d , a t p r e s e n t (1968
no f u r t h e r s i g n i f i c a n t i n f o r m a t i o n on t h i s k i n d o f energy l o s s i s a v a i l a b l
D e s p i t e t h e f a c t t h a t a d d i t i o n a l f l o w r e s i s t a n c e due t o r a i n d r o p
i s o b v i o u s due t o t h e mass, momentum, and energy exchanges, i t i s somewhat
s u r p r i s i n g t o r e a l i z e t h a t t h e r e i s o n l y l i m i t e d i n f o r m a t i o n on t h i s m a t t e
Woo and rater' i n d i c a t e t h a t f o r f l o w w i t h o u t r a i n d r o p impact i n t h e lam-
i n a r f l o w range,
the e f f e c t o f the raindrops modifies .the relationship
25
between t h e Reynolds number and t h e r e s i s t a n c e f a c t o r . Yu a n d NcNown
s t a t e t h a t f o r f l o w on c o n c r e t e s u r f a c e w i t h t h e Reynolds number o f m a g n i t
2
one-dimensional flow, the problem of drop resistance has not been solved,
is available.
are made.
the movement of the rainstorm really does not complicate the problem any
different for the moving rainstorm case from those for the stationary rain-
storm case.
7
Morgali and Harbaugh,14 /4arcusZ2 attempted to obtain an approximate sol-
ution for t h e surface runoff due to moving rainstorms by expressing the
resistance slope as
i n which
include the effects of the surface roughness, the acceleration of the flow,,
and the impact effect of raindrops, The exponent m was assumed to be only
a function of the basin slope, Marcus assumed that the flow in a basin
dimensional sheet flow wh.ich would produce a better solution for predict-
4-1,
A system may be s i m u l a t e d by a s e t o f m a t h e m a t i c a l e q u a t i o n s .
By c o n s i d e r i n g t h e watershed as a lumped system, the c o n t i n u i t y r e l a t i o n -
s h i p i n t h e system can be w r i t t e n as
The s o l u t i o n o f t h i s f i r s t - o r d e r d i f f e r e n t i a l e q u a t i o n i s
=0.6, NCEL
208 N. Romine S t r e e t
Brbana, I l l i n o , $ ~ 61801
where t h e c o n s t a n t C i s t o be d e t e r m i n e d by t h e i n i t i a l c o n d i t i o n where
the s o l u t i o n applies.
*b d\
functions as
4,
From t i m e z e r o t o p o s i t i v e i n f i n i t y .
-1-1,
,L ,\
The e x p r e s s i o n o f a s i n g u l a r i t y f u n c t i o n r e p r e s e n t s
and
f o r to - tl 2 t 0.
D u r i n g t h e second p e r i o d o r T - tl t 2 -
t 0
tl, the input i s
constant, i .e.,
Therefore,
forT- t l a t > to -
For t h e t h i r d period of decreasing i n p u t , t o +T - tl 2 t 3T - tl'
Eq. (4.10) y i e l d s
Thus,
and
f o r t o + T - t1 t 2 T -
Finally, during the recession period, t 2 t0 + T - tl'
for T - tl 2 t 20.
During the second period of t
0
-
tl 2 t>T - tl, the input is
sf a constant rate of
Thus,
and
Consequently, one o b t a i n s
f o r to - tl 2 t >T -t
1"
f o r t h e t h i r d p e r i o d o f to + T - tl t 2 t0 - tl; and
Cases:
P
Stationary rainstorms, to - tl = 0.
for t 2 T.
Equations (4.20) and (4.21) are the well-known solution for a
linear watershed system with constant input of finite duration @ef. 20,
14-27).
P Q,,
a For the case of rainfall with a duration T equal to the length
of time to required for the rainstorm to cover the entire watershed,
further simplification can be made on the solutions in the preceeding
section. With t = T, Eq. (4.10) gives
0
for 2t0 - tl 2 t 2 t
0
for 0 2 t;
for t ,) t
0
2 0; and
for t t
oa
(4.14) or (4.19), (4.16), and (4.17), it is obvious that the peak discharg
-
occurs during the third period, between (to tl) or (T -
tl) and
(to + T -
tl) By differentiating Eq. (4.16) with respect to time and
equating the derivative to zero, one obtains the time for maximum dis-
charge as
and the corresponding peak discharge as
P
be within the period where E q . (4.16) is valid, In some actual watersheds,
the peak discharge may infrequently occur outside this period. But the
present mathematical model is incapable of representing this situation,
For the special case of to = T, the peak discharge and the time
it occurs can either be derived from Eqs. (4.29) and (4.30) or from dif-
ferentiation of Eq. (4.24). The result is
and
and 2to - tl
where t should be within the period between
P to -
t1
a
Otherwise the maximum discharge occurred within this period would be the
peak flow rate,
If the rainstorm moves along the longitudinal direction towards
downstream, i.e., Wx > 0, and the rain falls on the outlet of the watershed
before the,upstreamsurface flow reaches there, one has tl - to = L/Wx.
Consequently,
and
and t =
to'
Q = CiA
with the coefficient C = 1 and A = A'o
The above equation for the rational
formula may also be interpreted from Eq. (4.35) by considering I = C I A to
yeild Eq. (4.37), * in which A is the ares of the watershed and C is a coef-
ficient to account for the movement of the rainstorm, assuming that there
P 1 L L
iA
=
I-, L L (<t> - <t- I- - - IWx> - <t - T>
If W
x
4 2U, t h e r e i s a period
were n a i l e d t o t h e b a s i n s u r f a c e a l o n g t h e l a t e r a l d i r e c t i o n a t 2 - f t c e n t e r s
apart, e x t e n d i n g 18 f t f r o m b o t h s i d e s o f t h e b a s i n a l o n g t h e y - d i r e c t i o n
towards t h e p r i n c i p a l a x i s , These s t r i p s s e r v e d t o g u i d e t h e f l o w from
t h e s i d e s o f t h e b a s i n a l o n g t h e l a t e r a l d i r e c t i o n towards t h e a x i s o f
symmetry. The f l o w w o u l d t h e n move down t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l s l o p e towards
t h e o u t l e t s e c t i o n o f t h e whole basin, With r e f e r e n c e t o t h e geometric
p a r a m e t e r s i n Fig, 1, t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l b a s i n had B = 4 f t , b = 2 f t , and
L = 40 ft, The s u r f a c e o f t h e b a s i n adopted was t h e rough s i d e o f tempered
m a s s n i t e b o a r d w h i c h was w a t e r p r o o f e d ,
The a r t i f i c i a l r a i n f a l l i n g on t h e l a b o r a t o r y w a t e r s h e d was p r o -
duced by 400 r a i n d r o p p r o d u c e r s , each b e i n g a 2 l x 2 ' x 1-314
'" l u c i t e box
D e t a i l s o f these
l o c a t e d a p p r o x i m a t e l y 7 f t above t h e b a s i n s u r f a c e .
29
r a i n d r o p p r o d u c e r s a r e d e s c r i b e d by Chow and Harbaugh. Raindrops randomly
produced f r o m 576 p o l y e t h y l e n e t u b e s o f 0.023 in, I.D., 0,047 i n . O.Do, and
3 / 4 i n , l o n g i n s e r t e d i n t o t h e b o t t o m o f each l u c i t e r a i n d r o p p r o d u c e r a r e
o f t h e s i z e o f 0,14 i n . e q u i v a l e n t diameter, spaced a t 1 i n . c e n t e r s .
The e q u i v a l e n t r a i n d r o p d i a m e t e r i s e q u a l t o t h e d i a m e t e r of a sphere
having the same volume of the raindrop, Four raindrop producers form a
module covering an area of 16 sq ft and a r e connected by four 3 / & i n o
I,D, polyethelene tubes t o a common e l e c t r o n i c d i g i t a l valve assembly
(EDVA)
for water supply. Thus, t h e r e a r e one hundred modules over the
e n t i r e basin, each having an EDVA f o r flow r a t e control,
The EDVA has two 4.75 i n . I.D, cylinders of 2.1-in, and 4.l-in.
long, respectively; the former connected by a 3/4Pin, IoDo polyethelene
t u b i n g t o the water supply d i s t r i b u t i o n network and the l a t t e r t o the
raindrop producers w i t h four 42-in. long 3 / & i n Q 1.D. polyethelene tubes,
The cylinders a r e connected by four f i b e r g l a s s tubes w i t h small passages
for flow of dicharges i n the r a t i o s of l:2:4:8. Each passage i s controllel
by a solenoid valve, By e l e c t r o n i c a l l y controlling the opening or closure
of the valves, f i f t e e n d i f f e r e n t i n t e n s i t i e s of r a i n f a l l f o r any desired
duration can b e a t t a i n e d t o cover each 16-sq f t module independently.
Thus, w i t h the t o t a l 100 modules, temporal and s p a t i a l v a r i a t i o n of the
r a i n f a l l can be achieved over an area up t o a maximum of 40' x 40' of
the basin, The constancy of the flow r a t e through the solenoid valves
i s ensured by a constant back pressure of 12 psi a t the upstream end of
the f i b e r g l a s s tubes which i s maintained by a pneumatic control system,
The solenoid valves a r e actuated by e l e c t r i c pulses transmitted
from a PDS 1020 d i g i t a l computer through an e l e c t r o n i c digital-analog
i n t e r f a c e console, By programming the desired sequence of the operation
of t h e solenoid valves for the computer, experiments of various r a i n f a l l
p a t t e r n s on watersheds of d i f f e r e n t s i z e s or shapes w i t h i n the s i z e of
40 f t square, w i t h the limitation of 4 f t stepwise v a r i a t i o n i n the longi-
tudinal and/or l a t e r a l d i r e c t i o n s , can be conducted,
The computer, together w i t h the interface console, i s a l s o used
for data a c q u i s i t i o n purposes, Runoff from the basin i s collected i n a
storage tank of which the depth-volume relationship has been c a l i b r a t e d ,
Two sonars spaced symmetrically 4 f t a p a r t i n t h e ' 8 f t wide 19 i n . long
6
tank, w i t h frequencies of 10 cps, a r e used i n measuring the change of
water depth w i t h time i n the tank. The m i n i m u m variation of depth which
the sonars can detect i s approximately 1/30 i n , or corresponds t o 0,035
cu f t i n volume. I n every five-second cycle two sonar readings a r e taken
a t approximately 50 milliseconds a p a r t , and the signals a r e sent through
the i n t e r f a c e console t o the computer for the runoff-rate computation.
As water i n t h e WES i s r e c i r c u l a t e d by pumping i t from t h e
s t o r a g e tank through a d i s t r i b u t i o n network i n t o t h e EDVABs, t h e r a t e
of flow pumped out from t h e tank i s measured by a Potter t u r b i n e - t y p e
flow meter, The m i n i m u m v a r i a t i o n of flow r a t e which t h e flow meter
-4
can d e t e c t i s 7.5 x 10 cfs, The water being pumped i n t o t h e network
i s measured by t h e flow meter f o r a period of four seconds during each
5-sec d a t a - * a c q u i s i t i o n c y c l e , The f l o w m e t e r s i g n a l i s s e n t t o t h e
computer and t h e average flow r a t e i s then computed, The r e s u l t added
t o t h e r a t e of change o f volume i n t h e s t o r a g e tank obtained from t h e
sonar measurement gives t h e runoff r a t e from t h e basin,
Further d e t a i l s of t h e setup of t h e WES can b e found i n
Refs, 29 and 30,
l i s t e d i n T a b l e 1,
A. Square watershed,
w/L = 1, T/to = T / W / /L = 1
(a) W = 0 , W/i = O
Y Y
2 tri Fig.
-
iL -
i -
t2
I
Wn
S
v CJ -
QL i iA T No.
in./hr fps % lo4 lo 11
Table 1. (Cont'd)
A. Square watershed,
(b) Wx = 0 , Wx/i = 0
W
-?
%
iA
Q
L
tri
-
L
-
t2
T
Fig.
No.
4
lo4 10
Fig.
No.
11 x104 x104
in./hr fps % x 10 x 10
CHAPTER 6. DATA ANALYSIS
1 Experimental ~ e s u l t s
.7
and
values of K
1 and K2 can then be computed for the best-fit line, The
values so obtained for this run are K = 64 sec and K2 = 0.5 cu ft.
1
3
values of K1 and K just obtained. Since I, Q, and S are known for
the period between the time runoff started and the time the input stopped,
K computed for different times within this period are not necessarily
3
Identical, and hence the a v e r a g e value of K, for this period is computed
3
and adopted as the coefficient for the system. For the run under con-
(3.7) govern the flow in the basin, for either stationary or moving
solution has been obtained for the governing equations with appropriate
these equations it can hardly be expected that the effect of the move-
1 and t h e f l o w i n c r e a s e w i t h t i m e .
flowmoves over thewatershed,
No m a t t e r how t h e r a i n s t o r m o r t h e
o u t f l o w does n o t b e g i n u n t i l a t l e a s t
1
i
one o f them reaches t h e o u t l e t s e c t i o n , The t i m e r e q u i r e d f o r t h e r a i n -
!
1
s t o r m t o r e a c h t h e o u t l e t o f t h e w a t e r s h e d depends on t h e v e l o c i t y o f
I t h e s t o r m movement, The t i m e r e q u i r e d f o r t h e f i r s t drops o f w a t e r from
: t h e upstream watershed d i v i d e t o a r r i v e a t t h e o u t l e t depends on t h e
i n t e g r a t e d t e m p o r a l and s p a t i a l e f f e c t s o f t h e f l o w i n t h e watershed.
The v e l o c i t y o f t h i s f l o w i s n o t a c o n s t a n t n o r i s i t r e a d i l y a c c e s s i b l e
t o e i t h e r measurement o r t h e o r e t i c a l p r e d i c t i o n .
For a g i v e n w a t e r s h e d under a moving r a i n s t o r m o f c o n s t a n t r a i n -
f a l l intensity having a v e l o c i t y f a s t e r than t h e v e l o c i t y o f surface
flow, t h e r a i n s t o r m a r r i v e s a t t h e o u t l e t o f t h e watershed f i r s t , The
e a r l y r u n o f f f r o m t h e w a t e r s h e d i s t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n o f t h e r a i n f a l l . on
t h e downstream a r e a o f t h e watershed, As t h e w a t e r g r a d u a l l y accumulates
from t h e upstream area, t h e r a t e o f r u n o f f increases, I f the duration o f
t h e r a i n f a l l i s i n f i n i t e and t h e b a s i n i s i n v a r i a n t w i t h time, eventually
a steady e q u i l i b r i u m c o n d i t i o n o f f l o w w i l l b e reached, the equilibrium
d i s c h a r g e b e i n g t h e maximum d i scharge.
During t h e e a r l y stage o f t h e rainstorm, raindrops which f a l l
o n t o t h e upstream a r e a may s i m p l y p i l e up as d e t e n t i o n s t o r a g e , Not o n l y
need t h e d e p t h a t t h e upstream boundary o f t h e b a s i n n o t be z e r o a f t e r
t h e r a i n s t o r m moves i n t o t h e watershed, b u t a l s o t h e backwater e f f e c t due
t o r a i n f a l l and f l o w i n t h e downstream a r e a w i l l a f f e c t t h e upstream run-
off i f the flow i s subcritical,
For t h e w a t e r s h e d j u s t discussed, i f the velocity o f the rain-
s t o r m decreases, t h e r u n o f f f r o m t h e b a s i n w i l l b e g i n a t a l a t e r time,
and t h e l a g o f time, tl, between t h e t i m e r a i n f i r s t f a l l s on t h e b a s i n ,
and t h e t i m e r u n o f f s t a r t s , increases. I f t h e movement o f t h e r a i n s t o r m
i s s u f f i c i e n t l y slow, r a i n d r o p s f i r s t f a l l i n g on t h e upstream area o f t h e
w a t e r s h e d w i l l f l o w a c r o s s t h e b a s i n and a r r i v e a t t h e o u t l e t b e f o r e t h e
f r o n t o f t h e r a i n s t o r m reaches t h e r e , I n such a case t h e f r o n t o f t h e
f l o w which o u t r a c e s t h e f r o n t o f t h e r a i n s t o r m i s n o t s u b j e c t t o any
d i r e c t raindrop interferences, Consequently, i f the rainstorm lags behind
the flow considerably, t h e t i m e l a g tl i s approximately a constant.
Furthermore, i f t h e d u r a t i o n o f t h e r a i n s t o r m i s s u f f i c i e n t l y long, the
f l o w w i l l e v e n t u a l l y a t t e n d a steady e q u i l i b r i u m c o n d i t i o n which i s t h e
same as t h a t o f t h e f a s t moving r a i n s t o r m , p r o v i d e d t h e i n t e n s i t i e s a r e
t h e same, However, s i n c e i t t a k e s l o n g e r t i m e f o r a slow moving r a i n s t o r m
t o cover t h e e n t i r e basin, t h e l e n g t h o f t i m e r e q u i r e d from t h e b e g i n n i n g
o f r a i n f a l l t o reach t h e e q u i l i b r i u m d i s c h a r g e i s l o n g e r f o r t h e case o f
a s l o w l y moving r a i n s t o r m t h a n f o r a f a s t one.
The e f f e c t o f t h e r a i n f a l l i n t e n s i t y o f a moving r a i n s t o r m on
t h e r u n o f f i s n o t as o b v i o u s as t h a t o f i t s v e l o c i t y , As a f i r s t a p p r o x i -
m a t i o n , one can say t h a t f o r a g i v e n watershed and r a i n s t o r m v e l o c i t y , the
h i g h e r t h e r a i n f a l l i n t e n s i t y t h e f a s t e r t h e f l o w o f w a t e r t o reach t h e
o u t l e t f r o m t h e upstream a r e a , I n o t h e r words, when t h e r a i n f a l l i n t e n s i t '
i s e x t r e m e l y low, t h e s u r f a c e may j u s t be b a r e l y w e t t e d by t h e r a i n . The
v a l u e s o f t h e Reynolds and Weber numbers o f t h e f l o w a r e so s m a l l ( i , e e ,
r e s i s t a n c e due t o v i s c o s i t y and s u r f a c e t e n s i o n i s h i g h ) , together w i t h
t h e d i s t u r b a n c e o f t h e r a i n d r o p s on t h e f l o w , t h a t i t takes a long t i m e
f o r t h e w a t e r from t h e upstream area t o a r r i v e a t t h e o u t l e t . I n such
a case t h e t i m e l a g tl depends p r i m a r i l y on t h e v e l o c i t y o f t h e r a i n s t o r m
b u t independent o f t h e i n t e n s i t y .
However, when t h e r a i n f a l l i n t e n s i t y increases, t h e f l o w depth
i n c r e a s e s and r e l a t i v e l y , r e s i s t a n c e decreases a s i t was d i s c u s s e d e a r l i e r
i n t h i s section. The t i m e i n w h i c h w a t e r f l o w s t o t h e o u t l e t i s o f t h e
same o r d e r o f magnitude as t h a t f o r t h e r a i n s t o r m t o c o v e r t h e e n t i r e
watershed. The t i m e l a g tl depends n o t o n l y on t h e v e l o c i t y o f t h e s t o r m
b u t a l s o on t h e i n t e n s i t y o f t h e r a i n f a l l , I f the r a i n f a l l intensity i s
sufficiently high, water will rush downstream in such a manner that it
outraces considerably the front of the storm, and t will depend prima-
1
rily on the intensity, provided other factors remain unchanged. The
values of the Reynolds number and Weber number of the flow are relatively
high as compared with those of the low intensity case. The high inten-
sity case often associates with a high Froude number and hence offers
more wave resistance to the flow than the low intensity case, However,
for the high intensity case the resistance due to raindrop distrubance
is reduced as the flow front is ahead of the rainstorm and this reduction
res istance,
the same watershed, the one with infinite duration provides the upper bound
the duration of the rainfall the smaller the peak discharge and the earlier
it occurs, and the more deviation of the hydrograph from that of the infinite
i
I f i n i t e - d u r a t i o n upstream-moving r a i n s t o r m t h a n t h o s e f o r t h e c o r r e s p o n d -
Experiments w i t h u n i f o r m l y moving r a i n s t o r m s h a v i n g a r e l a t i v e
d u r a t i o n T / t o = 1 o f u n i f o r m i n t e n s i t y r a i n f a l l were p e r f o r m e d i n t h e WES
i n t h e H y d r a u l i c E n g i n e e r i n g L a b o r a t o r y o f t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f Illi n o i s t o
o b t a i n q u a n t i t a t i v e i n f o r m a t i o n and t o s u p p o r t t h e d i s c u s s i o n s g i v e n i n
the preceding section. The impervious watersheds tested are either a
experimental r e s u l t s o f t e s t s w i t h s = 0.01 do n o t a g r e e w i t h t h e g e n e r a l I
X
t r e n d j u s t mentioned. T h i s i s b e l i e v e d t o be m a i n l y due t o t h e change o f
s u r f a c e roughness w i t h t i m e caused by t h e d e t e r i o r a t i o n o f t h e rnassnite s u r - :
f a c e as m e n t i o n e d i n Chapter 5. T e s t s o f 1% s l o p e were p e r f o r m e d a t l e a s t
1
h y d r o g r a p h u s i n g t i / L as t h e t i m e s c a l e i s no l o n g e r e q u a l t o u n i t y .
1!
From d i m e n s i o n a l a n a l y s i s i t has been p r e d i c t e d t h a t t h e i n t e n - I
s i t y o f r a i n f a l l has no d i r e c t e f f e c t on t h e change o f f l o w c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s 1
a s l o n g as W / i , R , and o t h e r d i m e n s i o n l e s s parameters a r e k e p t c o n s t a n t . i,
However, a s mentioned i n Chapter 2, it i s d i f f i c u l t t o define a physically
i
s i g n i f i c a n t Reynolds number as w e l l a s t h e Froude number o r t h e Weber number, i
I n o r d e r t o v e r i f y t h e v a l i d i t y o f t h i s hypothesis, experimental
hydrographs f o r W i i = 1200, id i i = 0, w i t h s r a n g i n g from 0.005 t o 0,029,
x Y x
f o r iL/v equal t o 240 and 450, r e s p e c t i v e l y , a r e p l o t t e d i n F i g s . 59 and
60. I t can be seen from these two f i g u r e s t h a t , as a f i r s t a p p r o x i m a t i o n
w i t h an allowance o f 2 5 % v a r i a t i o n , Eq. (7.2) i s v a l i d w i t h i n t h e range o f
magnitude o f t h e parameters t e s t e d , T h i s c o n c l u s i o n i s o f no s u r p r i s e i f
one r e a l i z e s t h a t by p u t t i n g W / i = 0, Eq. (7.2) becomes one o f t h e non-
dimensional forms o f t h e u n i t hydrograph.
However, a c a r e f u l comparison between F i g s . 59 and 60 r e v e a l s
t h a t a l t h o u g h t h e d i f f e r e n c e s among t h e hydrographs a r e small, they a r e
systematic. With more p r e c i s i o n one can say t h a t t h e hydrographs o f Q/-
'b
VS. t/t spread more w i d e l y over t h e t i m e f o r s m a l l e r values o f iL/v o r
P
s than for larger values of those two parameters, This trend is con-
x
sistent with the aforementioned physical explanation, Flows with small
values of m are slightly less than unity, tr should depend on both W and
i s l o n g e r f o r a s l o w moving r a i n s t o r m t h a n f o r a f a s t one, as e x p r e s s e d
As t i m e i s needed i n t r a n s f o r m i n g r a i n f a l l i n t o s u r f a c e f l o w
and t h e n t o r u n o f f a t t h e o u t l e t o f a watershed, t h e r e i s always a t i m e
l a g between t h e r a i n f a l l and t h e r u n o f f , A study sf t h e time l a g o f
t h e i n d i v i d a u l r a i n d r o p s from t h e moment t h e y t o u c h t h e b a s i n s u r f a c e
t o t h e t i m e t h e y reach t h e o u t l e t i s i m p r a c t i c a b l e , i f n o t impossible.
Hence, a c e r t a i n t i m e d i f f e r e n c e between t h e t o t a l r a i n f a l l and t h e
t o t a l r u n o f f i s u s u a l l y adopted as a measure o f t h e t i m e l a g f o r t h e
watershed.
C o n v e n t i o n a l l y , s e v e r a l d i f f e r e n t t y p e s o f t i m e l a g have been
used; including, (1) t h e t i m e between t h e maximum r a t e s o f r a i n f a l l and
runoff, (2) t h e t i m e between t h e c e n t r o i d s o f t h e h y e t o g r a p h and hydro-
graph, (3) t h e t i m e between t h e maximum r a t e o f r a i n f a l l and t h e c e n t r o i d
o f t h e hydrograph, and (4) t h e t i m e between t h e c e n t r o i d o f t h e h y e t o g r a p h
and t h e peak d i s c h a r g e . As a m a t t e r o f convenience t h e f i r s t d e f i n i t i o n i s
a d o p t e d i n t h i s s t u d y and i s expressed as t 2 . For t h e moving r a i n s t o r m s
considered i n the present study, t h e magnitude o f t h e t i m e l a g based on
(1) i s t h e same a s t h a t o f (4) f o r t h e square w a t e r s h e d t e s t e d .
There i s a c t u a l l y a n o t h e r p h y s i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t t i m e l a g between
r a i n f a l l and r u n o f f . This i s t h e time lag, tl, between t h e i n s t a n t t h e
f i r s t r a i n d r o p s t o u c h t h e b a s i n s u r f a c e and t h e moment r u n o f f s t a r t s a t
t h e o u t l e t o f t h e watershed. As d i s c u s s e d i n Chapter 6, because o f inade-
q u a t e a c c u r a c y o f low d i s c h a r g e measurement, t h e use o f t 2 i s p r e f e r r e d t o
tl i n t h e present study.
E x p e r i m e n t a l r e s u l t s p l o t t e d as W / i v s . t 2 / T on l o g a r i t h e m i c
s c a l e s ( ~ i ~ 50
s . t o 53) show t h a t t h e d a t a f a l l c l o s e t o s t r a i g h t l i n e s
w i t h s l o p e s e q u a l t o -1. Thus
I n t h e p r e s e n t study, T =
to
= L / \ W( , therefore
where c i s a c o n s t a n t depending p r i m a r i l y on sx. With increasing s
x
t h e v a l u e o f c increases. Hence, the steeper t h e b a s i n slope t h e s h o r t e r
t h e l a g time, T h i s i s o b v i o u s by r e f e r r i n g t o t h e d i s c u s s i o n s i n Chapter 3
and S e c t i o n 7-1, Steep s l o p e means l a r g e f o r c e due t o g r a v i t y a c t i n g on
the f h and s m a l l s t o r a g e i n t h e watershed, Therefore, the lag time t
2'
stream, and laterally, are plotted in Fig. 61 together with the hydrograph
of the equivalent stationary rainstorm. Figures 62 to 64 are similar plots i
-4
for T/to = 1, iL/v = 450, Ti/L = 3.8 x 10 , l ~ l / i= 2500 and three dif-
ferent basin slopes: 0.005, 0.0175 and 0.029.
As shown in Figs. 61 to 64, the equivalent stationary rainstorm
gives a higher peak discharge than those of the corresponding moving rain-
storms. The time of occurrence of the peak discharge is also earlier for
the equivalent stationary rainstorm than for storms moving either upstream
or laterally. In referring to the time when the raindrops first reach the
surface, the relative time of occurrence of peak discharge, (tl + t )/T,
P
is smaller for the equivalent stationary rainstorm than for any moving
rainstorm, This conclusion is not only interesting but also of pract ical
flow on the watershed.. The storage in the watershed after the rainfall
started is built up more rapidly for the stationary rainstorm than for the
spread out not only the time distribution of a given amount of input but
also the length of time of disturbance caused by the raindrops, and hence
indi rectly increases the total resistance to the flow over the period of
runoff.
Experiment 0.73 .
0 78 0.53 0.50
As shown i n T a b l e 2, t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l a n d computed v a l u e s o f $ / i A ,
t /T, and t 2 / T a g r e e r e a s o n a b l y w e l l b u t t h e v a l u e s o f t /T d i f f e r c o n s i d -
P r
erably. By no means s h o u l d t h i s d i f f e r e n c e i n t r / T be i n t e r p r e t e d t o mean
t h a t the p r e d i c t i o n f o r t h e recession i s l e s s accurate. Rather, the d i f -
f e r e n c e i s m a i n l y due t o t h e p r o p a g a t i o n o f e r r o r s by u s i n g an average
value o f K I n f a c t , t h e almost linear r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e s t e r a g e
3"
and t h e r u n o f f a f t e r t h e r a i n has stopped i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l
and t h e computed r e c e s s i o n c u r v e s w o u l d a g r e e v e r y w e l l i f a common r e f -
e r e n c e o f Q / i A a t a t i m e a f t e r t h e r a i n has stopped i s used.
I f t h e storage i s t r u l y a l i n e a r f u n c t i o n o f r u n o f f a f t e r the
cease o f t h e r a i n f a l l , t h e r e c e s s i o n i s t h e n an e x p o n e n t i a l f u n c t i o n o f
time. From Eq. (4.3) and t h e c o n t i n u i t y e q u a t i o n , Eq. (4.1), w i t h I = 0,
one has
and
S o l v i n g t h e s e two e q u a t i o n s y i e l d s
- j~t / K 1 -At/K1
= e
'j ce Qj-1
t h e r a i n d r o p e f f e c t on s h a l l o w - w a t e r f l o w i s more p r o m i n e n t t h a n on deep-
water flow. The dependence o f t h e f l o w c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s on r a i n d r o p e f f e c t s
has been d i s c u s s e d i n Chapter 3 and S e c t i o n 7-1.
Finally, t h e r a t i o n a l f o r m u l a i s t h e s i m p l e s t lumped-system model
b u t i t does n o t o f t e n produce s a t i s f a c t o r y r e s u l t s i n p r e d i c t i n g t h e magni-
t u d e o f t h e peak d i s c h a r g e f r o m a w a t e r s h e d under moving r a i n s t o r m s , n o r
does i t g i v e t h e t i m e o f o c c u r r e n c e o f t h e peak. Also, the representative
reference v e l o c i t y U i s d i f f i c u l t t o evaluate, i f n o t impossible. The
f o r m u l a i s i n r e a l i t y an o v e r s i m p l i f i e d r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f a much c o m p l i c a t e d
phenomenon.
CHAPTER 8. CONCLUSIONS
vary with different rainstorm velocities and differ from those of the
e q u i v a l e n t s t a t i o n a r y r a i n s t o r m s h a v i n g t h e same r a i n f a l l i n t e n s i t y and
d u r a t i o n a t any p o i n t on t h e watershed, i,,e,, h a v i n g t h e same t o t a l volume
of r a i n f a l l , W i t h few e x c e p t i o n s , t h e e q u i v a l e n t s t a t i o n a r y r a i n s t o r m s
u s u a l l y produced t h e most c r i t i c a l r u n o f f s f r o m t h e e n g i n e e r i n g v i e w p o i n t .
For a g i v e n s u r f a c e a r e a A under t h e r a i n s t o r m s t e s t e d , t h e r e l a t i v e peak
discharge \ / i A was f o u n d t o decrease w i t h i n c r e a s i n g w t h i s decreas-
i n g t r e n d was more pronounced f o r f l a t t e r l o n g i t u d i n a l b a s i n s l o p e s
x
.
The r e l a t i v e t i m e o f o c c u r r e n c e o f t h e peak d i s c h a r g e , t W/L, was f o u n d
P
t o b e a c o n s t a n t f o r each o f t h e t h r e e d i r e c t i o n s o f t h e movement o f t h e
rainstorms tested, The t i m e l a g between t h e maximum r a t e s o f r a i n f a l l
and r u n o f f , expressed i n n o n d i m e n s i o n a l forms, t i/L,was found t o be
2
a p p r o x i m a t e l y a c o n s t a n t f o r a g i v e n w a t e r s h e d and independent o f t h e v e l o c -
i t y o f t h e r a i n s t o r m movement. Moreover, the r e l a t i v e time i n t e r v a l t r i / L ,
where t i s t h e t i m e between t h e peak d i s c h a r g e and t h e d i s c h a r g e o f one
r
h a l f o f t h e peak, was f o u n d a s a u n i q u e f u n c t i o n d e c r e a s i n g w i t h i n c r e a s i n g
\wl/i. Nevertheless, i t has been demonstrated t h a t t h e p h y s i c a l n a t u r e o f
t h e r e c e s s i o n p o r t i o n o f t h e hydrographs v a r i e s w i t h d i f f e r e n t watersheds
b u t as an a p p r o x i m a t i o n i t i s n o t d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d t o t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
o f t h e rainstorm.
A s i m p l e l i n e a r lumped systems approach was i n t r o d u c e d t o p r e d i c t
t h e r u n o f f due t o moving r a i n s t o r m s . The method u t i l i z e s t h e c o n t i n u i t y
r e l a t i o n s h i p and r e q u i r e s c e r t a i n d a t a t o b e a v a i l a b l e f o r a g i v e n w a t e r -
shed t o e v a l u a t e t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s r e l a t i n g t h e s t o r a g e t o r a i n f a l l and
runoff. T h i s method has b u i l t - i n drawbacks i n t h a t i t i s an over-
s i m p l i f i c a t i o n and does n o t a c c o u n t f o r t h e t i m e l a g e f f e c t o f t h e t r a n s -
formation o f r a i n f a l l t o discharge. Thus t h e method can o n l y be used as
a f i r s t approximation.
FIG. 7 . EXPERIMENTAL HYDROGRAPHS FOR A SQUARE
-
t
T
FIG. 15. EXPERIMENTAL HYDROGRAPHS FOR A SQUARE
WATERSHED, W,/ i =4900, i L / v ~ 2 4 0
5gg
Z<N
E 3, I I
wa.
a
x
m \
w a d
cvl
pa)
iL
-
pa)
aoa
0 lo"
A = area
B = breadth of channel, as defined i n Fige 1; also, water surface width
b = width of overland flow, as defined i n Fig. 1
C = Chkzylscoefficient; also, a constant
c= concentration of raindrops; also, a coefficient
D = hydraulic depth
d = equivalent diameter of raindrop
IF = Froude number
F, = body force
F r = resistance
= shear force
FT
f = Darcy-Weisbac.hns
resistance coefficient
g = gravitational acceleration
h = depth of flow
I = input rate or inflow rate
i = rainfall intensity
K = coefficients, j = 1 to 6
j
k = surface roughness .
L = length of watershed
M = momentum
4~
]R = Reynolds number
S .= storage
s = slope
s f = energy gradient, measured as slope
= slope of land or channel
so
w = width of a watershed
x = longitudinal coordinate
z = vertical coordinate
water surface
v = kinematic viscosity
p = mass density
a = surface tension
T = shear stress
REFERENCES
i s t i c ~ ,B~u l l .
No. 10, D i s a s t e r P r e v e n t i o n Research I n s t i t u t e , Kyoto
UnSv., Stanford, C a l i f .,
1957,
Oct. 1'963,
15. Harbaugh, T o E., and Chow, V, T., "A Study o f t h e Roughness o f Conceptual
R i v e r Systems o r Watersheds," 2 Vol. 1,
pp. 9-17, June 1967.
16. Grace, R. A., and Eagleson, P . S., "The M o d e l l i n g o f O v e r l a n d Flow,"
Water Resources Res., AGU, V o l . 2, pp. 3 9 3 - 4 0 6 , 1966.
25, Yu, Y . S., and McNown, J . S., "Runoff from I m p e r v i o u s Surfaces," J . Hyd,
Res., I n t e r n a t . Assoc. Hyd. Res., V o l . 2, No. 1, Pp. 3-24, 1964.
26. Chen, C. L., and Chow, V. T., "Hydrodynamics o f ath he ma tic ally Sirnu-
l a t e d S u r f a c e Runoff , ' I 3
.