In the beginning

Todays Lecture:
Formation of the chemical elements (nucleosynthesis)
Formation of the solar system
The lines of evidence that allow us to deduce how the solar
system formed
Formation of the Elements
Cosmological Nucleosynthesis:
Most H and He formed shortly (few seconds) after the Big
Bang
(H and He are most of the universe!)
Stellar Nucleosynthesis:
Most heavier elements (metals in astronomical jargon)
form either in Red Giants or Supernovae
(but without these there would be no life!)

Galactic Nucleosynthesis:
Li, Be, and B form in space through high energy
collisions
(and, Li at least, in red giants??)
Stellar Nucleosythesis
Red Giants
Large stars that have exhausted hydrogen fuel in their
cores and go on to burn (i.e., fuse) He, C, O, etc.
Creation of elements up through Fe
Extra neutrons can be captured to produce heavier
elements in the slow-neutron capture process (s-process)
Supernovae
Once core is converted to iron, large stars collapse and
then explode
Enormous numbers of neutrons produced are captured to
produce heavy elements in the rapid neutron-capture
process (r-process)
Protons may be captured in the p-process
Stellar Nucleosythesis:
Supernova 1987A
Formation of the Solar System
How can we know how the Solar System
and the Earth formed?
Observing star formation elsewhere in the
universe
Meteorites: preserve a record of early events in
our Solar System
Laws of physics; understanding chemical
behavior of the elements
Observing our own solar system: distribution of
the elements, mass, angular momentum, etc. in
our own solar system.
Meteorites QuickTime and a
GIF decompressor
are needed to see this picture.

Much of the evidence

for how the solar
system formed comes
from meteorites.
Meteorites are simply
stones that fall from the
sky.
Most come from
asteroids of the
asteroid belt (e.g.,
Eros). A few from Mars
and the Moon.
Were once parts of
larger bodies.
Meteorites are usually divided into
three classes:
Irons
iron-nickel alloy
Stones
mostly silicates (like
Earths mantle &
crust)
Stony-Irons
Mixture of the above
A better classification is:
Primitive Meteorites
Chondrites
class of stones so called because the contain
chondrules, mm-sized spheres that were once molten
These Meteorites contain information about the early
Solar System
Differentiated Meteorites
Irons and non-chondrule-bearing stones called
achondrites.
Achondrites are similar to igneous rocks

These Meteorites provide information about the

formation of planets
Some Cosmochemical Definitions:
Volatile: elements with low boiling points
or forming compounds with low boiling
points
Refractory: Elements with high boiling
point of forming compounds (oxides)
with high boiling points.
Chondrites
Classes
Carbonaceous (C)
compositions close to that of the Sun for non-volatiles
Ordinary (H, L, LL)
Enstatite (E)
Classes related by variation in:
metal content
volatile element content
state of oxidation
Chemical variations thought to be due to
processes in solar nebula
Many chondrites contain decay products of
radioactive elements synthesized shortly before
Constituents of Chondrites
Chondrules
once molten droplets: give evidence of high temperatures
for short times
Refractory Inclusions
highly refractory compounds such as Al, Ti, Ca oxides
Rich in Platinum group metals and refractory trace
elements
are gas condensates or refractory residues
give evidence of very high temperatures
Matrix
More volatile material, metal; rich in C, H (e.g., carbonates,
hydrated silicates, organics) in carbonaceous chondrites
Differentiated Meteorites
Achondrites
igneous or brecciated textures
similar to igneous rocks from Earth and Moon
Irons
Appear to have cooled from molten iron
textures give evidence of slow cooling: interiors
of asteroid size bodies (10 to 1000 km diameter)
Chemical variations in differentiated
meteorites reflect melting and
segregation on parent bodies
Meteorite Ages
Most meteorites give ages close to 4.56 Ga by
most dating methods. (Ga = billion years)
Primitive meteorites generally slightly older than
differentiated ones, but not by much
Virtually all events recorded in meteorites
occurred within few 10s of millions of years of
4.56 Ga.
Small group of achondrites give much younger
ages (e.g., 1.3Ga). These are the SNC
meteorites, thought to be from Mars; also a few
rare meteorites from the Moon.
Cosmic ray exposure ages much younger:
meteorites came from larger bodies.
Astronomical Observations of Star
Formation
Giant Nebulae (e.g.,
Great Nebula in Orion)
are regions of active star
formation
Stars form by collapse of
parts of these great
clouds of gas and dust
(These are also regions
of nucleosynthesis since
many of the stars born in
them are massive and
end their short lives as
supernovae).
Star Birth in the Orion Nebula
``Proplyds'' in Orion Nebula
Edge on View of a Proplyd