Desalination 153 (2002) 55–64

Non-conventional solar stills

Part 1. Non-conventional solar stills with charcoal particles as
absorber medium

Mona M. Naima*, Mervat A. Abd El Kawib

a
Chemical Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, Alexandria University, Alexandria, Egypt
Tel. +20 (3) 5424029; email: moodstet@menanet.net
b
Institute of Graduate Studies and Research, Alexandria University, Alexandria, Egypt

Received 20 April 2002; accepted 30 April 2002

Abstract

A solar still in which charcoal functions both as heat absorber medium and as wick has been constructed. The
still presents a 15% improvement in productivity over wick-type stills, is cheap, simple to construct, and in addition
has the advantages of low thermal capacity, lightweight and ease of operation. It is made of plastic outer rectangular
body in which salt water is allowed to percolate through a charcoal bed of particles that extends the length of the
still, and above which a glass plate is made to cover the still at an optimum distance from the charcoal bed. The still
bottom is insulated by a suitable layer of sawdust and the still is mounted on a wooden frame of adjustable inclination.
Factors such as size range of charcoal particles, brine flowrate, and still inclination to the horizontal have been
investigated. It was found that at high flowrates both the coarse particles followed by the intermediate size gave the
best productivities, whereas at moderate flowrates the finest charcoal gave the best result. At low flowrates, the three
sizes gave practically comparable productivities.

Keywords: Desalination; Solar energy; Solar stills; Solar still efficiency; Charcoal wick

1. Introduction a worldwide imbalance between supply and

The population increase, economic develop-
ment, in addition to global warming are creating
*Corresponding author.
demand of fresh water. The task of providing
adequate supplies of fresh water may indeed
become the most serious problem facing the world
on the onset of this new century. Sources of fresh

Presented at the EuroMed 2002 conference on Desalination Strategies in South Mediterranean Countries:
Cooperation between Mediterranean Countries of Europe and the Southern Rim of the Mediterranean.
Sponsored by the European Desalination Society and Alexandria University Desalination Studies and Technology
Center, Sharm El Sheikh, Egypt, May 4–6, 2002.

0011-9164/02/$– See front matter © 2002 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved
56 M.M. Naim, M.A. Abd El Kawi / Desalination 153 (2002) 55–64
water must be found and the most likely sources
are the great oceans and seas that can be desali-
nated by various methods including the utilization
of solar energy. Most existing desalination plants
use fossil fuel as a source of energy. Although a few
techniques such as multi-effect evaporation, multi-
stage flash distillation, thin film distillation, reverse
osmosis, and electrodialysis, are energy intensive
and operating cost is high, direct use of solar energy
represents a promising option for eliminating the
major operating cost required in each case.
Solar distillation represents a most attractive
and simple technique among other distillation
processes and is especially suited to small-scale
units at locations where solar energy is considerable.
Accordingly, it seemed necessary to search for
solar stills that are easy to construct and that could
provide us with the necessary daily amount of
drinking water, not forgetting the drought that has
been prevailing in several areas of Africa for the
last two decades.
Numerous attempts have been made by many
investigators in order to produce fresh water by
means of solar energy. The simple solar still of
the basin type is the oldest method and improve-
ments in its design have been made to increase
its efficiency [1–5].
Howe and Tleimat [4] reviewed 20 years of
work on solar distillation carried out at the Sea-
water Conversion Laboratory, University of
California.
Delyannis [3] reviewed the major solar dis-
tillation plants around the world. In most of these
plants covers made of glass were used and the
black lining was either asphalt or black butyl
rubber.
In a study by Bemporad [6], the theoretical
feasibility scheme was analyzed. The proposed
scheme exploits the vapor pressure difference
between fluids of different salinities and temp-
eratures to produce fresh water from seawater.
The scheme basic components are a seawater
column, an injection pipe heated on top through
a heat exchanger loop, a withdrawal pipe, a
vacuum chamber filled with vapor, and a fresh
water column cooled on top, where vapor con-
denses into fresh water. The author also developed
a mathematical model to simulate the complex
hydrodynamic phenomena occurring in the water
column during the desalination process.
Hirschmann [1] gave a brief historic description
of solar distillation in Chile and the famous plant
built by Carlos Wilson in 1872. He considered
various forms of basin-type and wick-type stills.
Delyannis and Piperoglou [7] discussed the
design and performance of the Patmos solar dis-
tillation plant in Greece, where the development
of the community is hindered because of lack of
fresh water. The Patmos still was covered with
glass, but the original unique large basin for the
whole still was abandoned. Several individual
units formed groups of stills (71 units arranged
in three groups), and the bottom of the basin was
made of concrete strips, while the lining of the
basin was formed of butyl rubber sheeting.
In a study by Mowla and Karimi [8] in Iran, a
solar still was mathematically simulated and the
rate of production of fresh water from seawater
was calculated as a function of different meteo-
rological parameters and the solar still specifi-
cations. The authors checked the validity of their
proposed mathematical model by erecting an
experimental solar still of the inverted V-shaped
glass cover type in Shiraz (Iran) in which there are
more than 200 sunny days, since Iran is situated
in a region of the world where the solar radiation
intensity is considerably high. The experimental
and calculated results were in good agreement.
Gomkale and Datta [9] designed a simple solar
still, which produces 5–7 L/d of purified water
using aluminum components and black poly-
ethylene film as the base liner and insulation bed
of sand and saw-dust at the bottom, an aluminum
channel for distillate collection and an asbestos
cement sheet as the bottom supporting plate. The
unit has a double-sloped glass cover placed at an
angle of 20º. The authors stated that over a year
the unit had an annual average productivity of 2.5
L/m2d, i.e. an efficiency of 28% at Bhavnagar in
India. The productivity of the still was rather low,
 M.M. Naim, M.A. Abd El Kawi / Desalination 153 (2002) 55–64
mainly due to heat loss by convection currents in
the large air space, and also due to loss of latent
heat of condensation to the air via the glass cover.
Headley [2] described a new design for a tilted
double-sided solar still with cascade water trays.
The necessary black surface was achieved by
coating the cascade with asphalt or black butyl
rubber. For insulation fiberboard or fiberglass were
used.
A conference on various current desalination
technologies such as membrane processes; ion-
exchange techniques; evaporation process based
on solar energy utilization; and other desalination
techniques were discussed by Khanna [10]. Other
matters such as physical properties of seawater
and economics of desalination processes and by-
product recovery, etc. were also discussed.
A simple multiple wick solar still made of a
frame of aluminum, a glass cover and a water
reservoir made of galvanized iron was designed
by Sodha et al. [11]. Foam insulation was supported
beneath the aluminum bottom by a net of nylon
ribbon. The authors claimed the present design
to offer several advantages including lightweight
and low cost of the still and a significant output.
Frick and Von Sommerfeld [12] and Naim [13]
studied the effect of thermal insulation and several
other factors on the efficiency of solar stills of
inclined evaporating cloth.
The performances of different types of solar
stills have been studied by Moustafa et al. [5].
They concluded that the wick-type collector
evaporator system is better than the basin type;
however, the system they proposed suffers from
having controls and correspondingly higher cost.
Siegmund [14] invented a solar distillation
apparatus wherein water evaporates from a fleece
in intimate contact with a heat exchanger and is
condensed by inflowing seawater.
Soleau [15] patented a unique two-section still
that included a first section that is oriented
horizontal and a second section, which is oriented
at an angle with the first. The still included the
source of water, evaporator, pure water collector
57
and the solar absorber and an airflow separator
plate all covered by a transparent cover.
The Ohbayashi-Gumi, Ltd. in Japan [16]
invented a still for seawater desalination, which
consists of a clear plastic membrane dome that is
inflated with carbon dioxide in which the con-
densate is collected at the bottom of the solar
heated dome.
A device for desalinating seawater was
patented by Boflet [17]. It consisted of a convex
reflecting bowl, which focuses sunlight onto
vertically mounted concentric tubes. The bowl
floats on the seawater surface and the lower open
end of the outer tube permits seawater to enter
the space between the tubes where it is evaporated,
permitting the vapor to rise into the upper open
end of the inner tube, where it condenses and is
removed.
Speros and Speros [18] patented a single-effect
solar energy distillation apparatus of the tilted or
inclined floor type that absorbs solar energy to
evaporate a liquid more efficiently, which they
claimed especially useful for desalination.
A unique solar distillation method has been
developed by Coffey [19] at ESB Inc. in the USA.
He described a solar still in which vertical micro-
porous evaporator having a dark outer surface is
housed with, but separated from, a transparent
tube. Impure or salt first evaporates either by
mechanical means or by capillary forces from a
reservoir at the tube base. Sunlight impinging on
the inner dark tube causes water to evaporate
there-from. The vapor subsequently condenses on
the inner surface of the transparent tube and runs
down to a collecting ring at the base. The author
has found that the accumulated impurities in the
water, flow down the porous evaporator so that
its surface pores do not become clogged. How-
ever, the author has not defined the exact mechanics
of transport within the self-cleaning microporous
evaporator. A continuous increase in the salinity
of the contained feed water takes place while the
evaporator remains uncontaminated.
A compact solar still, which consists of three
58 M.M. Naim, M.A. Abd El Kawi / Desalination 153 (2002) 55–64
stages one on top of the other and in direct contact,
was designed by Naim [20]. The advantage of the
still is that the latent heat of condensation of the
top stage is used to generate vapor in the next
stage, and so on. Consequently the still is of out-
standing productivity (1.735 L/m2 h).
Adhikari et al. [21] presented a computer simu-
lation model for studying the steady state per-
formance of a multi-stage stacked tray still. The
model is validated by the results of simulated
experiments on a three-stage unit having an
immersion type electric heater as the heating
source. The results obtained from the model using
the modified heat and mass transfer relationships
proposed in their previous study, were found in
good agreement with the experiments. The authors
also presented results in the paper to appreciate
the relative performance of the multi-stage,
stacked tray solar still with a diffusion type, multi-
stage solar still.
Solar desalination of ground water was studied
by Minasian et al. [22]. Three different designs
of earth-water stills of single-sloped type, designed
for producing drinking water in remote areas were
investigated. The stills were installed over an
insulated hole, a hole with insulated base, and a
hole with insulated walls. Multiple linear regression
equations, relating to ambient air temperature,
wind speed, and solar radiation, were developed
to estimate the productivity of these stills. Their
results also showed that the average wall’s con-
tribution in supplying fresh water is about 56%,
whereas base contribution is about 31%, and that
the stills gave a much higher output during the
winter months than during the summer months,
due to greater condensation since the ambient
temperature is lower in winter than it is during
summer time.
A solar still with multiple basins, resulting in
an enlarged evaporation area, was simulated
computer-wise in order to explore the quantitative
relationship between evaporation area and the
distillation yield, by Kwatra [23]. The results
showed a gain of around 19.6% in the yield when
the evaporation area was quadrupled and an
asymptotic (infinite area) gain of around 30.2%.
The analysis showed that all of the asymptotic
improvement in the yield is attributable to the
more efficient evaporation-condensation process
in the still with enlarged evaporation area.
Naim [24] devised a single-stage solar desali-
nation spirally-wound module of original design,
that makes use of both the latent heat of con-
densation of the formed vapor and the sensible
heat of the concentrated solution, in preheating
the incoming saline water, with the aim of
maximizing the distillate productivity of the
apparatus over current solar stills. The effect of
saline water flow-rate, insulation beneath and
around the module, and inclination to the hori-
zontal, which in turn affect the flow-rate in this
case, were investigated. Maximum distillation
efficiency attained was 34% in one case, in which
the productivity was 575 ml/m2h. The still con-
figuration is expected to yield outstanding pro-
ductivities if further optimized.
Naim [25] also proposed a scheme for the
moderate scale desalination of seawater, in which
the latter is to be pumped by wind turbines through
filters to a solar field that consists of large concrete
channels with double-plate cover segments of
glass and Plexiglas in which the water becomes
preheated to about 60ºC then is subjected to multi-
stage flash distillation.
Iwabuchi [26] patented a method for desali-
nation of brine by distillation using solar energy.
The method is carried out by supplying the brine
into an evaporation tank arranged with a re-
circulation pump and a sprinkler, arranging a vinyl
house on the opening of the tank, and a water-
collection ditch inside the house and a solar heater
outside the house. The solar water in the tank is
re-circulated to the heater during daytime to
produce warm water, while at nighttime the water
in the tank is sprayed by the sprinkler for evapo-
ration, to collect water in the ditch.
Solar stills represent the best technical solution
to supply remote villages or settlements with fresh
water without depending on high technology and
expertise. A capillary film distiller called DIFICAP
 M.M. Naim, M.A. Abd El Kawi / Desalination 153 (2002) 55–64
(distiller with a film in capillary motion) in which
a very thin layer of tissue with fine mesh, saturated
with water, is maintained in close contact with a
metal plane due to the surface tension, which is
much greater than the gravitational forces was
devised by Bouchekima et al. [27].
Al-Hallaj et al. [28] discussed solar desalination
with humidification-dehumidification cycle in
which air is circulated by nocturnal or forced
convection and was heated and humidified by the
hot water obtained from a flat plate solar collector
or from an electric heater. The latent heat of
condensation was recovered in the condenser to
preheat the saline feed water.
The development of solar distillation systems
has demonstrated their suitability for desalination
process when the weather conditions are favorable
and the demand is not too large. This paper
presents a technique assessment of various and
up to date developments in single- and multi-effect
solar stills. The development in still configuration,
the problems encountered with units during the
course of operation as well as the impact on the
environment were addressed by Fath [29].
Optimization of number of effects for higher
yield from an inverted absorber solar still, using
the Runge-Kutta method by Suneja and Tiwari
[30], in which a multi-basin inverted absorber
distiller unit was considered [30]. The effect of
reuse of latent heat from vaporization from res-
pective lower basins on daily yield has been studied
for optimization of number of effects. In this paper
an attempt was made to make use of charcoal
particles by allowing them to function both as the
absorber and wick in a solar still of classic design.
2. Experimental
2.1. Experimental set-up
The set-up is a do-it-yourself apparatus. It
consists of a Perspex rectangular shaped box 1 m
long, 0.5 m wide, 0.1 m high. Fig. 1 represents a
schematic diagram of the still. Sawdust is spread
evenly on its bottom to form a layer about 0.05 m
59
Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of the charcoal solar still.
thick above which a plastic sheet is placed such
that it fits exactly all round. At one end of the
sheet a copper channel running breadth-wise
functions as feed reservoir for the still. The channel
is fed with salt water through a copper pipe. At
the opposite end of the sheet two similar channels
one on the top of the other and slightly apart serve
as receivers for distillate and brine blow down
through which the liquids are drained through
copper pipes. Charcoal particles of uniform size
are placed uniformly onto the plastic sheet into a
layer 0.02 m thick. 0.03 m above the charcoal bed
a glass plate (0.003 m thick) is made to cover the
whole surface of the plastic box. An adhesive tape
is then stuck onto the top rim to seal any clearance
between the plastic box and the glass plate so that
the box becomes airtight. The still is placed on a
wooden base of variable inclination to the horizontal.
A plastic tank (60 L capacity), equipped with a
tap and painted in black, functions as a brine
reservoir and feeds the still through rubber tubing.
2.2. Procedure
The still is made to face south. The feed tank
containing the salt water of 3 g/L concentration
is connected to the channel at the top of the still.
The charcoal bed is wetted with some salt water
before covering the still with the glass plate. The
glass plate is scrubbed with soap and water, and
60 M.M. Naim, M.A. Abd El Kawi / Desalination 153 (2002) 55–64

then rinsed with tap water followed by distilled Table 1

water, then it is placed onto the top rim of the box Results of one experiment for demonstration
and the still sealed with an adhesive tape. The
Time of day Distillate Saltwater Ambient
flowrate of the salt water is adjusted to the desired
received, blowdown, temperature,
value. Two receiving flasks are connected one to ml ml ºC
each channel outlet at the lower end to receive
9:30 AM — — 26.0
the distillate and brine blowdown. The amount 11:00 120 850 26.5
of distilled water and brine blowdown, and ambient 12:30 PM 260 1000 26.7
temperature, are all recorded at regular time inter- 2:00 335 570 26.6
vals. At the end of the experiment, the flowrate is 3:30 310 530 26.3
recorded once more, in order to obtain an average 5:00 175 380 26.0
value for the initial and final values.
Date: 2/6/2001; type of absorber: coarse charcoal (average
2.3. Variables investigated diameter 0.007 m); general weather conditions: windy and
cloudy; average salt water flowrate 50 ml/min.
Three variables were investigated for their
effect on the productivity of the still, namely brine
flowrate, size of charcoal granules and still incli- temperature were all recorded for each experi-
nation to the horizontal. ment.
1. Brine flowrate. The flowrates employed The volume of blow down was recorded in
ranged between 40 and 160 ml/min. order to check the flowrate measured at the
2. Size of charcoal granules. Three sizes viz. beginning and end of the experiment and the
0.0015, 0.005 and 0.007 m were studied. The average value calculated therefrom. The results
granules were crushed, when desired, by hammering as given in Table 1 were then presented graphically
in a mortar. For finer particles the crushed as shown in Fig. 2. Finally the results of all experi-
particles were subjected to further size reduction ments were presented in Table 2. In each case the
by grinding in a ball mill. The particles were distillate was analyzed for chloride ion by Mohr’s
classified manually in case of the large size and method, and was found to be completely free from
by sieving in case of moderate and fine sizes. chloride. Fig. 3 shows the effect of salt water
3. Still inclination. Two slopes were inves- flowrate on the distillate received, with charcoal
tigated, 30 and 17°. All experiments were con- particle size as parameter. The optimum productivity
ducted with a slope of 30°, except one. Two addi- achieved was that in experiment 16, Table 2. On
tional experiments were performed for comparison. calculating the still efficiency from the following
The first included underlining the coarse charcoal equation given by Delyannis [3]:
bed by a layer of jute material, while the second P
included the jute material without charcoal so that Still efficiency, % = × 8913 × 100
R
the still functioned as wick-type still in this case.
where P is still productivity (gal/ft 2d); R is
insulation received by the still (BTU/ft2d).
3. Results and discussions
The efficiency was found to be 32.3%. The
The results of each experiment were tabulated value of R was obtained from the insolation tables
as in Table 1, which is presented for demonstration. by Kreider and Kreith [31], knowing the date, time
As indicated, the date, time of day, volume of of day and the latitude of Alexandria.
distillate received, type of absorber, saltwater It was realized that at low flowrates (50 ml/min)
blowdown, weather conditions and ambient the finest charcoal resulted in the best productivity
Table 2
Final results of all experiments

Experiment Date of Type of Average salt water Maximum Duration of Volume of Average hourly Weather
number experiment absorber flow rate, ambient experiment, distillate distillate, conditions*
ml/min temperature, ºC h received, ml ml
1 31/5/2001 Coarse 37.5 28 7 550 78.6 W
2 2/6/2001 Coarse 50 27 7.5 1200 160 W&C
3 4/6/2001 Coarse 65 25.5 7 1190 170 W&C
4 3/6/2001 Coarse 85 27 7.5 1210 161 W&C
5 5/6/2001 Coarse 130 30.5 7 1460 209 W&S
6 9/6/2001 Coarse+Jute 130 27 6 697 116 S
7 10/6/2001 Jute 135 30 6 1068 178 S
8 19/6/2001 Intermediate 50 27.5 7 1015 145 W
9 16/6/2001 Intermediate 65 27.5 7 1265 181 W
10 14/6/2001 Intermediate 85 25 7 1175 168 W
11 13/6/2001 Intermediate 130 28 6 1125 187.5 W&S
12 25/6/2001 Fine 51.8 27 6 1205 200 W&S
13 25/6/2001 Fine 76.6 28.5 6 1360 226.7 S
14 24/6/2001 Fine 83.3 30 7 1157 165.3 W&S
15 23/6/2001 Fine 121.5 27.5 6 615 102 W&S
16 27/6/2001 Fine 176.6 30 6 1585 263.6 S

*In all the experiments, the slope was 30º except experiment number 16 in which the slope was 17º; W, windy; C, cloudy; S, sunny.
M.M. Naim, M.A. Abd El Kawi / Desalination 153 (2002) 55–64
61
62 M.M. Naim, M.A. Abd El Kawi / Desalination 153 (2002) 55–64

1200 26.8 (about 130 ml/min) the coarse charcoal yielded

Distillate
the highest productivity followed by the inter-
Brine
1000
Ambient
26.6 mediate then the fine sizes (compare experiments
5, 11 and 15 in Table 2).
The difference in the productivity in case of

Ambient temperature (°C)

800 26.4
Volume received (ml)

the three different sizes was realized to increase

600 26.2
with increasing flowrate, becoming a maximum
at high flowrates. In general, it has been concluded
that at high flowrates both coarse and intermediate
400 26
sizes gave the best productivity, whereas at both
moderate and low flowrates fine charcoal gave
200 25.8
slightly better productivities. The reason for these
findings may be attributed to the fact that the
0 25.6
coarser the charcoal is the more glossy is its
9.5 11 12.5 2 3.5 5
Time of day
surface resulting in light reflection through the
cover with consequent heat loss. This effect is
Fig. 2. Graphical representation of results given in Table 1. pronounced at low flowrates when the particles
are not all completely covered with a water layer,
1600 leading to high losses. On the other hand, at high
1400
flowrates a layer of water covers the particles so
that the long wavelength infrared heat rays, which
1200 are reflected from the particles’ surface, are
absorbed rapidly by the water layer and thus made
Distillate volume (ml)

1000
use of. Moreover, at high flowrates, the finer
800 particles gave poor results probably due to the
fact that water had diffused into the tiny particles
600
of large surface area with the consequent temp-
400 erature drop between the inside and outside of
Coarse
Medium the particle resulting in a low rate of heat transfer
200 Fine between the particles and the water, a condition
0
that is minimum in case of coarse particles.
0 50 100 150 As to the effect of still inclination to the hori-
Saline water flowrate (ml/min) zontal, it was noted that an inclination of 17° led
to a higher productivity (compare experiments 13
Fig. 3. Effect of saline water flowrate on distillate received
with charcoal particle size as parameter. and 16 in Table 2), a result that was expected since
the optimum inclination in the northern hemisphere
of the earth equals the latitude minus 15°, and
(compare experiments 2, 8 and 12 in Table 2) fol- since the latitude of Alexandria is approximately
lowed by the coarse then the intermediate sizes, 32°N, it is obvious why an inclination of 17° to
though the difference is not striking. At higher the horizontal gave the best productivity.
flowrates (85 ml/min) the three sizes led to rather Comparison between experiments 5 and 7 in
comparable productivities though the coarse char- Table 2 reveals the important observation that
coal gave the highest value (compare experiments charcoal led to a better still productivity than when
4, 10 and 14 in Table 2). At still higher flowrates a wick (jute cloth) was used. A 15% improvement
 M.M. Naim, M.A. Abd El Kawi / Desalination 153 (2002) 55–64
over the wick type still was achieved. In general,
the charcoal still represents an improvement over
the classic wick-type still, it is cheap, simple to
construct, and has the advantage that the charcoal
is resistant and will not be worn out as in case of
jute cloth. Moreover, purification of the water
from soluble contaminants can be achieved simul-
taneously, which is an important merit of the
present still.
4. Conclusions
It has been shown that charcoal granules can
be used as absorber medium successfully instead
of wick-type, black butyl rubber, or asphaltic
absorbers. A 15% improvement in productivity
over wick-type stills has been attained. The still
is non-conventional, cheap, simple, easy to con-
struct and operate, and is of low thermal capacity.
It has also been shown that coarse charcoal
granules give acceptable results at high flowrates
followed by intermediate then fine granules. The
still is postulated to be used in wastewater
treatment coupled with production of potable
water. In addition, variable bed thicknesses can
be used for efficient removal of pollutants from
the waste-water.
References
[1] J.R. Hirschmann, Solar distillation in Chile, Desali-
nation, 17 (1975) 17–30.
[2] O. St.C. Headley, Cascade solar still for distilled water
production, Solar Energy, 15 (1973) 245–258.
[3] A.A. Delyannis and E.A. Delyannis, Solar desalting,
Chem. Eng., 19 (1970) 136–140.
[4] E.D. Howe and B.W. Tleimat, Twenty years of work
on solar distillation at the University of California,
Solar Energy, 16 (1974) 97–105.
[5] S.M.A. Moustafa, G.H. Brusewitz and D.M. Farmer,
Direct use of solar energy for water desalination, Solar
Energy, 22 (1979) 141–148.
[6] G.A. Bemporad, Basic hydrodynamic aspects of a solar
energy based desalination process, Solar Energy, 54(2)
(1995) 125–134.
[7] A. Delyannis and E. Piperoglou, The Patmos solar
63
distillation plant: technical note, Solar Energy, 12
(1968) 113–115.
[8] D. Mowla and G.K. Karimi, Mathematical modeling
of solar stills in Iran, Solar Energy, 55(5) (1995) 389–
393.
[9] S.D. Gomkali and R.L. Datta, Some aspects of solar
distillation for water purification, Solar Energy, 14
(1973) 387–392.
[10] M.L. Khanna, Conference on Water Desalination:
meeting report, Solar Energy, 12 (1968) 273–277.
[11] M.S. Sodha, A. Kumar, G.N. Tiwari and R.C. Tyagi,
Simple multiple wick solar still: analysis and perform-
ance, Solar Energy, 26 (1981) 127–131.
[12] G. Frick and J. Von Sommerfeld, Solar stills of inclined
evaporating cloth, Solar Energy, 14 (1973) 427–431.
[13] M.M. Naim, An improved wick-type solar still for
the production of distilled water, Proc. International
Symposium–Workshop on Renewable Energy
Sources, Lahore, Pakistan, March 18–23, 1983.
Renewable Energy Sources: International Progress,
T.N. Veziroglu. Ed., Elsevier, Amsterdam, Part A,
1983, pp. 331–340.
[14] G. Siegmund, Ger. Offen. 3,010,208 (C1. Co 2 F1/
14), 24 Sep. 1981, Appl. 17 March 1980.
[15] B.S. Soleau, Jr., US US4, 344,824 (C1. 202–234),
b01d3/00), 17 Aug. 1982, Appl. 163,523, 27 June
1980.
[16] Ohbayashi-Gumi Ltd. Jpn., Kokai Tokyo Koho, Jp.
82 21, 976(C1. Co2 F1/14), 4 Feb. 1982, Appl.
80,96,740, 14 July 1980.
[17] J. Boflet., Swed. SE 421,205 (C1. Co2 F1/14), 7 Dec.
1981, Appl. 80/6, 639, 23 Sept. 1980.
[18] D.M. Speros and P.C. Speros, US 4,267,021 (C1. 202–
176; Co2F1/14), 12 May 1981, Appl. 881,613, 27 Feb.
1978.
[19] J.P. Coffey, Vertical solar distillation: technical note,
Solar Energy, 17 (1975) 375–378.
[20] M.M. Naim, A compact three-stage unit for saltwater
desalination, Proc. 6th Miami International Con-
ference on Alternative Energy Sources, December 12–
14, 1983, Miami Beach, FL, USA. Alternative Energy
Sources VI, T.N. Veziroglu, Ed., Hemisphere
Publishing, 1 (1983) 441–450.
[21] R.S. Adhikari, A. Kurnar and G.D. Sodha, Simulation
studies on a multi-stage stacked tray solar still, Solar
Energy, 54(5) (1995) 317–325.
[22] A.N. Minasian, A.A. Al-Karaghouli, M. Hasan and
A. Shakir, Utilization of solar earth–water stills for
desalination of ground water, Solar Energy, 49(2)
(1992) 107–110.
64 M.M. Naim, M.A. Abd El Kawi / Desalination 153 (2002) 55–64
[23] H.S. Kwatra, Performance of an enhanced evaporation
area on yield and evaporation temperature, Solar
Energy, 56(3) (1996) 261–266.
[24] M.M. Naim, Solar desalination spirally-wound
module, Alternative Energy Sources VIII, T.N. Vezir-
oglu, Ed., Hemisphere Publishing, 1 (1987) 571–580.
[25] M.M. Naim, A scheme for desalination of seawater
by solar energy, Proc. 6th Miami International Con-
ference on Alternative Energy Sources, Dec. 12–14,
1983, Miami Beach, FL, USA. Alternative Energy
Sources VI, T.N. Veziroglu, Ed., Hemisphere Publish-
ing, 1 (1983) 429–440.
[26] A. Iwabuchi and Z. Massaka, Method for desalination
of brine by distillation using solar energy, Jpn. Kokai
Tokkyo Koho Jp 10 286,558 [98 286,558] (CL.
Co2F1/04), 27 Oct 1998, Appl. 97 95,599, 14 April,
1997.
[27] B. Bouchekima, B. Cros, R. Quahes and M. Dibouni,
Performance study of the capillary film solar distiller,
Desalination, 116 (1999) 185–192.
[28] S. Al-Hallaj, F.M. Mehdi and T.A. Rahman, Solar
desalination with a humidification-dehumidification
cycle: performance of the unit, Desalination, 120
(1999) 273–280.
[29] H.E.S. Fath, Solar desalination: a promising alternative
for water provision with free energy, simple techno-
logy and a clean environment, Desalination, 116
(1998) 45–56.
[30] S. Suneja and G.N. Tiwari, Optimization of number
of effects for higher yield from an inverted absorber
solar still using the Runge-Kutta method, Desalination,
120 (1999) 197–209.
[31] J.F. Kreider and F. Kreith, Solar Heating and Cooling
Revised, 1st ed., Hemisphere Publishing, Washington,
DC, 1977.