Plants are capable of reproducing asexually by vegetative propagation which is the most

common form of asexual reproduction in flowering plants. The vegetative reproductive

structures are as follows:

1. Stolons- long, slender stems with elongated internodes which grow along the surface of
the soil. Where the nodes touch the soil, roots and shoots are produced. (A node is a point
of attachment of a leaf to the stem).
2. Rhizomes- underground stems that have scale-like leaves. They grow into areas near the
parent plant and a new shoot is produced by the node.
3. Corms- underground stems that produce buds which eventually develop into suckers. The
suckers are used for propagation. Corms are short, erect, fleshy underground stems
covered with thin, dry leaves of leaf bases
4. Bulbs- short, erect, underground stems that are enclosed by thick, fleshy modified leaves
or leaf bases.
5. Tubers- swollen stems or roots that function as underground storage organs. The stem
tubers produce buds along from the stem which aerial stems arise or sprout. Root tubers
however do not produce bulbs. The buds are only present where the tuber was attached to
the stem of the plant.

Vegetative propagation involves fragmentation, the separation of parts of the parent plant,
regeneration of those parts into new individuals. Any part of the plant (leaf, stem, bud or root)
can serve the role. The parts are often highly specialized for the task and bear little resemblance
to the original plant organa from which they have evolved. A typical example is the potato which
is a modified stem.

A plant is not expected to survive for a long time in a constantly changing world if it relies
exclusively on asexual reproduction. Plants that exhibit vegetative propagation have not
abandoned the sexual process but they do however, continue to produce flowers in the usual way.

To ensure the continued survival of favorable genotypes, organs of vegetative propagation also
act as perennating organs that lie in the soil over the winter in some plants. The perennating
organs are often swollen with excess food from the previous summer which is used to produce
the new offspring the next year. One advantage is that growth can begin early in the spring using
the stored food and the plant is therefore able to start the process of photosynthesis when there is
little competition for light from the other species. This is particularly important for small plants
that live in deciduous woodlands where they are subject to shading by their larger neighbors.

The perennating organ is the organ that enables the plant to survive harsh conditions in the
winter.

Conservative vegetative propagation includes the usage of budding, cuttings, divisions, air
layering and grafting. These are the methods that are used in the cloning of individual plants and
the multiplication of plants that are sexually sterile and do not produce seeds.
A clone or cultivar is a plant selected for a distinct attribute. The method used to propagate a
plant depends largely on the type of plant. The breadfruit Artocarpus altilis is a seedless form of
the breadnut Artocarpus communis. Both trees produce root suckers that are used for propagation
but if the breadfruit is grown from a seed, it takes 10 years to produce fruit. However, if it is
vegetatively propagated then it produces fruit in 3 years much in the same time that a breadfruit
is produced if grown from a root sucker.

Artificial Methods of Vegetative Propagation

1. Divisions- popular method used by gardeners to multiply plants. Gingers (Alpinia sp.),
heliconias (Heliconiaceae) and orchids can be easily propagated by the division of
clumps at the root connections that have a growing point.
2. Cuttings- a cutting is a portion of a plant stem that has nodes. They are dipped into
rooting hormone powder before planting. The rooting hormone powder causes the
cuttings to develop roots faster. The cuttings are then placed in damp soil, sand or
compost and kept moist until they begin to develop new roots.
3. Grafting- this is used for valuable cultivars that are difficult to propagate or for those that
are more vigorous when grown on another plant. The stock is the plant that provides the
root system and the grafted shoot is called the scion. The stock and scion are chosen from
closely related plant species, the scion is inserted into the cambium layer of the stock and
secured, and the scion and stock will eventually grow as a single plant. The cambium is a
layer of cells in the stem between the xylem and the phloem that actively divide. This is a
method used particularly for fruit trees like mango and citrus.
4. Air layering- is a method used to root a stem while it is still attached to the parent. The
stem is cut just above the node and wedged opened to separate the cut surfaces.
Sphagnum moss is wrapped around the cut stem and kept moist until the roots form, the
air-layered plant is removed after it develops a root system.

Micro-propagation which is sometimes referred to as tissue culture propagation or cutting is the

test-tube methods of culturing whole plants asexually from very small pieces of tissue (explants)
cut from the parent plant.

Each non-reproducing body cell (somatic cell) of a plant has the potential to form a whole plant.
This is called toti-potency. The conditions necessary for toti-potency are:

- A source of energy
- Water
- Suitable nutrient medium that includes mineral salts, vitamins and growth regulators
- A suitable temperature
- Suitable levels of light
- Sterile conditions which must be maintained until an independent plant is formed in order
to exclude microorganisms that would find the culture medium an ideal place in which to
grow
Micro-propagation is used for ornamental and horticultural plants, the rapid introduction of new
varieties of plants, disease elimination and storage of genetic material. This type of propagation
is used extensively in sugar cane cultivation to develop plants that are virus free.

Many commercially important plants are propagated using methods of tissue culture. Small
pieces of tissue are removed and cultured in a liquid medium or on a solid medium. The media
contains sucrose as a source of energy, nutrients so the plant cells can make all the biological
molecules they need and plant hormones to regulate the type of growth. At the beginning of
culturing the number of cells increases, but at the end cells are stimulated to differentiate into
stems, roots and leaves.

Note: Aseptic technique is used to ensure that no contaminants ruin the stock of plants. This
involves sterilizing the media, using sterile containers and implements; spores are removed by
filtering the air and staff can take precautions such as wearing appropriate clothing, masks and
gloves.

Factors Affecting Micro propagation:

For a successful in vitro clonal propagation (micro propagation), optimization of several factors
is needed. Some of these factors are briefly described:

1. Genotype of the plant:

Selection of the right genotype of the plant species (by screening) is necessary for improved
micro propagation. In general, plants with vigorous germination and branching capacity are more
suitable for micro- propagation.

2. Physiological status of the explants:

Explants (plant materials) from more recently produced parts of plants are more effective than
those from older regions. Good knowledge of donor plants natural propagation process with
special reference to growth stage and seasonal influence will be useful in selecting explants.

3. Culture media:

The standard plant tissue culture media are suitable for micro propagation during stage I and
stage II. However, for stage III, certain modifications are required. Addition of growth regulators
(auxins and cytokinins) and alterations in mineral composition are required. This is largely
dependent on the type of culture (meristem, bud etc.).

4. Culture environment:

Light:
Photosynthetic pigment in cultured tissues does absorb light and thus influence micro-
propagation. The quality of light is also known to influence in vitro growth of shoots, e.g blue
light induced bud formation in tobacco shoots. Variations in diurnal illumination also influence
micro propagation. In general, an illumination of 16 hours day and 8 hours night is satisfactory
for shoot proliferation.

Temperature:

Majority of the culture for micro propagation requires an optimal temperature around 25C.
There are however, some exceptions e.g. Begonia X Cheimantha hybrid tissue grows at a low
temperature (around 18C).

Composition of gas phase:

The constitution of the gas phase in the culture vessels also influences micro propagation.
Unorganized growth of cells is generally promoted by ethylene, O2, CO2 ethanol and
acetaldehyde.

The main advantages of the use of tissue culture are as follows:

Plants can be rapidly multiplied from a mother plant which has desirable characters
Plants can be maintained free of pests and diseases
The use of tissue culture plantlets in area that are free to nematodes means that
nematicides do not have to be applied to the soil to control these pests.
There is a high survival rate (98%) of tissue culture plantlets under field conditions
Plants from tissue culture plantlets grow faster in the early growing stages than those
from suckers
In comparison with suckers, tissue culture plants are cheaper and easier to propagate and
transport
Tissue culture plants grow uniformly in the field and all flower and bear fruit at the same
time

Bibliography
 Durant. C (2013) Biology for CAPE Examinations. Macmillan Publishers. Chapter 9:
Asexual Reproduction and Vegetative Propagation. Pg. 126-129
Kent. M (2000) Advanced Biology. Oxford University Press. Chapter 14.8: Commercial
Applications of Vegetative Propagation. Pg. 304-304
Toole. G & Toole. S (2014) New Understanding Biology for Advanced Level (4th
edition). Oxford University Press. Chapter 12: Reproduction, Development and
Growth.pg. 216-217