2 Describe how to determine the time of death of a mammal by

examining the extent of decomposition, stage of succession, forensic

entomology, body temperature and degree of muscle contraction.

Decomposition

Putrefaction is the first sign of decomposition- in humans a greenish

discolouration of the skin of the lower abdomen
This is due to the formation of sulphaemoglobin in the blood which will spread
across the rest of the body
o Green> darken to reddish green> and then turn purple- black in
colour
Gases e.g. methane and carbon dioxide form in the intestine and tissues due to
the action of bacteria
This causes the body to smell and become bloated
As the tissues decompose further the gas is released= and the body deflates
Decay rate of dry body is reduced when fluid associated with putrefaction drains
away
In average conditions in a temperature climate:
o Discolouration of the abdominal wall- 36 and 72 hours of death
o Gas formation- occurs after about a week
The temperature of the body will determine the rate of decomposition
In hotter temperatures, if the body remains above 26oC gas formation may occur
within 3 days
Low temperatures slow down decomposition
Warm temperatures speed up decomposition
The rate of decomposition is highest between 21- 38oC
Intense heat will denature enzymes involved in autolysis= delaying the start of
decay
If the body is injured decomposition may be quicker as bacteria aiding in
decomposition can enter through wounds

Stage of succession

A corpse will attract insects that feed directly off of the corpse and others that
feed off of each other
As each organism feeds on a body it changes the conditions of the body which
makes the body attractive to another group of organisms
This will continue until the body is reduced to a skeleton- this is a predictable
process with different groups of organisms occupying the decomposing body at
different times
Normally eggs are laid in wounds or at openings to the body (nose and mouth)
The season, weather conditions, size and location of the body will influence the
type and number of species present
The length of each stage of succession depends on the condition of the body
which in turn depends on the environmental conditions
Most of the early insects remain on the body until advanced stages of decay
Insects can be used to determine if the body has been moved e.g. there may be a
species of insect found on a body that would not naturally occur in that location-
by determining life stage/ larval stage: egg, larva (maggot),pupa and adult

Other decomposers
 Bacteria from the gut invade the tissues after death
Other bacteria and fungi from the surroundings colonise the corpse= contributing
to decay and changing conditions on the decomposing body

Forensic entomology

The presence of insects allows an estimation of how much time has elapsed since
death
Information on the location and condition of the body are recorded
Samples of insects are taken from the body and their exact location and where
they were found are recorded
The temperature of the air, ground, body and maggot mass are also recorded so
that the rate of maggot development can be determined
The temperature history of where the body was found can be obtained from local
meteorological records
Species identification is made easier by taking live insects from the body and
feeding them on meat to complete their development= determine time taken to
reach next instar
The time of egg- laying may be an underestimate because we dont know when
the insects discovered the body
Complicating factors: maggot mass
o Metabolic activity by large numbers increases the temperature of the
cadaver significantly
o This can result in shorter development times
o This is important at cooler temperatures
Complicating factors: Bioaccumulation
o Drugs and poisons can change development rates
Poisons e.g. arsenic slow maggot development
Cocaine speeds up maggot development

Body temperature

Human core body temperature is normally in the range of 36.2- 37.6oC

As soon as a person dies their body starts to cool due to the absence of heat-
producing chemical reactions
The temperature of the body is useful in the first 24 hours of post mortem when
determining time of death
Core body temperature is measured via the rectum or through an abdominal stab
A long thermometer is used because a clinical thermometer is too short and has
too small a temperature range
Environmental conditions will affect how the body has cooled
The cooling of the body follows a sigmoid curve (reverse S shape)
If a person is suffering from a fever or has hypothermia their body temperature at
the point of death will be elevated or depressed
Factors that affect post mortem cooling:
o Body size
o Body position
o Clothing
o Air movement
o Humidity
 o Temperature of surroundings
A body in water will cool more rapidly as water is a better conductor of heat than
air

Rigor mortis

The position of joints will depend on the body position at time of death
After a further period of time, rigor mortis passes and muscles are again relaxed
o After death muscle cells are starved of oxygen= oxygen dependent
reactions stop
o Respiration in the cells becomes anaerobic and produces lactic acid
o The pH of the cells falls= inhibiting enzymes= inhibiting anaerobic
respiration
o ATP needed for muscle contraction is no longer produced = bonds between
the proteins become fixed
o Proteins can no longer move over one another to shorten the muscle=
fixing the muscle and joints
Most human bodies complete rigor mortis in 6-9 hours after death
However if the environmental temperature is high= rigor mortis is quicker
If the person has been physically active before death= rigor mortis is quicker