CIV 4200 - Civil Engineering

Construction & Maintenance

The Design and

Construction-
Maintenance Schedule
of a Groyne Field for
the No.63 Beach

April 19, 2017

Faculty of Civil Engineering with Environmental

Engineering
THE UNIVERSITY OF GUYANA
 Group Members
Name USI

Neil Beeraspat 1012008

Damien Monize 1013011
Joseph Leo 1011821
Mahendra Mentore 1016205
Stephano Seecharan 1012360
Reedel James 1011307
Oren Wilson 1022245
Rafel Garraway 1014758
Lloyd George 1012494
Junior Holder 1011712
Ammi Hollingsworth 1012908
Afazal Baksh 1012318
Shenelle Reid 1013025
Chandradeo Ghansham 1011529
Jamal Joe 1011545
Jitendra Bridgemohan 1011884
Jonathan Hohenkirk 1012950
Reedel James 1011307
Oren Wilson 1022245
Table of Contents
Acronyms.................................................................................................................... 1
Introduction................................................................................................................ 2
Beaches................................................................................................................... 2
What is a beach?.................................................................................................. 2
Types of Beaches.................................................................................................. 2
Coastal Erosion and Coastal Structures...................................................................2
Hard Structural/Engineering Options.......................................................................3
Groynes................................................................................................................ 3
Soft Structural/Engineering Options........................................................................4
Combinations of Options......................................................................................... 4
No.63 Beach Description......................................................................................... 4
Oceanographic Characteristics............................................................................. 5
Vegetation description for No. 63 Beach..............................................................5
Coastal Structures at the Beach...........................................................................5
Beach Erosion...................................................................................................... 5
Groyne Design............................................................................................................ 7
Location................................................................................................................... 7
Tides........................................................................................................................ 7
Shoreline Topography.............................................................................................. 9
Groyne Height and Width...................................................................................... 10
Groyne Length....................................................................................................... 12
Groyne Spacing..................................................................................................... 12
Groyne Alignment................................................................................................. 13
Material Selection.................................................................................................. 14
Construction and Maintenance of the Groynes.........................................................15
Geotextile Groyne Construction............................................................................ 15
Maintenance of the Groyne Field...........................................................................15
Sources of Failure in Groyne Performance.............................................................17
Bibliography............................................................................................................. 18
Acronyms
UNESCO - United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization

EPA Environmental Protection Agency

CREP - Caribbean Regional Environmental Programme

CARIFORUM - The Caribbean Forum of ACP States

1
Introduction
Beaches
What is a beach?
A beach is defined as a zone of unconsolidated material that extends landward from
the low water line to the place where there is marked change in material or
physiographic form, or to the line of permanent vegetation (usually the effective
limit of storm waves) (Allen, 1972).

Types of Beaches
Beaches differ in shape, according to the forces that created them: waves, tides and
wind. They also differ according to the material available: mud, sand, iron sand,
shells, cobbles, boulders, etc.

Coastal Erosion and Coastal Structures

Beaches are constantly changing formations. They change over hourly, daily and
yearly time-periods. Shoreline changes induced by erosion and accretion are natural
processes that may occur in response to short-term events, such as storms, regular
wave action, tides or winds, or in response to long-term events such as glaciation or
orogenic cycles that may significantly alter sea levels and techtonic activities that
cause coastal land subsidence or emergence (Prasetya, n.d.).
Hence, most coastlines are naturally dynamic, and cycles of erosion are often an
important feature of their ecological character. Wind, waves and currents are
natural forces that easily move the unconsolidated sand and soils in the coastal
area, resulting in rapid changes in the position of the shoreline.
When waves approach the shoreline at an
angle, they generate a longshore current which
transports sand suspended in the water along
the shore. In addition, the wave-generated
turbulence carries sand up the beachface in
the general direction of the wave approach. As
the water returns seaward, it moves directly
down the beachface in response to gravity.
Thus, sand moves along the beachface in a
zig-zag motion (UNESCO, n.d.)

Figure 1 Longshore sediment transport. When the

waves approach at an angle to the shoreline, the
sediment on the beachface is moved along the
beach (adapted from US Army Corps of Engineers,
1981a)
Excluding the impact of human activity, these processes are simply natural
evolutionary phenomena. Human activities along the coast (land reclamation, port
development, shrimp farming), within river catchments and watersheds (river
damming and diversion) and offshore (dredging, sand mining) in combination with

2
these natural forces often exacerbate coastal erosion in many places and jeopardize
opportunities for coasts to fulfill their socio-economic and ecological roles in the
long term at a reasonable societal cost (Prasetya, n.d.).
Options for combating coastal erosion are traditionally twofold, namely hard
structural/engineering options and soft structural/engineering options. These
solutions have at least two hydraulic functions to control waves and littoral
sediment transport (Prasetya, n.d.). A combination of hard and soft options has
become more popular recently for optimum results because they have weaknesses
when used singly.

Hard Structural/Engineering Options

Hard structural/engineering options use structures constructed on the beach
(seawalls, groynes, breakwaters/artificial headlands) or further offshore (offshore
breakwaters). These options influence coastal processes to stop or reduce the rate
of coastal erosion.

Groynes
A groyne is a shore protection structure built perpendicular to the shoreline of the
coast (or river), over the beach and into the shoreface (the area between the
nearshore region and the inner continental shelf), to reduce longshore drift and trap
sediments (Allen, 1972).
A groyne field or system is a series of groynes acting together to protect a beach.
Rock is often used as construction material, but wooden groynes, steel groynes,
rubble-mound and sand-filled bag groynes, or groynes made of concrete elements
can also be found. Rock groynes are generally preferred as they are more durable
and absorb more wave energy due to their permeable nature. Timber or gabions
may be used for temporary structures.
Groynes trap sediments from longshore drift so that the coast behind the sand layer
is protected from erosion. Their effectiveness depends on their extension into the
river or sea. As any other systems acting on the long-shore drift, they can
negatively affect the transportation and sedimentation pattern of underflow areas,
causing downdrift erosion. Other adverse effects (especially for rivers) can be an
increase in current velocity in the constricted flow area, with increasing bed erosion
and a deepening of the bed level.
While groynes trap sediment on one side (accretion), they may cause a sand deficit
and therefore erosion on the other side (UNESCO, n.d.).
A properly designed groyne field should ensure that, as the sand builds up to the
end of the groyne, material passes over or around the end of the groyne to the
downdrift shore, but at a slower rate than before its construction. (Figure 2) It is
sometimes necessary to combine groyne fields with beach nourishment. In such
cases, the groynes help to reduce the rate of longshore transport along the beach
and thereby retain the sand where it was placed during the nourishment project.

3
Groynes functionFigure
most 2 Effect of a groyne
effectively field.
along Sand moves
coastlines around
where thedirection
the end of each
of longshore
groyne to feed downdrift sections of the beach (adapted from US Army
transport is constant. In the Caribbean
Corps of Engineers, 1981a) islands with their prevailing Northeasterly
Trade Wind regimes, the predominant longshore transport direction is from east to
west (UNESCO, n.d.). Experience has shown that groynes work best along north- or
south-facing coastlines and are least effective on east- or west-facing coastlines. For
example, groynes have worked reasonably effectively on the north coast of Nevis.
Similarly, much of the south coast of Barbados has been stabilized with groynes.

Soft Structural/Engineering Options

Soft structural/engineering options aim to dissipate wave energy by mirroring
natural forces and maintaining the natural topography of the coast. They include
beach nourishment/feeding, dune building, revegetation and other non-structural
management options.

Combinations of Options
Combining hard and soft solutions is sometimes necessary to improve the efficiency
of the options and provide an environmentally and economically acceptable coastal
protection system. Hard solutions are known to:
cause erosion and unnecessary accretion;
be expensive and often further aggravate the problem; and
spoil the aesthetic aspect of the beaches or coastlines they seek to
protect, hence decreasing their economic value, especially for tourism
purposes.
Meanwhile, many soft solutions can:

take time to become effective (not overnight or quick-fix solutions), which

generates negative public response; and
be effective solutions only in medium- to long-term perspectives (five to
ten years).
A planned retreat where the coast is left to erode can be expensive, unnecessary
and sometimes impossible, especially in highly modified environments such as
tourism areas and waterfront cities. To optimize the long-term positive impact of
soft solutions, many combinations with hard solutions can be selected; combining
beach nourishment and artificial headlands/groynes and revegetation and
temporary offshore breakwaters/artificial reefs that act as interim hard structures is
the most common approach.

4
No.63 Beach Description
No.63 beach is situated on the eastern side of the Corentyne coast, bounded by the
Corentyne River estuary on the east, coconut reefs and swamps on the west, and
mangroves on the north and south. The area is responsible for a hub of economic
activities (EPA Guyana, 2007).
The Beach is considered the longest stretch of natural Beach in the Caribbean,
being approximately 8.5 Km in length and made up of mostly alluvial sand clay (EPA
Guyana, 2007). The No. 63 Beach study area is part of the southern-most section of
the Corentyne Coast extending from No. 54 Village in the north to No. 65 Village in
the south.
The Beach profile consists of a broad intertidal Beach and a low to non existent fore
dune system which is almost completely occupied by watermelon farming. The
Corentyne community associated with No. 63 Beach is characterised as a low
density, rural residential land use area. No. 63 Beach is also a popular
recreation/tourist destination offering a low tide Beach with easy access that
attracts many locals, day trippers and visitors. It is heavily used on Sundays, bank
holidays, long weekends, religious occasions and religious festive seasons. The
Beach is also a popular offshore fishing location.

Oceanographic Characteristics
Very shallow marine water depths are a constant characteristic in the area. The 5 m
depth is usually reached at about 16 Km (10 miles) from the coastline. The tides are
semi-diurnal type and the amplitude ranges between 1.3 and 2.3 m. The flood tide
current is southward, while the ebb current is northward. The surface water
temperature is almost constant throughout the year ranging between 27 C and 29
C. The coastal areas are permanently under the influence of the feeder rivers
discharging in the area. Thus, during the rainy season there is considerable
influence on nearshore salinity, with salinity ranging seldom above 25 30 % (EPA
Guyana, 2007).

Vegetation description for No. 63 Beach

The condition of vegetation at No. 63 Beach is summarized below (EPA Guyana,
2007):

Much of the native vegetation has been modified or cleared, which extends to
the erosion scarp of the fore dune;
There are many areas along No. 63 Beach where the pioneer vegetation has
been destroyed through human activities, such as recreation, driving, and
cattle grazing; and
Mangrove communities exist within the estuarine areas of the No. 63 Beach
coastal area. These have also experienced high levels of sediment loss
mainly due to storm wave activity.

Coastal Structures at the Beach

According to a Beach Management Plan which was done for No. 63 Beach by the
EPA in 2007, there were no coastal engineering protective structures found in the
study area. No coastal engineering protective structures were observed while on the

5
fieldtrip nor did the residents of the area mention such structures while they were
being interviewed (EPA Guyana, 2007).
Generally, the existing structures are the five wooden benabs and the three wooden
pavilions (which were constructed in 2008), watermelon farm fence boundaries,
existing access roads (in use or abandoned) and water ways/discharge points.

Beach Erosion
The erosion scarp at No. 63 Beach varies in height along the shoreline, with some
areas at about 1m and other areas smaller or not at all. Serious erosion problems
have emerged especially towards the northern end of No. 63 Beach and to the
southern end where a watercourse makes its egress into the Corentyne River.

Figure 3 Current Beach Conditions Showing Loss of Beach area due to Erosion (EPA Guyana, 2007)

6
Groyne Design

Location
The site of the groyne field is located on the East Coast of Demerara in Region 6.
The area is Reach 3 of the 63 Beach coastline as specified by the BEACH
MANAGEMENT PLAN FOR No. 63 BEACH CORENTYNE, GUYANA, which was a study
conducted by the EPA in 2007. This includes 2.1 km of shoreline between the
villages of No.43 to No. 74.

c
Figure 4 The location of 63 Beach along the Corentyne coastline (EPA, 2007)

Tides
Guyanas predominant tides are caused by (in addition to the Sun and the Moon)
the Southern Equatorial Ocean Current. This a movement of ocean water that
occurs due to northwards flow from the Arctic Ocean followed by eastwards flow
across the Atlantic Ocean. The tides tend to occur in a motion towards the North-
East or Southeast, and other directions within that range. Very shallow marine water
depths are a constant characteristic in the area. The 5 m depth is usually reached at
about 16 Km (10 miles) from the coastline. The tides are semi-diurnal type and the
amplitude ranges between 1.3 and 2.3 m. The flood tide current is southward, while
the ebb current is northward. (EPA, 2007)

7
8
 Figure 5 The tidal directions and wave amplitudes along the Atlantic-South American border
(Meteo365, 2017)

The largest known tidal range along the East Coast that was measured in the recent year is 2.77m with the
average being around 2.6m. (Meteo365, 2017). The recent measurements and forecasts of the tides confirm
that these patterns remain intact as the 7-day tables confirm north-easterly tides as well:

9
Figure 6 The recent tide forecasts, wave conditions and winds reflect mean data values (Meteo365,
2017).

10
Shoreline Topography
The shoreline of 63 beach is an alluvial sand-clay: fine silt with clay particles intermixed to form a material that is dense and
easily consolidated by self-weight. The area leading up to the coast is heavily vegetated by creepers and coastal grasses whose
roots have allowed the silt to accrete several meters above sea level. This area ends drastically at a berm. The berm is 1.9 metres
high and at its foot is the beach surface. The beach has no recent data for cross-sections available and as such a topographic
survey was carried out to determine its cross-section. The survey was done by taking levels along three paths down-slope on the
beach surface; towards the ocean. An average cross-section of the beachs topography was drawn by using the mean values of
the obtained

High Tide
Line #1 Line #2 Line #3
RL Distance( RL Distance RL Distance
BS IS (m) m) BS IS (m) (m) BS IS (m) (m)
0.12 BS 0.12 BS 0.21 BS
2.07 1.95 0 2.08 1.96 0 2.08 1.96 0
2.22 2.1 10 2.2 2.08 10 2.21 2.09 10
2.32 2.2 20 2.31 2.19 20 2.31 2.19 20
2.45 2.33 30 2.42 2.3 30 2.4 2.28 29
2.5 2.38 35 2.39 2.39 35 2.6 2.48 39
2.67 2.55 45 2.63 2.51 42 2.96 2.84 49
2.89 2.77 55 2.99 2.87 52 3.33 3.21 59
3.25 3.13 65 62
Figure 7 The levels taken along the shoreline of the beach at hide tide; now reduced (Surveyed by S. Bailey, 12-04-2017)

Low Tide
Line #1 Line #2 Line #3
RL( Distance( RL( Distance( RL( Distance(
BS IS m) m) BS IS m) m) BS IS m) m)
0.49 BS 0.49 BS 0.49 BS
2.47 1.98 0 2.44 1.95 0 2.44 1.95 0
2.55 2.06 10 2.55 2.06 10 2.57 2.08 10
2.64 2.15 20 2.64 2.15 20 2.67 2.18 20
2.75 2.26 30 2.74 2.25 30 2.75 2.26 29
2.8 2.31 35 2.78 2.29 35 2.92 2.43 39
3.2 2.71 45 2.99 2.5 45 3.22 2.73 49
3.31 2.82 55 3.28 2.79 55 3.7 3.21 59
3.76 3.27 65 3.69 3.2 65 3.87 3.38 64
4 3.51 71 3.94 3.45 71 4.43 3.94 74
4.45 3.96 81 4.41 3.92 81
Figure 8 The levels taken along the shoreline of the beach at low tide; now reduced (Surveyed by S. Bailey, 12-04-2017)
11
12
 Analysis of the levels show that there is little fluctuation in the shore profile brought
about by the ebbing and flooding of the tides. At the high tide period in the
afternoon the cross-section remained relatively unchanged save for a few
millimeters.

Fluctuations
High Tide Mean Average
Low Tide Mean Levels from High to
Levels Level (m)
Low Tide (m)
Reduced Level Distan Reduced Level Distan
(m) ce (m) ce
1.96
1.96 0 1.96 0 0.00
2.08
2.09 10 2.07 10 -0.02
2.18
2.19 20 2.16 20 -0.03
2.28
2.30 30 2.26 30 -0.05
2.39
2.43 35 2.34 35 -0.09
2.64
2.63 42 2.65 42 0.01
2.95
2.95 52 2.94 52 -0.01
3.21
3.13 62 3.28 62 0.15

Figure 9 The Mean High and Low Tide Levels of the shoreline for 12-04-2017 at 63 Beach

The coastline is an expansive flat that slopes gradually into the ocean as far out as
16km (EPA, 2007) where the water depth is just 5m. Because of this the strong
winds create spilling breakers over a wide swash zone. These breakers sweep
sediment along the coastline in a north-easterly direction. This motion describes the
longshore drift of the study area which has caused the shoreline to recede.
The cross sections of the beach that were created highlight these features (see next
page).

Groyne Height and Width

The crest level or height of each of the proposed groynes is influenced by several
factors which will minimize the amount of construction materials used, control sand
movement over the top of the groynes and accommodate land-based construction
equipment that might operate directly on the structures. For practical construction
(above high tide level), a crest level of 2 m above the mean high water was chosen
for the landward end of the groynes while the seaward end maintained a crest level
of 2m above Mean Low Water. (Coghlan, 2013) The width of the groyne shall be at
least 2.5m to facilitate access during construction.

13
 Figure 10 A beach profile from the starting point of the levels to the berm of the beach.

The MLW tide is found 14.08m above Georgetown Datum at this section of the Corentyne coastline. The MHW tide is found at
16.77m above Georgetown Datum. (Netherlands Enginieering Council, 1973).

14
Groyne Length
The groyne must be abutted to the berm to prevent outflanking and as such
must run the entire beach width from the berm.
The length is also depended on the amount of longshore drift that is to be
stopped. For high groins extending from MLW to 1.2m below MLW or for low
groins extending to a depth 3m below MLW a 50% of the total annual rate of
longshore drift can be stopped. (US Army Corp.s of Engineers, 1984)

Figure 11 Sections of a typical groyne (US Army Corp.s of Engineers, 1984)

Length = (Horizontal Shore Section + Intermediate Shore Section) +

Outer Section
= 170m + 125m
= 195m (US Army Corp.s of Engineers, 1984)

Groyne Spacing

Nominal Length (ln) = 2.5Groyne Length (for 50% reduction in longshore

drift)
= 2.5*195m
=488m
(US Army Corp.s of Engineers,
1984)

Rs1

( )
0
1 tan 6
2
Spacing Ratio for subsequent groynes = ln
Rs1 0
1+ tan 6
2

(US Army Corp.s of Engineers,

1984)

15
16
 Length (m) Spacing (m) Groyne
th
195 488 5 (downdrift)
150 431 4th
115.2 331.5 3rd
88.5 254.6 2nd
68.2 200 1st (updrift)
Figure 12 Showing the groyne spacing and lengths in the downdrift direction

Groyne Alignment

Transition is most effective if a line connecting the seaward ends of the

shortened groins and the last full-length groin meets the natural shore
alignment at an angle of about 6 (US Army Corp.s of Engineers, 1984)
The groyne should receive the dominant tides at an incline so as to cushion
most of the incident wave force along its larger dimension. (US Army Corp.s
of Engineers, 1984)

Figure 13 Showing Plan of Groyne Field

17
Material Selection

Permeability allows part of the longshore drift to pass through the groin and
induces sand deposition on both sides of the groin. This in turn reduces the
abrupt offset in shore alignment found at impermeable groins. (US Army
Corp.s of Engineers, 1984)

As such a geotube groyne was selected for

the cross-section design since it features
other advantages such as a much easier
method of installation. Concrete groynes have
not fared well on the Guyana coastline, for
example the groynes along the Kitty seawall
which have had their concrete capping eroded
to expose their rebars. The muddy flats of
Guyana also tend to accumulate large
mounds of mud that brace against the groyne
surfaces and exert passive earth pressures
laterally.

Figure 14 The Kitty Groyne that has been

weathered and the mounds of mud
pressing against its active face. (EPA
Guyana, 2007)

Figure 15 The elements of a permeable membranes (geotube groyne) cross-section (EU Delegation in
Guyana , 2010)

18
Construction and Maintenance of the Groynes
Geotextile Groyne Construction
The procedure that will be used for the construction of the groynes for the groyne
field is listed below:

The area for the groyne field has to be surveyed to identify the elevations at
different locations and to identify the locations of each groyne and their
proximity from each other.
The groyne field will start with the groynes on the downdrift side being
constructed first. Based on the design, the direction of the movement of the
sediments will be identified hence the downdrift side will be identified. The
groynes on this side will be the longest as erosion tends to occur on the
downdrift side whereas accretion happens updrift.
Starting with the downdrift area, steel sheet piles will be placed adjacent to
the groyne location and will extend to the length of the groyne. This will be
done to allow dewatering and excavation of sand from the groyne location to
properly lay the geotextile fabric along with a scour apron. A big issue with
groyne fields in the long run is that they are susceptible to scouring at the
bottom of the groyne, the scour apron will be used to prevent scouring under
the geotube.
The tube will be hydraulically filled with sand using a pump that will be
trucked in. The grain size of the sand needed will be determined from the
pore size of the geotextile tube. The grain size will have to be bigger than the
pore size of the tubes so as to not allow particles to escape.
After the tube is filled and compacted, a layer of rip rap stone is placed
around it to help negate the forces of the waves and to help keep the tubes
firm. The stones weight will be stated in the design and will be done to the
required elevation.
Another layer of stone is placed above the rip rap stones which will act as the
armour for the tubs to ensure it stays stable and is not effected by the forces
of the waves. These stones will be places at the required elevations and the
correct weight for the stones will be checked based on the design.
This procedure is repeated for the other groynes in the groyne field

. (Scottish Natural Heritage,

2000)

Maintenance of the Groyne Field

After the groynes are erected is needed. However, overtime downdrift erosion will
occur and maintenance is needed to help with this.
The area should be monitored to observe any change in elevation and to check for
downdrift erosion. Beach nourishment is typically done for all groyne fields to
combat this problem. This is a long term maintenance plan and needs to be done
when the beach elevation of the downdrift side lowers.

19
 MAINTENANCE SCHEDULE
Person
Task Description Time of Execution Responsi
ble

Structural
Integrity
Physical Inspecting the anchor and armor Bi-monthly post Coastal Ph
Inspection rocks for thinning spots then construction until Engineer the
replenishing them. accretion is attained ins
Ma
sto
Settlement Conducting point surveys and Bi-annually until Sworn Tot
and drift compare them to prior elevations accretion is attained Land Pri
inspections and locations Surveyor da

Performan
ce
Accretion Aerial photography to compare the (Based on GIS update Draftsman GIS
area checks shorelines progress cycles)

Accretion Topographic surveys to measure Bi-annually until Sworn Tot

levels the levels. accretion is attained Land Pri
Surveyor da
Beach Artificially nourishing the updrift (Dependent on if Coastal Bo
nourishment fillets to speed up accretion if its accretion is being Engineer na
rate is too slow met)

Hydraulic
Monitoring
Wave Placing instruments to understand Continuously done by Coastal Se
Parameters tidal and coastal forces over the remote sensors Engineer
accretion period
Wind Collecting wind data from local Bi-annual collection Engineer Loc
Parameter sources.
The maintenance schedule for maintaining the proposed groyne field.

20
Sources of Failure in Groyne Performance
There are hydrologic patterns that can occur within a groyne field that are detrimental to the
accretion process :

The waves may enter at an angle that

allows them to smoothly run the course of
the fillet and maintain momentum. The
waves reverse eventually and flush
deposited sediment out of the groyne field.
(US Army Corp.s of Engineers, 1984)

The currents may form a whirlpool within the groyne field which
serves to make the area turbulent and inhibits deposition (US Army
Corp.s of Engineers, 1984)

The waves may also travel around the back

end of a groyne if it does not extend to the
shore far enough and is not abutted or
anchored properly. This causes the waves to
wash away fillets as they form and is
described as outflanking. (Prasetya, n.d.)

21
Bibliography
Allen, R. H. (1972). A Glossary of Coastal Engineering Terms. Chicago: U. S. Army, Corps of
Engineers, Coastal Engineering Research Center.
Coghlan, I. (2013). CONCEPT DESIGNS FOR A GROYNE FIELD ON THE FAR NORTH NSW COAST .
Concept Design Proposal, New South Wales.
EPA. (2007). BEACH MANAGEMENT PLAN FOR No. 63 BEACH CORENTYNE, GUYANA PART I.
Georgetown: Caribbean Regional Environmental Programme.
EPA Guyana, C. C. (2007). Beach Management Plan for No.63 Beach, Corentyne, Guyana.
Georgetown: EPA Guyana.
Meteo365. (2017, April 18). Map of Tide Stations in Guyana. Retrieved from 2017 Tide Times &
Tide Charts for the World: https://www.tide-forecast.com/weather_maps/Guyana
Netherlands Enginieering Council. (1973). Report on Sea Defence Studies Volume 1. Georgetown:
The Hague.
Prasetya, G. (n.d.). CHAPTER 4 PROTECTION FROM COASTAL EROSION. Retrieved from FAO
Corporate Document Repository: http://www.fao.org/docrep/010/ag127e/AG127E09.htm
Scottish Natural Heritage. (2000). Summary 12: GROYNES. Retrieved from
http://www.snh.org.uk/publications/on-line/heritagemanagement/erosion/credits.shtml
UNESCO. (n.d.). Environment and Development in Coastal Regions & in Small Islands. Retrieved
from Coastal Management Sourcebooks 1:
http://www.unesco.org/csi/pub/source/ero18.htm
US Army Corp.s of Engineers. (1984). Shore Protection Maual. Mississipi: Department of the Army.

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