Laura Ramirez

02/16/2017
RTE 142
Professor Yost

Notebook# 5
 DR Types of Image Receptors: Direct and Indirect Conversion

Digital Radiography (DR):Direct: Directly convert incoming x-ray photons into an electronic
digital system with Amorphous selenium (a-Se) Photoconductor that absorbs x-rays and
converts them into electrons, which are then stored in a field effect transistor (FET) OR thin
film transistor (TFT) for electronic readout. Indirect: (visible light): 2 systems; both utilizing
scintillators to change x-ray photons to light but vary in the way the light is converted into a
digital signal. Scintillator structured (needle/column form, thallium doped cesium iodide CsI[TI]
crystal) /unstructured (rare-earth intensifying screen made of turbid fine powdered granule
gadolinium oxysulfide; Gd202S crystal) phosphor arrays that emit light when stimulated by x-
rays with Amorphous Silicon (a-Si:H) Photodiode light detector to capture fluorescent light
and Thin Film Transistor (TFT) Array used for electronic readout. Scintillator structured
(needle/column form, thallium doped cesium iodide CsI[TI] crystal) /unstructured (rare-earth
intensifying screen made of turbid fine powdered granule gadolinium oxysulfide; Gd202S crystal)
phosphor arrays that emit light when stimulated by x-rays with Charged Coupled Device
(CCD) photosensitive receptor and electronics embedded into a substrate material in a silicon
chip; coupling device that acts as cameras OR Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor
(CMOS) containing pixels with its own amplifier that is switched on and off by circuitry within
the pixel; both CCD/CMOS converts light photons to electrical charges for readout.

PSP-Phosphor Plate (PSP) Systems utilize photostimulable Storage Phosphor plates and
are considered an indirect digital radiography system as images are captured in an analog
format like film and then converted into digital data via the scanning process.
CCD-Charged-coupled device or CMOS-complementary metal-oxide semiconductors,
are both considered direct digital imaging as images are captured in a digital format.
CCD and CMOS are very similar, though containing different micro architecture and
different cost basis related to production. CCD/CMOS sensors are available in both
wired-connected to a PC via a cable, and wireless-connected to a PC using RF "wireless"
connectivity.
Digital x-ray solutions are also available for extra-oral films such as panoramic or
cephlametric in both PSP and CCD varieties.

CCD/CMOS sensors have a limited dynamic range (or are more sensitive to overexposure) and
poor image quality will likely result if your x-ray generator does not operate within the
aforementioned criteria. A CMOS device converts light into a digital signal using photosensitive
pixels and on-chip circuitry. CMOS technology has a limited photosensitive area and higher
noise compared with a CCD, but the noise level has been improving. CMOS has several useful
characteristics: It requires low power to operate, has high-speed readout, is capable of on-chip
integration of electronic circuitry and produces digital signals without external converters

Indirect capture is a two-step process with 2 different types; one uses a charged couple device
(CCD) and the other uses a flat panel TFT detector with amorphous silicon that cannot directly
convert x-rays into an electric charge, but does work as a photodiode (light detector) to capture
fluorescent light but both utilizes a scintillator to convert the photons to light with the defining
difference in the way the light is converted into an electrical signal. A pixel is essentially an
element of the picture measured by individual matrix boxes which are just rectangular or square
table of numbers that represent the pixel intensity to be displayed on the monitor. Bit Depth
refers to the number of bits (single unit of data) stored per pixel and defines the shades of gray
available for each pixel. A byte is made up of 8 bits and is the amount of memory needed to
store one alphanumeric character. These overall affect the dynamic range (the ability of an
imaging system to respond to varying levels of exposure) and exposure latitude (amount of
error that can be made in exposure factor and still result in capture. CsI is manufactured as
structured crystals in needle or column form. Which significantly reduces light spread and
channels light toward the amorphous silicon photodiode.

CCD is made up of a photosensitive receptor and electronics embedded into a substrate material
in a silicon chip; coupling device that acts as cameras. The CCD is a photodetector capable of
converting visible light into an electrical charge and storing it in a sequential pattern to be
released line by line to the analog to digital converter ADC. The electrical signal produced by the
CCD is then sent to the computer for image processing. CCD is simpler than TFT based flat
panel system in modular design and is much less costly however the greatest disadvantage lies in
its demagnification issues resulting in reduced DQE (detective quantum efficiency). CMOS
differs in its ability to have each pixels amplifier switched on and off converting light photons as
electrical charges, which are then fed to an ADC and are released at readout.