BRITISH STANDARD BS 5628-3:

1985
(Reprinted,
incorporating
Amendment No. 1)

Code of practice for

Use of masonry
Part 3: Materials and components,
design and workmanship

(formerly CP 121-1)

UDC 624.012:693.1/.3
BS 5628-3:1985

Committees responsible for this

British Standard

The preparation of this British Standard was entrusted by the Civil

Engineering and Building Structures Standards Committee (CSB/-) to
Technical Committee CSB/33, upon which the following bodies were
represented:

Association of Consulting Engineers

Autoclaved Aerated Concrete Products Association
Brick Development Association
British Ceramic Research Association
British Precast Concrete Federation Ltd.
Building Employers Confederation
Calcium Silicate Brick Association Limited
Cement and Concrete Association
Department of the Environment (Building Research Establishment)
Department of the Environment (Housing and Construction Industries)
Department of the Environment (Property Services Agency)
District Surveyors Association
Greater London Council
Incorporated Association of Architects and Surveyors
Institution of Civil Engineers
Institution of Structural Engineers

The following bodies were also represented in the drafting of the standard,
through sub-committees and panels:

Aggregate Concrete Block Association

Association of British Roofing Felt Manufacturers
Association of Teachers in Technical Institutions
Eurisol (UK) Association of Manufacturers of Mineral Fibre Insulation
Fire Offices Committee
Institute of Clerks of Works of Great Britain Inc.
National Cavity Insulation Association
National Federation of Clay Industries Ltd.
Refractories Association of Great Britain
Royal Institute of British Architects
Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors
Coopted members

This British Standard, having

been prepared under the
direction of the Civil
Engineering and Building
Structures Standards
Committee, was published
under the authority of the
Board of BSI and comes into Amendments issued since publication
effect on
29 March 1985 Amd. No. Date of issue Comments
BSI 11-1999
4974 November Indicated by a sideline in the margin
1985
The following BSI references
relate to the work on this
standard:
Committee reference CSB/33
Draft for comment 77/11249 DC

ISBN 0 580 14368 6

 BS 5628-3:1985

Contents

Page
Committees responsible Inside front cover
Foreword iii
Section 1. General
1 Scope 1
2 Definitions 1
3 Related British Standards 3
4 Alternative materials, components and methods of design and
construction 3
Section 2. Materials and components
5 Masonry units 4
6 Materials for mortar 4
7 Wall ties 4
8 Anchorages, dowels and fixings 4
9 Reinforcement 6
10 Damp-proof courses 6
11 Sealants 6
12 Airbricks, gratings and flues 6
13 Sills 6
14 Lintels 7
15 Copings 7
16 Flashings and weatherings 8
Section 3. Design
17 General 9
18 Design for stability 10
19 Structural detailing for stability 19
20 Movement in masonry 31
21 Exclusion of moisture 36
22 Durability 56
23 Selection of mortars 67
24 Fire resistance 68
25 Thermal properties 73
26 Sound absorption and noise reduction 73
27 Masonry bonds and other constructional details 74
Section 4. Workmanship
28 Setting out 83
29 Scaffolding 83
30 Storage on site 83
31 Batching, mixing and use of mortars 84
32 Laying of masonry units 86
33 Constructional details 90
34 Provision of services, including fixings and chases 91
35 Protection against damage during construction 91
36 Supervision 92
Appendix A Determination of movement in masonry 93
Appendix B Masonry bonds and joint finishes 98
Index 102
Figure 1 Wind zones 12
Figure 2 Walls with edge restraint 14

BSI 11-1999 i
BS 5628-3:1985

Page
Figure 3 Fixed support conditions in solid walls 15
Figure 4 Fixed support conditions in cavity walls 16
Figure 5 Fixed and simple supports 17
Figure 6 Limiting dimensions of internal walls for stability 18
Figure 7 Typical ways of connecting floors and roofs 20
Figure 8 Typical anchorages, dowels and fixings 26
Figure 9 Typical chimney details 29
Figure 10 Movement joints 35
Figure 11 Overlap between exposure categories 38
Figure 12 Damp-proof systems 47
Figure 13 Matching facing masonry 77
Figure 14 Brick arches 81
Figure 15 Sizes of corbels 82
Figure 16 Factors affecting movement 96
Figure 17 Brick masonry bonds 99
Figure 18 Block masonry bonds 100
Figure 19 Joint finishes 101
Table 1 Anchorages, dowels and fixings 5
Table 2 Sills 6
Table 3 Lintels 7
Table 4 Copings 7
Table 5 Flashings and weatherings 8
Table 6 Selection of materials for masonry 10
Table 7 Height to thickness ratio for freestanding single-leaf walls
without piers 11
Table 8 Maximum permitted areas of certain walls 13
Table 9 Wall ties 28
Table 10 Classification of exposure to local wind-driven rain 37
Table 11 Assessment of resistance to rain penetration 39
Table 12 Physical properties and performance of materials for d.p.cs 42
Table 13 Durability of masonry in finished construction 59
Table 14 Protection of metal components (other than wall ties) built
into masonry 66
Table 15 Mortar mixes 67
Table 16 Notional fire resistance of walls 69
Table 17 Ready-mixed lime : sand mixes for specified
cement : lime : sand mortars 85
Table 18 Bulk density, water demand and yield of wet mortars 86
Table 19 Linear thermal movement of masonry units and mortar 94
Table 20 Moisture movement of concrete and calcium silicate
masonry units 95
Table 21 Shrinkage of mortars due to change in moisture content 95
Publications referred to Inside back cover

ii BSI 11-1999
 BS 5628-3:1985

Foreword

This Part of BS 5628, prepared under the direction of the Civil Engineering and
Building Structures Standards Committee, is a new code of practice for the design
and construction of brick and block masonry. It supersedes CP 121-1:1973, which
is therefore withdrawn.
The recommendations of this code are based on experience of single-leaf and
unfilled cavity walls. Filling the complete cavity of a wall with thermal insulation
will increase the risk of rain penetration through the wall. (See BRE Digest 236
Cavity Insulation 19801).)
Accordingly, a number of recommendations have been made for design detailing
and workmanship to minimize this effect of cavity insulation on the performance
of the wall.
A British Standard does not purport to include all the necessary provisions of a
contract. Users of British Standards are responsible for their correct application.
Compliance with a British Standard does not of itself confer immunity
from legal obligations.

Summary of pages
This document comprises a front cover, an inside front cover, pages i to iv,
pages 1 to 108, an inside back cover and a back cover.
This standard has been updated (see copyright date) and may have had
amendments incorporated. This will be indicated in the amendment table on the
inside front cover.

1) Available from the Building Research Station, Garston, Watford, Herts WD2 7JR.

BSI 11-1999 iii

iv blank
 BS 5628-3:1985

Section 1. General

1 Scope 2.7
datum
This Part of BS 5628 gives general
recommendations for the design and construction of defined level to which other levels may be related
brick and block masonry, including materials and 2.8
components, the main aspects of design, other than efflorescence
structural, which is covered by BS 5628-1 and
salts on the surface of the wall left by evaporation
BS 5628-2, and workmanship.
(see clause 22)
This code does not cover natural stone masonry.
2.9
Reference should be made to BS 5390.
fair faced
NOTE The publications referred to in this standard are listed
on page 107. work built with particular care, both to line and
with even joints, where the finished work is to be
2 Definitions visible
For the purposes of this standard the definitions 2.10
given in BS 6100-5 or in the British Standard for the frog
given material or component apply together with purpose-made indentation in either or both of the
the following. bed faces of a brick
2.1 2.11
bat indenting
portion of a brick either specially manufactured or recesses formed in masonry to receive future work
cut on site
2.12
2.2 jamb
capping
part of a wall at the side of an opening
unit or assemblage placed at the head of a wall that
does not shed rainwater from the top of the wall 2.13
clear of all exposed surfaces of the walling beneath jointing
NOTE Examples of cappings are brick-on-edge and other finishing of a mortar joint as the work proceeds
cappings that may be flush or overhanging but that do not (see B.3)
incorporate a throating or other device designed to shed
rainwater clear of the walling beneath. 2.14
2.3 lime bloom
cavity tray particular kind of efflorescence (see 2.8)
component provided to divert water that has 2.15
entered a cavity to the outside of the building masonry
2.4 assemblage of units jointed with mortar
closer 2.16
portion of a masonry unit used to maintain masonry masonry bond
bond, either specially manufactured or cut disposition of units in masonry (for examples,
[see Figure 17(a)] see B.1 and B.2)
2.5 2.17
coping masonry unit
unit or assemblage placed at the head of a wall and brick or block
designed to shed rainwater from the top of the wall
clear of all exposed faces of the walling it is intended 2.18
to protect panel
NOTE Examples of copings are copings complying with area of masonry with defined boundaries, that may
BS 5642-2, some types of continuous sheet metal or extruded contain openings
plastic copings and built up details, such as tile creasing.
2.19
2.6
pier
course
member that forms an integral part of a wall, in the
layer of masonry that includes a layer of mortar as
form of thickened sections placed at intervals along
well as a layer of units
the wall

BSI 11-1999 1
BS 5628-3:1985

2.20 2.26.2
pointing header
filling and finishing of raked-out joints masonry unit laid on its bed face with its longer
2.21 face perpendicular to the face of the wall
quoin [see Figure 17(a)]
external corner 2.26.3
pistol brick
2.22
string course brick, purpose made or sawn from whole brick on
site to form an accurate sized rebated shape to fit
distinctive course in a wall, usually horizontal, and over and face the nibs [see Figure 13(b)]
projecting
2.26.4
2.23 slip
toothing
masonry unit, either specially manufactured or cut,
masonry units left projecting to bond with future of the same height and length as a header
work (see 2.26.2) or stretcher (see 2.26.8), and usually
2.24 Types of joint with a thickness of between 20 mm and 50 mm
2.24.1 2.26.5
bed joint snap header
mortar layer upon which masonry units are set half unit with its end showing as a header
2.24.2 (see 2.26.2) on the face of the wall
collar joint 2.26.6
continuous vertical joint parallel to the face of the special unit
wall masonry unit whose shape is other than a
2.24.3 rectangular prism
cross joint 2.26.7
joint, other than a bed joint, at right angles to the squint
face of a wall special brick used at an oblique quoin
2.24.4 2.26.8
movement joint (control joint) stretcher
joint designed to permit relative movement of masonry unit laid on its bed with its longer face
sections of a structure built in masonry to occur parallel to the face of the wall [see Figure 17(a)]
without impairing the functional integrity of the 2.27 Types of support
structure (see Figure 10)
2.27.1
2.24.5 fixed support
perpend joint
support to the edge of a wall that restrains the wall
vertical cross joint against lateral movement and also substantially
2.25 against rotation [see Figure 5(a)]
shell bedding 2.27.2
bedding consisting of two separate strips of mortar simple support
covering the outer and inner face shells of the blocks support to the edge of a wall that may permit
in both horizontal and vertical joints, neither strip rotation but restrains the wall against lateral
being more than 50 mm wide movement [see Figure 5(b)]
2.26 Types of masonry unit 2.28 Types of wall
2.26.1 2.28.1
fixing unit single-leaf wall
masonry unit made to facilitate the driving of nails wall of masonry units laid to overlap in one or more
and screws and to achieve good holding directions and set solidly in mortar

2 BSI 11-1999
 BS 5628-3:1985

2.28.2 3 Related British Standards

cavity wall
This code gives general guidance applicable to all
two parallel single-leaf walls, usually at brick and block masonry. In certain cases its
least 50 mm apart and effectively tied together with recommendations may need to be supplemented by
wall ties reference to other British Standards, including the
2.28.3 following.
double-leaf (collar-jointed) wall Analysis of structures
two parallel single-leaf walls, with a space between Unreinforced masonry BS 5628-1
not exceeding 25 mm, filled solidly with mortar and
so tied together as to result in common action under Reinforced and prestressed
load masonry BS 5628-2
2.28.4 Accuracy in building BS 5606
freestanding wall
Access for the disabled to
wall without top or side support that depends for buildings BS 5810
stability on its mass and/or base fixity
Basic data for design of
2.28.5 buildings BS 6399, CP 3
grouted cavity wall
Cleaning and surface repair
two parallel single-leaf walls, spaced at least 50 mm of masonry BS 6270-1
apart, effectively tied together with wall ties and
with the intervening cavity filled with fine Foundations CP 101, CP 2004
aggregate concrete (grout) that may be reinforced so Manholes BS 8301, CP 2005
as to result in common action under load
2.28.6 4 Alternative materials, components
sleeper wall and methods of design and
wall, usually honeycombed, built to support a construction
suspended ground floor Where materials, components and methods of
2.28.7 design and construction are not covered by this code
veneered wall or by any other British Standard, this is not to be
wall having a facing that is attached to the backing, regarded as discouraging their use. The designer
but not so bonded as to result in common action should satisfy himself by reference to appropriate
under load manufacturers literature and test certificates
issued by competent, independent authorities that
2.29 the materials and methods to be employed are such
weathering as to ensure a level of performance at least equal to
cover applied to a structure, or the geometrical form that recommended in this standard.
of a part of a structure, enabling rain-water to be
shed

BSI 11-1999 3
BS 5628-3:1985
Section 2. Materials and components
5 Masonry units
5.1 Fired-clay masonry units
Fired-clay masonry units should comply with
BS 3921 or BS 6649.
5.2 Calcium silicate masonry units
Calcium silicate masonry units should comply with
BS 187 or BS 6649.
5.3 Concrete masonry units
Concrete masonry units should comply with the
relevant British Standard.
Concrete flue blocks BS 1289
Precast concrete masonry units BS 6073-1
Reconstructed stone masonry units BS 6457
6 Materials for mortar
6.1 Cement
Cement should comply with the relevant British
Standard.
Portland cement (ordinary and
rapid hardening) BS 12
Portland blastfurnace cement BS 146-2
Sulphate-resisting Portland cement BS 4027
Masonry cement BS 5224
6.2 Lime
Limes should comply with BS 890.
6.3 Aggregate
6.3.1 Natural aggregates. When specifying
aggregates from natural sources designers should
refer to BS 882 or BS 1200. For guidance,
see clause 23.
6.3.2 Lightweight aggregates. Lightweight
aggregates should comply with BS 877-2 or
BS 3797-2.
6.4 Admixtures
6.4.1 General. Admixtures may affect the strength
and adhesion of mortars and care should be
exercised in their use. For guidance, see clause 23.
6.4.2 Calcium chloride. Calcium chloride and
admixtures containing calcium chloride should
never be added to mortars (see 23.3).
6.4.3 Plasticizers. Mortar plasticizers should comply
with BS 4887. For guidance on use, see 23.2.5
and 31.3.
6.4.4 Colouring agents. Colouring agents (pigments)
should comply with BS 1014. For guidance on use,
see 31.3.
4 BSI 11-1999
6.5 Water
Water should be mains water or other potable
supply. If mains water is not available, the water
should be clean and should not contain any
material, either in solution or in suspension, in
quantity sufficient to have a harmful effect on the
mortar or on metals or to impair the durability of
the construction.
In cases where water supplies may be of doubtful
quality, the methods of sampling and testing the
water should be as described in BS 3148.
6.6 Ready-to-use mortars and ready-mixed
lime : sand
Ready-mixed lime : sand for mortar and
ready-to-use retarded cement : lime : sand and
retarded cement : sand mortars, which are all
delivered wet to the site, should comply with
BS 4721.
Dry-packaged cementitious mixes should comply
with BS 5838-2.
NOTE 1 The term sand is used here to include all permitted
aggregates.
NOTE 2 Ready-mixed lime : sand for mortar is produced by
adding damp sand to lime in the form of lime putty or dry
hydrated lime. This process is normally undertaken in a factory
away from the building site.
NOTE 3 Ready-to-use building mortars are factory made
mortars (cement : lime : sand and cement : sand) which contain a
cement-set retarding admixture and require no further
treatment before use. The cement is normally ordinary Portland
cement but may be sulphate-resisting Portland cement or
Portland-blastfurnace cement or, for non-lime mortars, masonry
cement.
7 Wall ties
Wall ties should comply with BS 1243. For guidance
on selection and use of wall ties, see 19.5.
8 Anchorages, dowels and fixings
Materials for anchorages, dowels and fixings,
including bonding ties, joist hangers and lateral
restraint straps, are given in Table 1.
For guidance on selection of materials for
anchorages, dowels and fixings, see 22.7.1.
Typical fixings are illustrated in Figure 8.
Joist hangers required only for vertical support
should comply with BS 6178-1. Joist hangers
required both for vertical support and lateral
support, as shown in Appendix C of BS 5628-1:1978,
should be purpose made.
 BS 5628-3:1985

Table 1 Anchorages, dowels and fixings

Grade and standard to be complied Protective measures to be carried
Category Base material Form
with out after fabrication
A Hot-dip Sheet BS 2989, Z1 or Z2, coating type All external cut edges to be
galvanized low G 600. protected using a one-pack
carbon steel Minimum mass of coating 600 g/m2 chemical-resistant paint complying
including both sides with HF1A to HF2F in part 4 of
Table 4H of BS 5493:1977 and
modified to give adequate adhesion
to the fixing
BS 2989, Z1 or Z2, coating type Coating to be applied after
G 275. fabrication to the external surfaces
Minimum mass of coating 275 g/m2 and consisting of either:
including both sides a) bituminous solution complying
with types 1 or 2 of BS 3416 and
of minimum thickness 25 4m;
or
b) a one-pack chemical-resistant
paint complying with HF1A to
HF2F in part 4 of Table 4H of
BS 5493:1977 and modified to
give adequate adhesion to the
fixing.
Where the zinc is removed on
internal surfaces during
fabrication, e.g. by welding, further
protection should be applied to
these areas
B Low carbon steel Strip BS 1449-1:1983 (mechanical Post-galvanizing complying with
requirements in Table 11 only) BS 729.
Minimum mass of coating 460 g/m2
BS 4360 grade 43A
including both sides
C Low carbon steel Strip BS 1449-1:1983 (mechanical Post-galvanizing complying with
requirements in Table 11 only) BS 729.
Minimum mass of coating 940 g/m2
BS 4360 grade 43A
including both sides
D Copper BS 6017
Copper alloys BS 2870:1980, grades listed Material other than phosphor
in Tables 8 and 12 bronze to be formed either:
a) by bending at dull red heat
BS 2873:1969, grades listed
and allowing to cool in still air;
in Tables 4 and 6
or
BS 2874:1968, grades listed b) by cold forming and
in Tables 6, 8 and 9 except CA 106 subsequently stress relief
annealing at 250 C to 300 C
for 30 min to 1 h
Effectiveness of stress relieving of
cold formed components to be
tested by the supplier using the
mercurous nitrate test described in
clause 11 of BS 2875:1969
Austenitic Strip BS 1449-2
stainless steel, Bar BS 970-1
minimum 18/8 Rod
composition and Tube BS 6323-8
excluding free Wire BS 1554
machining BS 3111-2
specifications

BSI 11-1999 5
BS 5628-3:1985

9 Reinforcement
Reinforcement for structural use should follow the
recommendations of BS 5628-2. Reinforcement for
non-structural use, e.g. crack control (see 20.5),
should be of a type approved by the designer.
Stainless steel reinforcement should be fabricated
from austenitic stainless steel complying with
grades 3042S15, 316S31 or 316S33 of BS 970-1.
Other types of steel reinforcement should be
protected against corrosion (see 22.7).
11 Sealants
Sealants should comply with the relevant British
Standard.
One-part polysulphide sealants BS 5215
Two-part polysulphide sealants BS 4254
Silicone-based building sealants BS 5889
For guidance on choice and application of sealants
and back up materials, see 20.4.

10 Damp-proof courses 12 Airbricks, gratings and flues

Materials for damp-proof courses (d.p.cs) should Airbricks and gratings should comply with BS 493.
comply with the relevant British Standard. Flues should follow the recommendations of
BS 5440-1 or BS 6461, as appropriate.
Bitumen BS 6398
Brick BS 3921 13 Sills
Polyethylene BS 6515 Sills should comply with the relevant
All others BS 743 British Standard given in Table 2. For guidance on
d.p.cs below sills, see 21.5.3.
The criteria for suitability of materials for d.p.cs are
set out in 21.4 and Table 12.
Table 2 Sills
Material Standard to be complied with Other recommendations

Brick and block BS 187, BS 3921 or Sills formed from bricks or blocks should be in
BS 6073-1 accordance with Table 13 (I)
Cast stone BS 5642-1
Clay tile BS 402
Clayware BS 5642-1
Concrete BS 5642-1
Natural stone BS 5642-1
Slate BS 5642-1
Steel BS 6510
Timber BS 1186-1 and BS 1186-2 Timber sills should comply with the requirements
and BS 5642-1 for coordinating dimensions and performance given
in BS 5642-1 and the requirements for quality given
in BS 1186-1 and BS 1186-2

6 BSI 11-1999
 BS 5628-3:1985

14 Lintels 15 Copings
Lintels should comply with the relevant British Copings should comply with the relevant British
Standard given in Table 3. For guidance on use, Standard given in Table 4. For guidance on use,
see 19.3 and on workmanship, see 33.4. see 21.6.
Copper copings may cause staining of external
walls. To avoid electrolytic action between metallic
copings and metal roofing where dissimilar metals
are to be used, consideration should be given to the
use of non-metallic copings.
Table 3 Lintels
Standard to
Material Other recommendations
be complied with

Autoclaved aerated concrete

Cast concrete BS 5977-2
Reinforced concrete
Pressed steel
BS 5977-2
Rolled low carbon steel
Prestressed concrete plank BS 5977-2
Reinforced masonry BS 5628-2 Bricks and blocks used for lintels should be of the
appropriate quality recommended in Table 13.
Timber BS 5977-2

Table 4 Copings
Standard to be complied Recommended
Material Other recommendations
with thickness

mm

Aluminium BS 1470 0.9 min. Commercial or super purity quality

aluminium should be used. Copings
should preferably be preformed
Brick and block BS 187, BS 3921 or Copings formed from bricks or blocks
BS 6073-1 should be of the appropriate quality
recommended in Table 13 (I)
Cast stone BS 5642-2
Clay tile BS 402 or BS 1286
Concrete (cast ) BS 5642-2
Concrete tile BS 473 & BS 550
or BS 1197
Copper BS 2870, grades C 104 or
C 106 in the O condition
Lead BS 1178 1.8 min.
(code no. 4)
Natural stone BS 5642-2
Zinc BS 849 0.8 min. Copings should preferably be
preformed. In heavily polluted
atmospheres, it is advisable to use a
heavier sheet, e.g. 1.0 mm thick or
use another material

BSI 11-1999 7
BS 5628-3:1985

16 Flashings and weatherings

Flashings and weatherings should comply with the
relevant British Standard given in Table 5. For
guidance on use, see 21.6.
Table 5 Flashings and weatherings
Standard to be complied Recommended
Material Other recommendations
with thickness

mm

Aluminium BS 1470 0.6 to 0.9 Flashings and weatherings should

Aluminium alloy (sheet or strip) be protected from contact with
mortar by a coating of bituminous
paint
Asbestos See CP 143-16
bitumen sheet
(semi-rigid)
Bituminous felt BS 747 For guidance on installation,
see CP 144
Copper BS 2870 grades C 104 and 0.4 to 0.7
C 106 in the O condition
Lead BS 1178 1.8 min.
(code no. 4)
Zinc BS 849

8 BSI 11-1999

Section 3. Design
17 General
17.1 Factors to be considered
The designer should consider the following factors
when designing masonry:
a) stability (see clauses 18 and 19);
b) accommodation for movement (see clause 20);
c) adhesion (see 17.5);
d) resistance to rain penetration (see clause 21);
e) durability (see clause 22);
f) fire, thermal and acoustic performance
(see clauses 24, 25 and 26);
g) masonry bonds, provision of services and other
constructional details (see clause 27).
Other factors, not dealt with in detail in this code,
may also need to be considered:
1) whether there is an applied facing or finish to
provide characteristics not inherent in the basic
construction, and the compatibility of this facing
or finish with the masonry;
2) the effect of the weight of the wall, including
finishes, on the strength of the supporting
structure;
3) the effect of the thickness of the wall, including
finishes, on the useable floor area;
4) speed of construction;
5) accuracy of construction.
17.2 Loading
The loading requirements for masonry and
the lateral wind pressures that should be
allowed for in design are given in BS 6399-1 and
CP 3:Chapter V-2. Masonry should also be designed
to withstand any additional loads which may arise,
e.g. if materials are to be stacked or heaped against
walls.
17.3 Impact resistance
Impact damage may be caused to walls in various
ways. Where there is an applied finish, resistance to
light impacts is largely a matter of the resistance of
this finish. Where the wall is likely to be subject to
heavier impact loads, either the structure of the
wall and the applied finish should be sufficiently
strong and stable to withstand the impact without
undue damage, or the wall should be protected,
e.g. by positioning of bollards where there is danger
of damage from motor vehicles.
17.4 Foundations
Masonry walls should be built on adequate
foundations. For guidance, see CP 101 and CP 2004.
BSI 11-1999
BS 5628-3:1985
17.5 Adhesion
It is essential to ensure that in any masonry
construction adequate adhesion exists between the
masonry units and the mortar. Where the design
relies on flexural strength and there is insufficient
experience or information on the adhesion
characteristics of particular masonry units and
mortar designations, preliminary tests as described
in A.3 of BS 5628-1:1978 should be carried out to
establish whether adequate adhesion can be
achieved.
Depending on their characteristics, masonry units
may be highly porous and, particularly in warm
weather, rapidly absorb the moisture from the
mortar when laid. In such cases the mortar becomes
harsh and insufficiently plastic to allow
repositioning of the unit during laying and levelling
and it is possible that no adhesion between the unit
and the mortar will be obtained.
Experience has shown that adhesion will be
adversely affected when masonry is allowed to dry
out rapidly in warm, dry conditions. Laying mortar
beds in shorter lengths, thus limiting water loss
from the mortar before the next course is laid, is
advantageous in such conditions.
Wetting may assist in removing dust from bricks
and thus further improve adhesion. However, the
bricks should not be over wetted, as this may lead to
floating on the mortar bed and also to excessive
efflorescence and staining of the brick face.
In fired-clay brickwork, optimum adhesion is
likely to be achieved when the suction rate of
the bricks at the time of laying is not greater
than 1.5 kg/(m2.min). A suitable test for suction
rate of fired-clay bricks is given in Appendix H of
BS 3921:1985. Where the achievement of maximum
flexural strength is critical, e.g. in infill panels, and
bricks of higher suction rate are used, the
consistency of the mortar should be adjusted or the
bricks should be wetted (docked) just before use.
In very dry conditions, easier laying and better
adhesion of calcium silicate bricks may be achieved
by adjusting the consistency of the mortar or
dipping the bricks briefly in water just before use.
The bricks should not be soaked in water.
Concrete masonry units should not be wetted.
Instead, the consistency of the mortar should be
adjusted to suit the suction, if necessary using
water-retaining admixtures.
For guidance on the characteristics of particular
masonry units and appropriate wetting procedures,
the manufacturer should be consulted.
9
BS 5628-3:1985
17.6 Selection of masonry units and materials
The selection of masonry units and associated
materials should be made bearing in mind the
criteria listed in Table 6.
Table 6 Selection of materials for masonry
Clause
Criterion
reference
Durability 22
Strength 18, 23
Adhesion 17.5
Fire resistance 24
Thermal and acoustic properties 25, 26
Handling, including weight of blocks 35
Appearance
18 Design for stability
18.1 Masonry in general
All masonry should be designed to have adequate
strength, stiffness and stability. The designer
should consider the interaction of the whole
structure, of which the masonry forms part, to
ensure that connections of other elements with
walls are sufficient to transmit all vertical and
lateral loads safely to the foundations. Temporary
support for masonry during construction may need
to be considered, e.g. where composite action is
required.
Recommendations for the structural design of
masonry are given in BS 5628-1 and BS 5628-2.
Depending on the type of masonry, the necessary
stiffness and stability are derived from one or more
of the following.
a) Thickness in relation to height and length.
NOTE The useful thickness will be reduced by using
recessed joints.
b) Self weight.
c) Presence of piers.
d) Interaction with other walls, columns, floors,
roofs or structural elements.
Careful consideration should be given to the effect of
introducing movement joints or slip planes.
The designer should always bear in mind the need
for robust construction, including the effect of
accidental loading.
18.2 Walls and columns subjected to imposed
vertical and lateral loads
Walls and columns subjected to imposed vertical
and lateral loads should be designed following the
recommendations of BS 5628-1 or BS 5628-2.
10
18.3 Walls subjected to concentrated loads
Where a concentrated load occurs in a wall, e.g. at a
lintel or beam bearing, due regard should be given
to the local bearing stress (see clause 34 of
BS 5628-1:1978) and, where necessary, suitable
bearing plates, spreader beams, padstones, piers or
columns should be provided.
Lintels or beams should not bear on a short length
of cut block. Where possible, the masonry should be
set out to provide a full block under a bearing.
Certain types of cellular, frogged or hollow unit
which are normally suitable for the construction of
the wall may not provide sufficient bearing strength
at points of concentrated load and may need to be
filled.
18.4 Walls subjected to imposed lateral load
only
18.4.1 Freestanding walls. The recommendations in
this subclause apply to freestanding single-leaf
walls without piers that are subjected only to wind
loads. Other types of freestanding wall should be
designed following the recommendations of
BS 5628-1 or BS 5628-2. For guidance on loading
and minimum heights for parapets and balustrades,
see BS 6180.
Freestanding single-leaf walls without piers that
are subjected only to wind loads may be designed
with a height to thickness ratio as given in Table 7,
subject to the following conditions.
a) The height should be taken to be the overall
height of the wall above the level of lateral
restraint.
b) The walls should be constructed of masonry
units having a compressive strength not less
than 3.5 N/mm2 and a density not less
than 1 400 kg/m3, subject to the
recommendations for durability given in
clause 22.
c) The walls should be located in an area with
many windbreaks, such as a town, city or well
wooded area, i.e. in protection category 3
described in DD 93.
If the wall is located in open farmland, on the top
of an escarpment or cliff, or in any other exposed
area, the wall should be designed following the
recommendations of BS 5628-1 or BS 5628-2.
d) The walls should either not contain a
horizontal d.p.c. or have a d.p.c. which is capable
of developing the same flexural resistance as the
remainder of the wall, e.g. engineering bricks.
BSI 11-1999

Table 7 Height to thickness ratio for
freestanding single-leaf walls without piers
Wind zone Maximum permitted height
(see Figure 1) to thickness ratio, R
1 8.5
2 7.5
3 6.5
4 6.0
A horizontal d.p.c. which cannot resist flexure will
reduce the stability of the wall. If such a d.p.c. is
used, the wall thickness should be taken to be the
greater of:
1.33hd/R,
or
hl/R,
where
hd is the height of the wall above the d.p.c.;
R is the ratio obtained from Table 7 for the
appropriate wind zone;
hl is the height of the wall above the lowest level
of lateral restraint below the d.p.c.; lateral
restraint to the base of walls may be assumed
where there is a continuous support, .e.g. a
concrete slab.
18.4.2 Walls with edge restraint
18.4.2.1 Maximum areas of walls. Walls with edge
restraint which are subjected to wind loads may be
designed following the recommendations of
BS 5628-1. However, certain rectangular walls and
gables in buildings up to and including four storeys
high may be proportioned as given in Table 8,
subject to the following conditions.
a) The walls should be in buildings up to and
including four storeys high situated in the wind
zones shown in Figure 1.
b) The building of which the wall forms part
should be situated in an area with many
windbreaks, such as a town, city or well wooded
area, i.e. in protection category 3 described in
DD 93.
If the building is located in open farmland, on
the top of an escarpment or cliff, or in any other
exposed area, the wind pressure should be
obtained from CP 3:Ch V-2 and the wall
designed following the recommendations of
BS 5628-1 or BS 5628-2.
c) The walls should be free from any doors,
windows or other openings, unless either:
1) intermediate supports are provided, such as
those shown in Figure 2(a);
or
BSI 11-1999
BS 5628-3:1985
2) the total area of such openings is not greater
than 10 % of the appropriate maximum area
given in Table 8 or 25 % of the actual area of
the wall, whichever is the less, and no opening
is less than half its maximum dimension from
the edge of the wall, other than its base, or
from any other opening [see Figure 2(b)].
d) In a single-leaf, double-leaf or grouted-cavity
wall, the distance between supports should not
exceed 40 times the total thickness of the wall.
e) In a cavity wall:
1) the distance between supports should not
exceed 30 times the total thickness of the
masonry in the wall;
2) the thickness of each leaf should be not less
than 100 mm excluding plaster or render;
3) the cavity width should not exceed 100 mm;
4) wall ties should be spaced in accordance
with 19.5.
f) Pitched gable ends which have support at the
top (see 19.2) should be regarded as being
equivalent to a rectangular area whose height is
measured to half way up the triangular portion
[see Figure 2(c)]. Three-or four-sided support
should be assumed as appropriate.
g) Mortar should not be weaker than
designation iii) (see Table 15).
18.4.2.2 Support conditions. A fixed support
may be assumed in a single-leaf, double-leaf or
grouted-cavity wall in the cases shown in Figure 3
or where the wall abuts, and is adequately tied to,
a column capable of resisting without excessive
deflection horizontal forces applied to it.
A fixed support may be assumed in a cavity wall in
the cases shown in Figure 4.
A simple support may be assumed where the wall is
permitted to rotate but is restrained against lateral
movement.
In all cases, the wall should be adequately
connected to its support and all supports should be
sufficiently strong and rigid to carry the
transmitted loads. For guidance, see Figure 5.
Any chases cut in the wall should be taken account
of (see 19.6).
11
BS 5628-3:1985

Figure 1 Wind zones (for use with 18.4)

12 BSI 11-1999
 Table 8 Maximum permitted areas of certain walls
BSI 11-1999

Wind Height
zone

A B C D E F G H I

Cavity 190 mm Cavity 190 mm Cavity 190 mm Cavity 190 mm Cavity 190 mm Cavity 190 mm Cavity 190 mm Cavity 190 mm Cavity 190 mm
wall solid wall solid wall solid wall solid wall solid wall solid wall solid wall solid wall solid
wall wall wall wall wall wall wall wall wall

m m2 m2 m2 m2 m2 m2 m2 m2 m2 m2 m2 m2 m2 m2 m2 m2 m2 m2

5.4 11.0 13.5 17.5 19.0 26.5 28.5 20.5 29.0 32.0 41.0 32.0 41.0 8.5 10.0 14.0 19.0 19.5 30.5
1
10.8 9.0 11.5 13.0 15.5 17.5 21.5 15.5 23.5 24.0 32.5 32.0 41.0 7.0 8.0 10.0 14.5 15.5 21.5
5.4 9.5 12.0 14.0 17.0 21.0 24.0 17.5 25.5 27.0 35.5 32.0 41.0 7.5 8.5 10.5 16.5 17.0 24.5
2
10.8 8.0 9.5 11.5 14.0 13.5 17.5 13.0 20.5 19.0 28.5 28.0 36.5 6.0 7.0 9.0 11.0 13.0 17.5
5.4 8.5 10.5 12.5 15.0 15.5 20.0 14.5 22.5 22.0 31.0 30.5 40.5 6.5 7.5 9.5 13.5 14.5 20.0
3
10.8 7.0 8.5 10.0 12.0 11.5 15.5 11.0 17.5 14.5 24.5 24.5 31.5 5.0 6.0 7.5 9.0 11.5 15.0
5.4 8.0 9.5 11.0 13.5 13.0 17.0 12.5 19.5 18.0 27.5 27.0 35.0 6.0 6.5 8.5 10.5 12.5 17.0
4
10.8 6.5 7.5 9.0 11.0 10.5 13.5 9.5 14.5 12.5 21.0 21.5 27.5 4.0 5.5 6.5 7.5 10.0 12.5
NOTE 1 Key to support conditions. Types of support are described in 18.4.2.2.
Free edge shown thus
Simple support shown thus
Fixed support shown thus
NOTE 2 The term solid is used in this table to denote single-leaf walls, collar-jointed walls (see 2.28.3) or grouted-cavity walls (see 2.28.5). The 190 mm solid walls are of
any brick, or blocks of compressive strength not less than 3.5 N/mm2.
NOTE 3 Cavity walls consist of the following:
a) an outer leaf, 100 mm minimum thickness, of any brick or blocks of compressive strength not less than 14.0 N/mm2.
b) an inner, leaf, 100 mm minimum thickness, of any brick, or blocks of compressive strength not less than 3.5 N/mm2.
If either leaf of a cavity wall is increased to 140 mm using blocks of the respective strength, the areas given in the table may be increased by 20 %.

BS 5628-3:1985
13
BS 5628-3:1985

(a) Example of division of

a wall into panels with
intermediate supports

x is the maximum dimension of opening

(height or length)
A0 is the permitted area of opening
[see 18.4.2.1 c)].
(b) Effect of opening in a wall

(c) Gable walls

[see 18.4.2.1 f)].

Figure 2 Walls with edge restraint

14 BSI 11-1999
 BS 5628-3:1985

Figure 3 Fixed support conditions in solid walls

BSI 11-1999 15
BS 5628-3:1985

Figure 4 Fixed support conditions in cavity walls

16 BSI 11-1999
 BS 5628-3:1985

Figure 5 Fixed and simple supports

BSI 11-1999 17
BS 5628-3:1985
18.5 Internal walls or partitions not designed
for imposed loading
Unless it is designed as a freestanding wall
(see 18.4.1), an internal wall or partition should be
laterally restrained by horizontal or vertical
continuous or intermittent supports, similar to
those given in Table 8. The length or height of the
wall in relation to its thickness should be within the
limits given in Figure 6.
Consideration should also be given to the following
factors which may affect stability:
a) accommodation for movement (see clause 20);
b) openings;
c) chasing (see 19.6);
d) the likelihood of exceptional lateral loading,
arising from the nature of use of the building;
e) wind load (see CP 3:Ch V-2).
Figure 6 Limiting dimensions of internal walls for stability
18
Where it is known that an internal wall or partition
is to be plastered, a maximum thickness of 13 mm of
plaster to one side or both sides of the partition may
be included when determining the thickness of the
wall for design in accordance with Figure 6. In such
a case, the wall may require temporary bracing
prior to plastering.
NOTE The graphs in Figure 6 are derived from the following
empirical formulae:
i) wall restrained at both ends but not at the top
t W L/40 and t W H/90 or t W H/15 with no restriction on
the value of L or t < L/40 and t > L/59 and
t W H + 2 L)/133;
ii) wall restrained at both ends and at the top
t W L/50 and t W H/90 or t W H/30 with no restriction on
the value of L or t < L/40 and t W L/110 and
t W (3H + L)/200;
iii) wall restrained at the top but not at the ends
t W H/30;
where
t is the thickness (in mm);
H is the height (in mm);
L is the length (in mm).
BSI 11-1999

19 Structural detailing for stability
19.1 Floors
Typical ways of connecting floors with walls are
shown in Figure 7(a) to Figure 7(c). Where floors are
required to provide lateral restraint, reference
should be made to Appendix C of BS 5628-1:1978.
Suspended timber floors near to the ground should
preferably be supported independently by sleeper
walls. Where this is not practicable, offsets or
corbels from external walls may be used. Suspended
timber floors elsewhere may be built into the walls
or supported by offsets, corbels or joist hangers.
Timber wall plates should not be built into any wall.
Unreinforced concrete floors laid on the ground or
on fill should not bear on walls, as this may give rise
to cracking due to differential movement.
The design should ensure that the bearing of all
types of floor is not less than 75 mm, taking normal
tolerances into account. Concrete floors should
normally have a bearing of not less than 90 mm;
however, this bearing may be reduced at the
discretion of the designer, taking into account
relevant factors such as loading, span, tolerances,
height of support and the provision of continuity
reinforcement.
19.2 Roofs
The design should ensure that the roof structure
provides adequate lateral restraint for the wall.
Typical ways of connecting roofs with walls are
shown in Figure 7(d) to Figure 7(h). Reference
should also be made to Appendix C of
BS 5628-1:1978.
Particular care should be taken when detailing the
bearings of flat roofs upon walls, to reduce the
danger of displacement of the top courses of
masonry as a result of thermal movements in the
roof and deflection of the structure. Temperature
variations may be reduced by providing external
insulation or reflective coatings.
BSI 11-1999
BS 5628-3:1985
Timber joists and joist hangers should have a
minimum bearing of 75 mm on walls. The frogs of
bricks should be filled to provide an even bearing. It
may be desirable to provide a wall plate in certain
cases.
Concrete roofs should normally have a bearing of
not less than 90 mm. However, this bearing may be
reduced at the discretion of the designer, taking into
account relevant factors such as loading, span,
tolerances, height of support and the provision of
continuity reinforcement.
Binders or other beams giving rise to concentrated
loads on the wall may need to be provided with a
padstone or spreader beam (see 18.3).
19.3 Support over openings
Masonry should not be supported on window or door
frames which are not designed for the purpose.
Where lintels are used, these should have adequate
bearings, commensurate with the solidity of the
support (see 18.3) and the load for which they are
designed and in any case not less than 100 mm in
length. Lintels should not bear on a short length of
cut block. Where possible, the masonry should be set
out to provide a full block under a bearing.
Pressed steel lintels should have a bearing of not
less than 150 mm in length and may need stiffening
over the bearing length to resist the total load.
Protective measures for steel lintels, including
provision of d.p.cs where appropriate, should
comply with BS 5977-2.
Where composite lintels, e.g. prestressed concrete
plank lintels, are used, no chase or hole should be
formed in the area comprising the composite section
nor should any inclusion, such as joists, be built into
this section, with the exception of d.p.c. materials
which intrude not more than one-quarter of the
width of the bed joint or 30 mm, whichever is the
lesser. Installation should follow the
recommendations of the manufacturers.
19
BS 5628-3:1985

Figure 7 Typical ways of connecting floors and roofs

20 BSI 11-1999
 BS 5628-3:1985

Figure 7 Typical ways of connecting floors and roofs (continued)

BSI 11-1999 21
BS 5628-3:1985

Figure 7 Typical ways of connecting floors and roofs (continued)

22 BSI 11-1999
 BS 5628-3:1985

NOTE 1 Boards should span at least two rafters and be butted up to the wall.
NOTE 2 The soffit board should be securely fixed to the ladder bracket and should also be a close fit to the wall.
(e) Truss roof without straps
Figure 7 Typical ways of connecting floors and roofs (continued)

BSI 11-1999 23
BS 5628-3:1985

Figure 7 Typical ways of connecting floors and roofs (continued)

24 BSI 11-1999
 BS 5628-3:1985

Figure 7 Typical ways of connecting floors and roofs (concluded)

BSI 11-1999 25
BS 5628-3:1985

19.4 Anchorages, dowels and fixings It is essential to select the correct materials for
Typical anchorages, dowels and fixings are shown these components to ensure adequate resistance to
in Figure 8. corrosion (see clause 8).

Figure 8 Typical anchorages, dowels and fixings

26 BSI 11-1999
 BS 5628-3:1985

Figure 8 Typical anchorages, dowels and fixings (concluded)

BSI 11-1999 27
BS 5628-3:1985

19.5 Wall ties
The leaves of a cavity wall should be tied together by
wall ties embedded in the horizontal mortar joints
at the time the course is laid, to a minimum depth
of 50 mm. The length of the wall tie should be
chosen to suit the width between the two leaves. The
ties should be placed at a frequency of not less than
the values given in Table 9(A) and they should be
staggered and evenly distributed. Additional ties
should be provided within 225 mm of all openings so
that there is one for each 300 mm of height of the
opening. Consideration should be given to providing
additional flexible ties across the cavity adjacent to
movement joints.
The choice of the type of tie depends on the cavity
width [see Table 9(B)]. In situations of Severe or
Very Severe exposure as defined in 21.2, copper
alloy or stainless steel ties should be used.
In chimneys where masonry bonding is not
maintained (see Figure 9) stainless steel ties should
be provided at intervals of three courses.
19.6 Provision for services and fittings
When making provision for services and fittings,
designers should ensure that none of the functions
of the wall are impaired by fixings, chases or holes.
Table 9 Wall ties
(A) Spacing of ties
Least leaf thickness
Type of tie Cavity width
(one or both)
The designer should consider the effects of chasing
on stability, bearing in mind the recommendations
of BS 5628-1, particularly where walls or leaves are
constructed of hollow units. In walls or leaves
constructed of solid units, the depth of horizontal
chases should not normally exceed one-sixth of the
thickness of the single leaf at any point, whilst the
depth of vertical chases should not normally exceed
one-third of the thickness of the single leaf at any
point.
The cutting of holes up to approximately 300 mm
square in the wall to accommodate items of
equipment may be permitted.
Where heavy fittings are to be fixed to a wall, the
effect on the stability of the masonry should be
considered.
19.7 Chimneys
Where a chimney is not supported by adequate ties
or otherwise made secure, its height, measured from
the level of the highest point in line with the roof,
gutter or other part of the building, and including
any pot or flue terminal, should not be more than
four and a half times its least width at that level.
Typical chimney details are shown in Figure 9
(see also 21.5.8).
Equivalent no. Spacing of ties
of ties per
Horizontally Vertically
square metre

mm mm mm mm

65 to 90 All 50 to 75 4.9 450 450

90 or more See Table 9(b) 50 to 150 2.5 900 450
(B) Selection of ties
Type of tie in BS 1243 Cavity width

mm

Increasing strength Increasing flexibility Vertical twist 150 or less

and sound insulation Double triangle 75 or less
Butterfly 75 or less

28 BSI 11-1999
 BS 5628-3:1985

Figure 9 Typical chimney details

BSI 11-1999 29
BS 5628-3:1985

Figure 9 Typical chimney details (concluded)

30 BSI 11-1999

20 Movement in masonry
20.1 General
After construction, buildings are subject to small
dimensional changes, which may be caused by one
or more of the following factors.
a) Change in temperature (see A.4).
b) Change in moisture content (see A.5).
c) Adsorption of water vapour (see A.5).
NOTE Adsorption is the term used to describe the bonding
of water molecules to the molecules of the masonry material.
It should not be confused with absorption, which refers to the
entry of water molecules into the pores of the masonry.
d) Chemical action, e.g. carbonation (see A.6).
e) Deflection under loads.
f) Ground movement and differential settlement.
To guard against dimensional changes occurring as
a result of sulphate attack, the recommendations
of 22.4 should be followed.
In general, because restraints are often present,
masonry is not completely free to expand or contract
and compressive or tensile forces may develop, and
these may lead to bowing or cracking.
The risk of bowing is greater where the compressive
forces are applied eccentrically, e.g. where panel
walls are not supported across their whole
thickness.
The risk of cracking is increased where there are
stress concentrations, for example at openings or at
changes in height, thickness or direction of walls,
and where stronger mortars than those
recommended in clause 22 are used. Masonry units
of markedly different characteristics, for example
fired-clay and concrete masonry units, should not be
bonded, but should be effectively separated by
either a vertical or horizontal movement joint or by
a slip plane, since their movements are different in
magnitude and in kind (see Appendix A).
It is essential to consider provision for movement at
the design stage.
20.2 Accommodation for movement of
adjoining structural members
20.2.1 Walls supported by structural members.
Where a wall is built on a suspended floor or beam
and is not designed for composite action, it may be
necessary to make provision for deflection of the
supporting member by providing vertical movement
joints or a separation joint at the base of the wall. In
the latter case it may be necessary to reinforce the
bed joints where tension may occur.
BSI 11-1999
BS 5628-3:1985
20.2.2 Walls and partitions beneath structural
members. Partitions are normally built up to the
underside of a floor, ceiling or roof. However, in
circumstances where the partition is designed not to
carry any vertical load, it should be separated by a
gap or by a layer of resilient material to
accommodate the deflections of structural members
above it. A cut should be formed between any ceiling
and wall plaster or the joint should be masked with
a cornice or other cover fillet, which may also be
designed to provide lateral restraint to the partition.
Consideration should be given to the need for slip
planes under the bearings to separate the wall from
structural members which can produce a horizontal
movement, e.g. longer span concrete lintels.
20.2.3 Panel walls in frame structures
20.2.3.1 General. Panel walls in steel frame and
concrete frame buildings should be designed to
prevent cracking as a result of stresses generated by
differential movement between the panel and the
frame.
All panels, irrespective of the type of masonry units
from which they are built, should be provided with
adequate lateral edge restraint (see 18.4).
Some particular cases of design to limit the effect of
differential movement and yet provide stability of
the panel are described in 20.2.3.2 to 20.2.3.4.
20.2.3.2 Panel walls in reinforced concrete frame
structures. In external infill panel walls of fired-clay
masonry, any expansion will be opposed in the
vertical direction to the shrinkage and creep of
reinforced concrete columns. Where the panels are
built in tightly between horizontal beams and slabs,
these opposing movements, if restrained, can cause
excessive stresses in the masonry, particularly
where they are eccentric, e.g. where the panel
overhangs a floor slab. Hence horizontal
compressible joints should be provided at each level
of intersection of the panel and horizontal elements
of the structure.
Similar considerations apply to external infill panel
walls of calcium silicate or concrete masonry, except
that differential movement between the concrete
frame and the infill is less, since the long term
movement of both will be in the same direction.
Provision of movement joints between a panel and a
frame may alter the support conditions
(see 18.4.2.2) and an alternative means of providing
restraint may be necessary. Some forms of suitable
restraint are given in 19.4.
Vertical movement joints may also be necessary to
absorb horizontal movements of panel walls, for
example where they pass in front of columns.
31
BS 5628-3:1985
20.2.3.3 Panel walls in steel frame structures.
Providing eccentric loads and short returns are
avoided, panel walls of fired-clay masonry in
multi-storey steel structures can usually be built
into, and tied rigidly to, the frame. Concrete and
calcium silicate masonry should not be tied rigidly
to the frame but it is essential to provide adequate
lateral restraint.
In frame structures, masonry infill panels which are
attached to the frame should be designed to take
into account the sway of the structure. This is
particularly important in single-storey frame
buildings.
20.2.3.4 Panel walls for wind bracing. Where
masonry panel walls are provided to form wind
bracing in a frame structure, it is essential that they
should be built in rigidly to the surrounding
framework. The panel should be designed not only
to resist the stresses due to the imposed load, but
also the stresses which may arise from differential
movement between the panel and the frame.
20.2.4 Fired-clay brick slips. When fired-clay brick
slips are fixed to the nib or toe of a concrete slab or
beam, there is the possibility of vertical stresses
acting on the courses of brick slips as a result of both
creep and drying shrinkage of the concrete as well
as long term vertical expansion of the clay brick
infill. Consequently, a compressible flexible joint
should be provided between the first course of brick
slips and the brickwork beneath, whilst the top
course should be protected by a damp-proof
membrane in the form of a cavity tray. Similarly,
there is some likelihood of horizontal stresses
arising as a result of differential movement between
the concrete substrate and the brick slips.
Accordingly, vertical movement joints should be
considered and these should be spaced more
frequently than the centres recommended for
normal brickwork in 20.3.2 and provided wherever
the brick slips join the main structure at piers or
columns. The horizontal and vertical movement
joints should be formed by a compressible filler and
sealed at the face with a suitable sealant
(see Figure 13). The width of the joint should
normally be 10 mm.
20.3 Accommodation of movement in masonry
20.3.1 Movement joints and slip planes. Movement
joints should be designed to accommodate
expansion and/or contraction [see Figure 10(a)].
Expansion joints should be filled with easily
compressible and resilient material. Joints should
be designed so as to be built in as work proceeds and
not to be cut into completed work.
32
Slip planes should be designed to allow parts of the
construction to slide, one in relation to the other,
thus reducing shear stresses in the adjacent
materials. The slip plane should contain two layers
of smooth incompressible sheet material or an
applied coating to form a separating membrane.
This membrane can often be positioned and formed
so as to function also as a flexible d.p.c.
The design and positioning of movement joints and
slip planes should be carefully considered, making
sure that in addition to accommodating movements,
such joints or planes do not impair the stability of
the wall or any of its functions.
Where necessary, dowels strong enough to provide
lateral stability should be incorporated. The dowels,
which are usually of metal rod or flat strip, should
be anchored into the masonry in such a way that
longitudinal movement is not restrained
[see Figure 8(c)].
Particular care should be taken with the design of
movement joints in separating walls, party walls or
compartment walls where the efficiency of the wall
for sound insulation or as a fire barrier
(see clause 24) might be reduced.
In external walls, movement joints and slip planes
should be sealed, protected or otherwise designed to
prevent water penetration (see 20.4).
Care should be taken to ensure that fixings and
services do not interfere with the performance of the
joints or planes. Finishes should be discontinuous at
movement joints and slip planes, and fixings and
fittings should not tie across the joint.
20.3.2 Provision of movement joints
20.3.2.1 General. The empirical recommendations
given in this subclause are applicable to the
majority of situations.
Movement joints will not normally be required in
internal walls in dwellings.
The spacing of the first movement joint from an
external or internal angle should be not more than
half the general spacing and preferably less where
the masonry is continuous at the angle, due to the
effect of end restraint of the wall panel.
For information on basic data and design to
accommodate movement, see Appendix A and
consult the manufacturers.
BSI 11-1999

20.3.2.2 Spacing and width of movement joints in
fired-clay masonry. In general, unrestrained or
lightly restrained unreinforced walls, e.g. parapets
and non loaded spandrels built off membrane-type
d.p.cs, will expand 1 mm/m during the life of the
building, due to thermal and moisture movement
changes. The spacing and thickness of movement
joints in such walls is governed by the allowable
compressibility of fillers and the performance of
appropriate sealants. Designers are recommended
to consult sealant manufacturers wherever possible,
but as a general guide, the width of the joint in
millimetres should be about 30 % more than the
distance between joints in metres. Thus movement
joints at 12 m centres will need to be about 16 mm
wide.
Where a manufacturer can show evidence from
experience that his products, e.g. London Stocks,
expand less than 1 mm/m, or will guarantee low
expansion, the foregoing guidance may be modified
at the designers discretion.
Experience shows that the expansion of normal
storey height walls, as opposed to unrestrained
walls, is somewhat less than 1 mm/m and that, in
general, expansion reduces with increasing
restraint. However, in unreinforced walls spacing
between movement joints should never exceed 15 m,
in order to avoid cracking due to thermal
contraction. Closer spacing may be necessary for the
least restrained walls, e.g. parapets. Where bed
joint reinforcement is used, it has been found that
spacings greater than 15 m are satisfactory but
expert advice should be sought.
Present evidence suggests that vertical movement
of unrestrained walls is of the same order as
horizontal movement.
20.3.2.3 Spacing and width of movement joints in
calcium silicate masonry. Where possible, calcium
silicate masonry should be designed as a series of
panels separated by movement joints. The ratio of
length to height of the panels should not
exceed 3 : 1. As a general rule, vertical joints to
accommodate horizontal movement should be
provided at intervals of between 7.5 m and 9 m.
Movement joints should normally not exceed 10 mm
in width and be sealed where necessary.
BSI 11-1999
BS 5628-3:1985
In external walls containing openings, movement
joints may need to be provided at more frequent
intervals or the masonry above and below the
opening may need to be reinforced to restrain
movement (see 20.5). Particular attention should be
paid to low horizontal panels of masonry, for
example under windows.
20.3.2.4 Spacing of movement joints in concrete
masonry. Where possible, concrete masonry should
be designed as a series of panels separated by
movement joints. As a general rule, vertical joints to
accommodate horizontal movement should be
provided at intervals of 6 m. Since there are wide
variations in physical properties between different
concrete masonry units, some variation in joint
spacing is acceptable but it should be noted that the
risk of cracking increases if the length of a panel
exceeds twice the height. It is, however, always
desirable to consult the block manufacturers before
using joint spacings greater than 6 m.
In external walls containing openings, movement
joints may need to be provided at more frequent
intervals or the masonry above and below the
opening may need to be reinforced to restrain
movement (see 20.5). Particular attention should be
paid to low horizontal panels of masonry, for
example under windows.
20.3.2.5 Placing of movement joints. Features of the
building which should be considered when
determining joint positions in the masonry are as
follows:
a) intersecting walls, piers, floors, etc.;
b) window and door openings;
c) change in height or thickness of the wall
[see Figure 10(b)];
d) chases in the wall [see Figure 10(b)];
e) movement joints in the building or in floor
slabs [see Figure 10(b)].
Areas above doors and above or below windows may
be reinforced to distribute stresses (see 20.5).
33
BS 5628-3:1985

Figure 10 Movement joints

34 BSI 11-1999
 BS 5628-3:1985

Figure 10 Movement joints (concluded)

BSI 11-1999 35
BS 5628-3:1985
20.4 Sealing of movement joints
The width and depth of seal for movement joints is
important. To ensure adequate bond to the
masonry, the depth of seal should be at least 10 mm.
Certain single-part moisture-cured sealants are
best used in joints of small cross section due to their
excessive curing time in thick sections. Optimum
performance in butt joints is obtained when the
width to depth ratio of the sealant bead lies within
the range 2 : 1 to 1 : 1, for elastoplastic sealants
(including one and two part polysulphides), or the
range 1 : 1 to 1 : 2 for elastoplastic sealants
(including cross-linked butyl rubber).
The sealant should be applied against a firm
backing so that it is forced against the sides of the
joint under sufficient pressure to ensure good
adhesion. The back-up material should be resilient
and not adhere to or react with the sealant. The
compressibility of the sealant back-up/joint filler is
possibly the most critical factor in the design of an
adequate joint for fired-clay brickwork. A pressure
of about 0.1 N/mm2 should be sufficient to compress
the material to 50 % of its original thickness.
Flexible cellular polyethylene, cellular
polyurethane or foam rubbers are the most
satisfactory materials. Hemp, fibreboard, cork and
similar materials should not be used for expansion
joints in fired-clay brickwork.
The width of the joint should be sufficient to
accommodate the movements, both reversible and
irreversible, without damage to the seal. Hence the
width of the joints should be related to the spacing
of the joints.
Further guidance on the selection of sealants is
given in BS 6213.
20.5 Reinforcement
Reinforcement may be used to control cracking,
which may occur in areas of masonry above or below
openings where the vertical cross-sectional area of
the masonry is much less than that of the masonry
on either side. The reinforcement should be long
enough to distribute the stress to a position where
the vertical cross-sectional area is able to
accommodate it, and should be adequately protected
against corrosion (see 22.7.2).
2) Available from the Building Research Station, Garston, Watford, Herts WD2 7JR.
36
21 Exclusion of moisture
21.1 General
Rain penetration is one of the commonest building
defects (see BRE Digest 176, Failure patterns and
implications 19752). It is essential to consider
carefully design, detailing, workmanship and
materials in relation to local exposure conditions if
the incidence of rain penetration is to be minimized.
An assessment of the local wind-driven rain index
should be made (see 21.2). When determining the
likely exposure of a building, the most exposed part
should be given particular attention and this may
affect decisions concerning the choice of design and
materials for the whole of the building.
Using the guidance on resistance to rain
penetration of different forms of construction and
the factors affecting rain resistance given in 21.3,
the designer should select a construction
appropriate to the local wind-driven rain index,
paying due regard to the importance of correct
detailing and workmanship.
In cavity walls, some water will inevitably penetrate
the outer masonry leaf in prolonged periods of
wind-driven rain but proper design and positioning
of the damp-proof systems (see 21.4) will minimize
the risk of penetration further into the building.
21.2 Classification of exposure to local
wind-driven rain
The quantity of rain falling on a vertical surface,
such as a wall, at any point depends on both the
intensity of the rainfall and the wind speed. The
BRE Report Driving Rain Index 19762) postulated
that the quantity of rain falling on a vertical surface,
such as a wall, was proportional to the quantity
falling on a horizontal surface and to the local wind
speed, and incorporated maps of an annual
wind-driven rain index, which is the product of the
annual local rainfall and the annual average airfield
wind speed.
Rainfall varies considerably across the country but
is largely unaffected by local features. Conversely,
the general wind speed does not change so much
across the country but is very much affected by local
features, such as the spacing and height of
surrounding trees and buildings and whether the
ground is flat or steeply rising. Appropriate
correction factors to convert the annual wind-driven
rain index to the local annual index were computed
by the Building Research Establishment (BRE).
BSI 11-1999

With the advent of computer analysis of
meteorological data, the Meteorological Office was
able to produce much more realistic values, based on
the fact that heavy rainfall was usually associated
with strong winds. To enable designs for worst
expected conditions to be based on the conditions
prevailing in a spell of bad weather, maps were
prepared showing the quantity of wind-driven rain
falling on vertical surfaces during the worst likely
spell of bad weather in any three year period. This
data forms the basis for the local spell index method
described in DD 93.
Table 10 gives exposure categories defined either in
terms of the local spell indices calculated using
DD 93 or in terms of the exposure categories that
were given in CP 121-1:1973, which were based on
the BRE report.
These indices are not precise, since they are derived
from inherently variable meteorological data. This
variability has been reflected in the definitions of
the exposure categories by overlapping the indices
at their boundaries.
Where exposure categories overlap (see Figure 11),
the designer should decide which is the most
appropriate category for the particular case, using
local knowledge and experience. Examples of
constructions suitable for particular exposure
categories are given in 21.3.
Table 10 Classification of exposure to local
wind-driven rain
1 2 3 metal, plastics materials, shingles, slates, tiling or
Local spell Exposure
Exposure index calculated category in
category as described in CP 121-1:1973
DD 93 (see note)
L/m2 per spell
Very Severe 98 and over Severe
Severe 68 to 123
Moderate/Severe 46 to 85
Moderate
Sheltered/Moderate 29 to 58
Sheltered 19 to 37
Sheltered
Very Sheltered 24 or less
NOTE CP 121-1:1973 defined three exposure categories,
namely Severe, Moderate and Sheltered, corresponding to
values of Lacys Annual Mean Driving Rain
Index > 7 m2/s, 3 m2/s to 7 m2/s and < 3 m2/s respectively
(see BRE Report Driving Rain Index 1976a Developments
since the publication of that code, such as the introduction of
insulation into cavity walls and the advent of improved
meteorological data, have made it necessary to increase the
number of exposure categories.
a
Available from the Building Research Station, Garston,
Watford, Herts WD2 7JR.
BSI 11-1999
BS 5628-3:1985
21.3 Selection of external constructions to
resist rain penetration
21.3.1 General. The following factors affecting the
resistance to wind-driven rain of masonry
constructions should be considered in relation to
other functions of the wall such as strength,
durability, sound and thermal insulation:
a) presence of applied external surface finishes
(see 21.3.2.1);
b) quality of workmanship achieved on site
(see 21.3.2.2);
c) type of masonry unit (see 21.3.3);
d) mortar composition (see 21.3.2.3);
e) joint finish (see 21.3.2.4);
f) joint profile (see 21.3.2.4);
g) thickness of the leaf (see 21.3.2.5);
h) presence of a cavity;
i) width of air space within any cavity
(see 21.3.2.6);
j) architectural features (see 21.3.2.7);
k) presence and type of any cavity insulation
(see 21.3.2.8).
NOTE There has been no intention to list these factors in order
of importance.
21.3.2 Detailed considerations
21.3.2.1 Applied external surface finishes. For both
single-leaf and cavity walls, total resistance to rain
penetration can be achieved only by cladding with
timber.
Rendering can substantially enhance the rain
resistance of both single-leaf and cavity walls. It is
essential, however, to select the right type of mix,
thickness and number of coats and to detail the wall
properly to minimize cracking, which may otherwise
reduce the effectiveness of the rendering against
rain penetration. The recommendations of BS 5262
should be followed.
The use of masonry paint systems (see BS 6150) and
other proprietary external finishes including
colourless treatments, e.g. silicone-based water
repellents (see BS 3826), may increase the
resistance to rain penetration. However, these
surface treatments may also reduce the rate of
evaporation of any water from the wall and,
depending upon exposure conditions, the quantity of
water in the wall may therefore increase. In extreme
cases this may be enough to saturate certain types
of fired-clay masonry sufficiently for frost damage to
take place (see clause 22). Surface treatments also
have a limited life (see clause 16 of BS 6270-1:1982).
37
BS 5628-3:1985

Figure 11 Overlap between exposure categories

38 BSI 11-1999
 BS 5628-3:1985

Complete cavity fill may inhibit the drying out of 21.3.2.4 Joint finish and profile. Whatever the type
any moisture which penetrates the external finish. of masonry, it is essential to fill all the joints to
The presence of moisture could lead to sulphate minimize the risk of rain penetration. Tooled mortar
and/or frost action (see 22.1) on the mortar and/or joints are more resistant to rain penetration than
finish with some fired-clay masonry backing joints which have not been tooled. Recessed joints
materials. increase the risk of water penetration.
21.3.2.2 Quality of workmanship. The quality of 21.3.2.5 Single-leaf walls. The resistance to rain
workmanship achieved on site is an important penetration of single-leaf walls of calcium silicate
factor affecting rain penetration. Some masonry and fired-clay masonry without rendering or
external leaves require more care in construction cladding is dependent upon both the thickness and
than others. For example, consider lower and higher absorptive capacity of the masonry units, whereas
absorption fired-clay masonry units. For fired-clay the rain resistance of dense concrete masonry is
masonry units of lower absorption, e.g. absorption dependent more on thickness. Table 11(A) shows the
by mass of 5 % (m/m)3), the water is shed by the recommended minimum thicknesses for both
glass-like surface (the raincoat effect). Where rendered and unrendered walls.
joints have not been completely filled, the film of NOTE The thickness of the outer leaf of a cavity wall will
water on the surface will rapidly penetrate the wall. similarly affect its rain resistance but Table 11(A) does not apply
For fired-clay masonry units of higher absorption, to cavity constructions, since it takes no account of the cavity.
e.g. 25 % (m/m)3), the wall acts like a sponge and Where hollow blocks are used in external walls, the
absorbs the water falling on it (the overcoat effect). use of shell bedding (see 2.25) may reduce rain
Whilst all mortar joints should always be filled penetration to the inner surface and so give some of
(see 21.3.2.4), minor imperfections which can occur the advantages of cavity wall construction.
are not so critical, except in conditions of Very 21.3.2.6 Unfilled cavity walls. In unfilled cavity
Severe exposure, because most periods of walls, it is the air space between the two leaves,
wind-driven rain are not long enough for the wall to i.e. the clear cavity, which is intended to prevent
become saturated, and thus permit rain water passing from the outer leaf to the inner leaf.
penetration, before the intervention of a dry period. In most situations, a 50 mm air space is satisfactory
21.3.2.3 Mortar composition. For lower absorption but where there is an increased risk of rain
fired-clay masonry units, the designer should penetration, consideration should be given to the
consider using one of the less permeable mortars use of wider cavities. Where the cavity is
such as designation i) and ii). For other types of unavoidably bridged, e.g. at window and door
masonry unit, the selection of mortar is governed by openings, special precautions are necessary
other factors such as accommodation of movement, (see 21.4). For filled cavity walls see 21.3.2.8.
durability and strength.
Table 11 Assessment of resistance to rain penetration
(A) Thickness of single-leaf walls with or without rendering
Exposure Minimum thickness of masonry (excluding rendering and finishes) (see note 1)
category
Clay and calcium silicate masonry Concrete masonry
Rendered Unrendered Rendered Rendered Unrendered
(see note 2) (dense (lightweight aggregate (see note 2)
concrete) or autoclaved aerated
concrete)
Very Severe Not recommended. Cladding should be used
mm mm mm mm mm
Severe 328 Not 250 215 Not
recommended recommended
Moderate/Severe 215 Not 215 190 Not
recommended recommended
Sheltered/Moderate 190 440 190 140 440
Sheltered 90 328 90 90 328
Very Sheltered 90 190 90 90 190
NOTE 1 Thickness of masonry is based on work sizes of masonry units i.e. tolerances are not included.
NOTE 2 Thicknesses of unrendered walls are based on the use of tooled joints filled completely with cement : lime : sand mortar.
NOTE 3 This table is intended to give guidance on the selection of forms of construction from the point of view of resistance to
rain penetration only but other factors such as durability should be considered.

3) Measured as described in BS 3921.

BSI 11-1999 39
BS 5628-3:1985

At present there is insufficient information
available to enable recommendations to be made
regarding the effectiveness of the inner leaf of a
cavity wall in resisting water penetration.
Therefore, in general, designers should not rely on
the inner leaf of a cavity wall to resist rain
penetration.
The principal factors affecting rain penetration of
cavity walls are given in Table 11(B).
21.3.2.7 Architectural features. Architectural
features can play an important part in reducing the
risk of rain penetration. The designer should always
consider the effects that his design will have on the
tendency for the external masonry to be wetted
more than by the incident rainfall (see 22.5). He can
reduce the degree of wetting by ensuring that water
is thrown clear of the walls by adequate overhangs
and drips and by providing drainage to take the
water away from the masonry. Large areas of
glazing or cladding give rise to very large amounts
of surface run-off water which can cause excessive
wetting of the masonry below and possible water
penetration problems.
Table 11 Assessment of resistance to rain penetration
(B) Factors affecting rain penetration of cavity walls
Factor affecting Increasing probability of rain penetration in the direction of the arrow
rain penetration
21.3.2.8 Filled cavity walls. Filling the complete
cavity of a cavity wall with thermal insulation will
increase the risk of rain penetration through the
wall (see BRE Digest 236 19804)). In Table 11(B)
insulants are divided into:
a) type A insulants, such as mineral fibre
(see BS 6232) or polystyrene beads, which should
not be subjected to exposure conditions more
severe than those recommended for the
equivalent unfilled wall;
b) type B insulants, such as urea formaldehyde
foam (see BS 5618) and granular plastics fills,
which are subject to various additional
restrictions related to the local exposure
conditions and the type of construction.
NOTE The risk of rain penetration for all insulants will be
reduced by using a cavity wider than 50 mm.
Partial filling of a cavity wall (i.e. filling part of
the width of a cavity with insulant placed against
the inner leaf) does not affect the resistance to
wind-driven rain of the wall, providing the width of
the remaining air space is not less than 50 mm. The
use of widths less than this increases the risk of rain
penetration and should therefore be subject to
various restrictions related to the local exposure
conditions and type of construction.
21.3.3 Examples of cavity wall external leaf
constructions suitable for particular exposure
categories. When choosing a cavity wall external leaf
construction suitable for a particular exposure
category, Table 11(B) may be used with discretion as
a starting point for the designer.

Applied external finish Cladding Rendering Other

(see 21.3.2.1) (e.g. masonry paint, water repellent)
Mortar composition Cement : lime : sand Cement : sand plus plasticizer or masonry:
(see 21.3.2.3) cement : sand
Mortar joint finish and profile Bucket handle, Flush Recessed, Recessed,
(see 21.3.2.4) weathered, etc. tooled untooled
Air space (clear cavity) Over 50 mm 50 mm 25 mm None
(see 21.3.2.6) [see Table 11(A)]
Insulation None Partial filling Filled with Filled with
(see 21.3.2.8) with 50 mm type A insulant type B insulant
air space (50 mm cavity) (50 mm cavity)
NOTE 4 It is essential to read this table in conjunction with 21.3.2 and 21.3.3. In particular, the table does not take account of
quality of workmanship (see 21.3.2.2) or the effect of architectural features (see 21.3.2.7).

4) Available from the Building Research Station, Garston, Watford, Herts WD2 7JR.

40 BSI 11-1999

In general, the more severe the exposure category,
the more items from the left-hand side of the table
should be selected. Conversely, the more items from
the right-hand side of the table the designer wishes
to use, the less severe the exposure category in
which the building construction will be satisfactory.
Local experience and conditions should always be
taken into account when making a decision on the
suitability of a particular construction.
Some examples of cavity wall external leaf
constructions suitable for particular exposure
categories are as follows.
Example 1. Clay brickwork.
Cement : lime : sand mortar, designation i), ii) or iii).
Tooled and weathered or bucket handled joints.
50 mm clear cavity, no cavity insulation.
Maximum exposure category: Severe5).
Example 2. Clay brickwork.
Cement : sand mortar plus plasticiser,
designation i), ii) or iii).
Tooled and weathered or bucket handled joints.
50 mm clear cavity, no cavity insulation.
Maximum exposure category: Moderate/Severe5).
Example 3. Clay brickwork.
Cement : sand mortar plus plasticiser,
designation i), ii) or iii).
Tooled and weathered or bucket handled joints.
50 mm clear cavity, cavity filled with type B
insulant.
Maximum exposure category: Sheltered/Moderate5).
Example 4. Clay brickwork.
Cement : lime : sand mortar, designation ii) or iii).
Raked and untooled joints.
50 mm cavity filled with type B insulant.
Maximum exposure category: Sheltered5).
Example 5. Dense concrete blockwork.
Cement : lime : sand mortar, designation iii).
Tooled and weathered or bucket handled joints.
50 mm clear cavity, no cavity insulation.
Maximum exposure category: Moderate/Severe.
NOTE Certain types of dense concrete blocks may be suitable
for Severe exposure category. The manufacturer should be
consulted.
Example 6. Concrete brickwork.
Cement : lime : sand mortar, designation iii).
Tooled and weathered or bucket handled joints.
50 mm clear cavity, no cavity insulation.
Maximum exposure category: Severe.
5) For
clay brickwork built to the quality of workmanship recommended in this code, the maximum exposure category will be
comparable for all absorption levels of brick. However, the mechanism of resistance to rain penetration may differ (see 21.3.2.2)
BSI 11-1999
BS 5628-3:1985
Example 7. Concrete brickwork.
Cement : sand mortar plus plasticiser,
designation i), ii) or iii).
Tooled and weathered or bucket handled joints.
50 mm clear cavity, no cavity insulation.
Maximum exposure category: Moderate/Severe.
Example 8. Calcium silicate brickwork.
Cement : lime : sand mortar, designation iii).
Tooled and weathered or bucket handled joints.
50 mm clear cavity, no cavity insulation.
Maximum exposure category: Severe.
Example 9. Dense concrete blockwork.
Cement : lime : sand mortar, designation iii).
Tooled and weathered or bucket handled joints.
50 mm clear cavity, no cavity insulation.
Rendered. Joint finish and profile as required for
rendering.
Maximum exposure category: Severe.
21.4 Damp-proof courses and cavity trays
21.4.1 A damp-proof course (d.p.c.) in a building is
intended to provide a barrier to the passage of water
from the exterior of the building to the interior, or
from the ground to the structure, or from one part of
the structure to another. The passage of water may
be horizontal, upwards, or downwards. Where the
d.p.c. is intended to prevent the upward movement
of water due to capillary action, joints may be lapped
without sealing. However, where water is moving in
a downwards direction, the joints in the
d.p.c. should be sealed.
21.4.2 In cavity walls, d.p.c. design should be based
on the assumption that rain will penetrate the outer
leaf of the wall and run down the inside of the outer
leaf. Where the cavity is bridged, e.g. by cavity fill,
lintels, structural beams, floor slabs or pipes, there
is a danger that water will be conducted across it to
cause dampness inside the building. To avoid this
problem, it is essential that watertight cavity trays
are provided above all bridges of the cavity (other
than wall ties), so that water is diverted to the outer
leaf or clear of the bridges.
21.4.3 To ensure adequate performance, d.p.cs and
cavity trays should have the following material
properties:
a) an expected life at least equal to that of the
building;
b) resistance to compression without extrusion;
c) resistance to sliding where necessary;
d) adhesion to units and mortar where necessary;
41
 Table 12 Physical properties and performance of materials for d.p.cs
42

BS 5628-3:1985
Joint treatment to prevent
Minimum Minimum water moving Liability to
Material Durability Other considerations
mass thickness extrusion
Upward Downward
A. Flexible kg/m2 mm
Lead complying code 1.8 Lapped at Welted Not under pressure Corrodes in contact with May be easily worked to
with BS 1178 no. 4 least 100 mm met in normal mortars. Protect with required shape but this
construction bitumen or bitumen paint is a slow process
of heavy consistency
applied to the
corrosion-producing
surface and to both
surfaces of the lead
Copper complying with Approx. 0.25 Lapped at Welded or Not under pressure Highly resistant to May stain masonry. Not easy
BS 2870 grades C 104 2.28 least 100 mm welted met in normal corrosion. If soluble salts to work on site, so not
or C106 in the construction are present, protect as for suitable for cavity trays
O condition lead
Bitumen
Hessian base 3.8 Lapped at Lapped at Likely to extrude The hessian or fibre may Materials should be unrolled
(class A of BS 6398) least 100 mm least 100 m under heat and decay but this does not with care. In cold weather,
Fibre base 3.3 m and sealed moderate pressure affect efficiency if the warm before use.
(class B of BS 6398) but this is unlikely bitumen remains When used as a cavity
Asbestos base 3.8 to affect resistance undisturbed. Classes D, E tray, the d.p.c, should be
(class C of BS 6398) to moisture and F are most suitable fully supported
Hessian base and lead 4.4 penetration for buildings that are For further guidance
(class D of BS 6398) intended to have a very see Appendix B of
Fibre base and lead 4.4 long life or where there BS 6398:1983
(class E of BS 6398) is risk of movement
Asbestos base and lead 4.9
(class F of BS 6398)
High bond strength 2.2 Should follow the
asbestos base recommendations in
Appendix C of BS 6398:1983
Polyethylene, low Approx. 0.46 Lapped for Welted Not under pressure No evidence of Accommodates considerable
density (0.915 g/L 0.5 distance at met in normal deterioration in contact lateral movement. When used
to 0.925 g/L) complying least equal to construction with other building as a cavity tray, may be
with BS 6515 width of materials difficult to hold in place
d.p.c. and may need bedding in
mastic for the full thickness of
BSI 11-1999

the outer leaf, to prevent rain

penetration. Not suitable for
use where compressive stress
is low, e.g. under copings
 Table 12 Physical properties and performance of materials for d.p.cs
BSI 11-1999

Joint treatment to prevent

Minimum Minimum water moving Liability to
Material Durability Other considerations
mass thickness extrusion
Upward Downward
A (continued) kg/m2 mm
Bitumen polymer and Approx. 1.10 Lapped at Lapped at Not under pressure Unlikely to be impaired Accommodates considerable
pitch polymer 1.5 least 100 mm least 100 mm met in normal by any movements lateral movement. When used
and sealed construction normally occurring up to as a cavity tray, preformed
the point of failure of cloaks should be used,
the wall e.g. at changes of level
and junctions
B. Semi-rigid
Mastic asphalt 12 No joint No joint Liable to extrude No deterioration To provide key for mortar
complying with BS 1097 problems problems under pressures below next course of
or BS 6577 of hardness above 0.65 N/mm2 brickwork, up to 35 % grit
appropriate to should be beaten into
conditions asphalt immediately after
application and left proud
of surface. Alternatively
the surface should be
scored whilst still warm
C. Rigid
Epoxy resin/sand 6.0 No joint No joint Not extruded No evidence of Resin content should be
problems problems deterioration in contact about 15 %.
with other materials The appropriate hardener
should be used
D.p.c. brick complying Two courses, No joint Not suitable No deterioration Particularly appropriate
with BS 3921 laid to break problems where d.p.c. is required to
joint, bedded transmit tension, e.g. in
in 1 : 3 freestanding walls
Portland
cement : sand
Slate complying Two courses, No joint Not suitable No deterioration

BS 5628-3:1985
with BS 743 laid to break problems
joint, bedded
in 1 : 3
Portland
cement : sand
43
BS 5628-3:1985
e) resistance to accidental damage during
installation and subsequent building operations;
f) workability at temperatures normally
encountered during building operations, with
particular regard to ease of forming and sealing
joints, fabricating junctions, steps and stop ends,
and ability to retain shape.
Table 12 gives information on performance of
individual materials currently used for d.p.cs.
21.4.4 Wherever possible, the part of the cavity tray
which bridges the cavity should be continuously
supported. It is particularly important to provide
support at joints so as to facilitate their formation.
21.4.5 Detailed three-dimensional drawings should
be made of all junctions, steps, angles and stop ends,
to enable fabrication either on or off site. Typical
details are given in 21.5. Many common details
cannot be formed satisfactorily on site, unless they
are fabricated in lead. If materials other than lead
are to be used in these complex situations, then
pre-formed cloaks should be specified, so as to
restrict the site operation to simple jointing only.
21.4.6 It is essential to form weepholes in the outer
leaf immediately above the cavity tray. These may
be formed by leaving open perpend joints at not
greater than 1 m intervals in the course of units
immediately above the cavity tray, with not less
than two weepholes over each opening (see 21.5.5).
Where cavity filling is anticipated, consideration
should be given to reducing the spacing of
weepholes.
21.4.7 D.p.cs should extend through the full
thickness of the wall or leaf, and preferably project
beyond the external face. It is essential to prevent
penetration of water beneath the d.p.c., which can
occur if it is placed on an irregular mortar or
concrete bed. D.p.cs should be laid on a smooth bed
of fresh mortar, unless they are required to
accommodate differential sliding movements
between the units on either side of them, in which
case the mortar bed should be trowelled smooth and
allowed to set, and then cleaned off before the
d.p.c. is laid. It is essential not to use coarse
aggregates which might damage the d.p.c. D.p.cs
and cavity trays should not be pierced by services,
reinforcement, fixings, etc. A d.p.c. should not be
bridged by pointing, rendering, plastering, tiling,
etc.
21.5 Positioning of d.p.cs
21.5.1 Below ground level. Horizontal and vertical
d.p.cs are required where the lowest floor of the
building is below ground level. It may be necessary
in this situation to consider tanking (see CP 102).
44
21.5.2 Immediately above ground level. In every
external wall, a d.p.c. should be provided at
least 150 mm above the finished level of the
external ground or paving. To prevent the
transference of moisture from external walls into
solid floors, the damp-proof membrane in the floor,
and the d.p.c. in the wall, should overlap and be
sealed. In cavity work, the cavity should be filled to
ground level with fine concrete, and weepholes
should be left in the perpends of the outer leaf at not
greater than 1 m intervals immediately above the
top of this fine concrete.
21.5.3 Under sills. All pervious or jointed sills or
sub-sills should be provided with a d.p.c. for the full
length and width of the sill bed. The d.p.c. should
overlap the vertical d.p.cs at the jambs of the
openings [see Figure 12(a) and Figure 12(b)]. Where
the sill is in contact with the backing, the
d.p.c. should be turned up at the back and ends for
the full depth of the sill.
21.5.4 At jambs of openings. Where a cavity wall is
closed at the jambs of openings by masonry, a
vertical d.p.c. should be inserted to separate the
inner and outer parts of the wall and should extend
into the cavity at least 25 mm beyond the width of
the closer [see Figure 12(a)].
NOTE Preformed cavity closers are available but experience of
their use is limited. Where they are used, care should be taken in
detailing junctions with d.p.cs.
Any frame should be so placed as to avoid
transmitting water past the d.p.c. and, in the case of
timber frames, preferably so as to protect the timber
from any damp units. Where the frame is to be built
in, the d.p.c. should be secured to the frame before
building in [see Figure 12(c)]. If the frame is to be
fixed later, the d.p.c. should be left projecting.
Vertical d.p.cs at openings should be positioned to
overlap with a horizontal d.p.c. at the sill of the
opening (see Figure 12) and to be overlapped by
horizontal d.p.cs at the head.
In single-leaf walls, a vertical d.p.c. similar to that
in a cavity wall should be provided at jambs of
openings to ensure resistance to rain penetration at
least as good as that of the wall itself. Alternatively,
this can be accomplished by rendering the external
surfaces of the jamb.
BSI 11-1999

21.5.5 Over openings. In cavity walls, cavity trays
with stop ends should be provided over all openings
(including small openings for ducts, services, etc.),
unless they are well protected by building features,
such as overhanging eaves. This may be difficult to
achieve in arches (see 27.6). The cavity tray should
step down or slope across the cavity towards the
external leaf and, preferably, terminate in a small
drip on the external face of the wall. Not less than
two weepholes should be provided in the outer leaf
in the perpends of the course above the cavity tray.
Consideration should be given to the detail of the
junction between the vertical d.p.c. in the jamb and
the cavity tray over the opening to ensure continuity
of damp-proof measures [see Figure 12(d) and
Figure 12(e)].
21.5.6 At balcony thresholds. Where balconies or
patios are formed by an extension of the structural
floor or the roof of a room below, difficult
waterproofing problems can arise unless the details
are carefully considered. An example of a suitable
junction between the cavity tray, sill d.p.c. and
vertical d.p.c is shown in Figure 12(f). Such a
junction should be carefully detailed for the
particular location and, unless made of malleable
metal, should be fabricated off-site by specialists.
21.5.7 In parapets. A d.p.c. should be provided at a
height of not less than 150 mm above the abutment
of a roof, to form a moisture-resisting continuity
with the flashing to the roof, and should extend to
form a projecting drip at the external face of the
parapet.
In a cavity parapet wall, a d.p.c. or cavity tray
should be provided, stepped down at least 150 mm
towards the inner or outer part of the wall
[see Figure 12(g)]. The designer should carefully
consider which way to slope the d.p.c. in a given
case. If sloped outwards, the d.p.c. will direct water
towards the outer face, which may cause staining. If
sloped inwards, moisture may travel along the
underside of the d.p.c. and gain access to the
underside of the roof covering and interior of the
building.
In addition to weepholes (see 21.4.6), a d.p.c. should
be provided under the coping, with rigid support
where necessary.
It should be noted that the d.p.c. or cavity tray
structurally separates the parapet from the wall
beneath, and the coping from the parapet.
Structural stability of the parapet should be
considered in accordance with 18.4.1.
BSI 11-1999
BS 5628-3:1985
21.5.8 Chimneys. Chimneys should preferably be
built in cavity wall construction from the foundation
to the chimney terminal. D.p.cs should be provided
to prevent the downward passage of water into the
interior of the building. In principle, the aim should
be to provide a horizontal d.p.c. through the
thickness of the chimney wall with an upturn at the
inner face, which is continuous with the vertical
flashing at the intersection with the roof
(see Figure 9). This is possible with flat, or very
shallow pitched roofs. However, the junction is more
complex with steeper pitched roofs. The
d.p.c. through the chimney stack should be stepped
to correspond with, and be continuous with, the
stepped flashing to pitched roofs. However, if the
chimney stack walls are only 100 mm thick, rain
will almost certainly penetrate the chimney stack
and run down the internal surface. If the chimney is
set in an internal partition or party wall and the roof
is steeply pitched, the masonry may dry out in the
roof space, particularly if it is well ventilated.
However, with lower pitched roofs the chimney
stack should either be built 200 mm or 215 mm
thick, or a d.p.c. provided in the chimney stack
within the roof space to prevent moisture getting
into the masonry below the ceiling.
It should be noted that a sheet d.p.c. at the point of
intersection with the roof structurally separates the
masonry, and the stability of the chimney stack and
its resistance to lateral wind loading needs to be
considered. A horizontal d.p.c. consisting of two
courses of d.p.c. bricks bedded in designation i)
mortar for clay brickwork, or two courses of slates
bedded in designation i) mortar for calcium silicate
or concrete bricks, is often satisfactory. A horizontal
d.p.c. should always be provided at the top of the
stack.
Where a chimney stack is incorporated in an outer
cavity wall, preferably the outer leaf and cavity
should be continuous around the chimney stack for
the full height of the outer wall and then completely
surround the chimney stack where it projects above
the roof. Corbelling from the chimney breast may be
necessary below the roof line, to support the outer
leaf at the sides and back of the chimney stack.
Chimney stacks built in cavity work should contain
a stepped d.p.c. in the outer leaf, continuous with
the stepped flashing at the abutment with the roof.
In exposed areas, consideration should be given to a
chimney tray. This should be of a material stiff
enough to form a cavity tray without being built into
the inner leaf, thus allowing structural continuity.
45
BS 5628-3:1985
21.6 Flashings and weatherings
The material to be used should be sufficiently
malleable to permit dressing into shape, but
sufficiently stiff to maintain its shape and to resist
lifting by the wind.
The material should be selected with due regard to
the likelihood of corrosion. Metal flashings other
than lead should, preferably, be pre-formed.
Flashings should be bedded into the work a
minimum of 25 mm, and be provided with welted, or
otherwise sealed, joints, or adequate overlaps.
Flashings should preferably be built in as the work
proceeds to avoid any damage to d.p.cs.
21.7 Cappings and copings
Chimney terminals, freestanding walls, including
parapet walls [see Figure 12(g)] and retaining walls
exposed to the weather, should preferably be
provided with a coping. The coping (see 2.5) may be
a preformed unit or it may be built up using creasing
tiles. In either case, the drip edge(s) should be
positioned a minimum of 40 mm away from the
face(s) of the wall. Where for aesthetic or other
reasons a capping (see 2.2) is used, special care is
needed in the choice of materials, both for the
capping and for the walling beneath (see clause 22).
Where the coping or capping is jointed, a continuous
d.p.c., bedded in designation i) mortar, for fired-clay
units, or designation ii) mortar, for calcium silicate
or concrete units, should be provided. Where
cappings are used, the d.p.c. may be positioned two
courses down rather than immediately below the
capping course, in order to obtain greater weight on
the d.p.c.. Alternatively, a flashing designed to
throw rainwater clear of the walling beneath may be
built into the joint.
46
Consideration should be given to copings being
displaced, e.g. by lateral loads, and to the possibility
of vandalism. L-shaped copings and clip-over
copings may be more satisfactory in these
situations. Where necessary, copings should be
dowelled or joggle-jointed together, or suitably fixed
down, but consideration has to be given to provision
for movement in long coping runs. Additional
movement joints may be required in cappings and
copings, owing to increased solar absorption
(see clause 20).
21.8 External wall becoming an internal wall
When an external wall becomes an internal wall, as
in the case of a stepped terrace of houses, a cavity
gutter should be used to drain the cavity. Where a
pitched roof abuts such a wall, a stepped cavity tray
will be necessary, to follow the profile of the roof
[see Figure 12(h)]. Pre-formed tray profiles should,
preferably, be used, and the joints should be sealed.
21.9 Structural frames
Where masonry is supported by a structural frame,
particular attention should be paid to the detailing
of d.p.cs to ensure their continuity. Where cavity
brickwork is supported on an edge beam, or on a
floor slab, a cavity tray should be used to prevent
moisture penetration into the structure. Where a
column, or other structural member, obstructs the
cavity of the wall, the cavity tray should be
continuous around the member. When a structural
member bridges the cavity, a vertical d.p.c. should
be included between the structural member and the
external leaf, and stop ends formed in the cavity
tray [see Figure 12(i)].
BSI 11-1999
 BS 5628-3:1985

Figure 12 Damp-proof systems

BSI 11-1999 47
BS 5628-3:1985

Figure 12 Damp-proof systems (continued)

48 BSI 11-1999
 BS 5628-3:1985

Figure 12 Damp-proof systems (continued)

BSI 11-1999 49
BS 5628-3:1985

Figure 12 Damp-proof systems (continued)

50 BSI 11-1999
 BS 5628-3:1985

Figure 12 Damp-proof systems (continued)

BSI 11-1999 51
BS 5628-3:1985

Figure 12 Damp-proof systems (continued)

52 BSI 11-1999
 BS 5628-3:1985

Figure 12 Damp-proof systems (continued)

BSI 11-1999 53
54

BS 5628-3:1985
BSI 11-1999

Figure 12 Damp-proof systems (continued)

 BS 5628-3:1985

NOTE All discontinuities in cavity trays to be given stop ends to prevent water discharging behind the tray.
(i) Structural frames
Figure 12 Damp-proof systems (concluded)

BSI 11-1999 55
BS 5628-3:1985
22 Durability
22.1 General
22.1.1 A major factor influencing the durability of
masonry is the degree to which it becomes saturated
with water. It may become saturated directly by
rainfall, indirectly by water moving upwards from
the foundations or laterally from retained material
as in a retaining wall.
External masonry is much less likely to become
saturated where projecting features have been
provided to shed run-off water clear of the walling.
Examples of such features are:
a) protection to wall heads by roof overhangs or
copings;
b) projecting throated sills;
c) bell mouths to rendering and similar features
at the base of tile hanging and other impermeable
cladding.
It should be noted that conventional weathering
details may not protect walls sufficiently in
situations of Severe or Very Severe exposure as
defined in 21.2. Recessing of the joints may increase
water intake and application of an initially
impervious finish, e.g. of masonry paint, tiling, or a
dense rendering may lead to entrapment of
moisture if imperfections develop or if water is able
to get behind the finish by any path.
External masonry will generally be maintained in a
drier condition by a moderately porous uncracked
rendering complying with BS 5262 or by a
ventilated cladding such as slate or tile hanging, by
weather-boarding, and by panels of various
materials, e.g. of plastics, timber or metal.
22.1.2 Frost may damage both masonry units and
mortar, depending upon their susceptibility to such
damage on freezing in the saturated condition.
Masonry is particularly at risk when construction
takes place during the winter. Masonry units in
stacks and uncompleted masonry may become
saturated unless adequate protection is provided
(see clause 35). In addition, when masonry remains
wet for long periods of time and soluble sulphates
are present in sufficient quantities from fired-clay
bricks, sulphate attack on the mortar joints and
other materials containing Portland cement may
arise (see 22.4).
22.1.3 The durability of masonry depends only upon
the characteristics of the masonry units and the
mortar, particularly as regards resistance to frost
and to chemical attack. The following factors affect
the susceptibility of the masonry to damage.
a) Exposure to the weather or to other sources of
water (see 22.2).
56
b) Exposure to aggressive conditions from all
sources including the ground (see 22.3 and 22.4).
c) The adequacy of methods taken to prevent the
masonry from becoming saturated both in terms
of design (see 22.5) and workmanship.
Particular attention should be paid to the choice of
masonry units and mortar in the following and
similar situations where the masonry is likely to
become and may remain saturated for long periods
of time.
1) In chimney terminals, sills, copings and
cappings.
2) In freestanding and retaining walls, parapets
and chimney stacks.
3) Below d.p.c. at or near ground level and in
foundations, manholes and inspection chambers.
The degree to which masonry used below d.p.c. at or
near ground level becomes saturated will vary
according to the site. The masonry materials will be
far less prone to problems on a site that is
well-drained and dry. Where a site is wet, and/or the
masonry at or near ground level may be subject to
saturation, particular care should be taken in the
choice of materials. It is good practice to ensure that
concrete and paved surrounds do not direct water
into the masonry. Where there is more than 150 mm
of masonry exposed between d.p.c. and finished
ground level, e.g. on sloping sites, the inner leaf of
such masonry may act as an earth-retaining wall.
As a result considerable quantities of water may be
transferred into the walling. There is thus an
increased risk of frost and sulphate attack,
efflorescence, lime leaching and staining of the
outer leaf. The application of a waterproofing
treatment to the face of the masonry in contact with
the ground will minimize or obviate such problems.
22.2 Exposure to the weather
A good indication of the general exposure of the site
to wind-driven rain may be obtained as described in
clause 21. However, it should be appreciated that
different elements in the same building may be
subjected to different degrees of exposure. In areas
of Severe or Very Severe exposure, it is particularly
important that the masonry is protected by
overhangs and other projecting features (see 22.1).
If such protective features are omitted for aesthetic
reasons, the possible effects of the increased
exposure of the masonry to wetting should be
considered (see 22.5).
BSI 11-1999

22.3 Frost action
22.3.1 Night frosts are common even in mild winters
and it is important to protect the masonry units and
the newly erected masonry adequately, both from
saturation and from frost (see 30.1 and clause 35). If
freezing occurs either during construction or shortly
after completion of the work, frost may cause
damage to mortar and certain masonry units if they
have become saturated during construction.
Additional consideration should be given to the
choice of masonry units and mortar if the walling is
liable to be splashed by de-icing salts from roadways
or if the building is to be located in conditions of
extreme exposure to weather.
22.3.2 For fired-clay masonry units, neither
strength nor water absorption are reliable guides for
assessing the resistance to freezing and there is no
substitute for experience of performance in a
particular situation.
There is no test method in any British Standard for
assessing frost resistance of fired-clay products,
although a test being developed by the British
Ceramic Research Association is referred to in
BS 3921. The best evidence of ability to withstand
frost damage is provided by brickwork which has
been in service for some years. Where brickwork is
used in situations in which it may become saturated
and will be exposed to cyclic frost action, the frost
resistant category (F) specified in BS 3921 should be
used and if there is any doubt it is strongly
recommended that the manufacturers advice as to
the suitability of his product should be sought.
22.3.3 For calcium silicate bricks, durability and
compressive strength are related, and experience
shows that repeated freezing and thawing has little
effect on bricks. Bricks of strength class 3 of BS 187
possess good frost resistance in most applications,
but higher strength classes are recommended in
very exposed situations. Calcium silicate bricks may
suffer deterioration if impregnated with strong salt
solutions and then subjected to intense freezing.
They should thus not be used in situations where
the masonry may be directly wetted by sea-water or
subjected to contamination by repeated applications
of road de-icing salts.
22.3.4 Precast concrete masonry units possess good
frost resistance and, in general, provided that they
are selected following the recommendations of this
code, problems should not occur.
BSI 11-1999
BS 5628-3:1985
22.4 Sulphate attack
Where masonry remains wet, expansion and
deterioration of mortar can occur as a result of
chemical reaction between soluble sulphates and
tri-calcium aluminate in the Portland cement in the
presence of water. The reaction, forming calcium
sulphoaluminate (ettringite), is accompanied by an
expansion leading to cracking and crumbling of the
mortar and in severe cases may lead to distortion or
rotation of the masonry.
The sulphates may be derived from ground waters,
from the ground (including made-up fill adjacent to
the masonry), from flue gases, or from fired-clay
masonry units and aggregates. The degree to which
soluble salts are extracted depends on the quantity
of water available and the permeability of the
masonry. For this reason, the greatest attention
should be given to the provision of effective d.p.cs
and to the exclusion of water by good design and
detailing (see 21.4).
Where masonry is likely to remain wet for long
periods of time, e.g. in freestanding boundary walls,
retaining walls, parapet walls, below d.p.c. at or
near ground level, and all elevations exposed to
exceptionally severe wind-driven rain, sulphation of
mortar can occur and consideration should be given
to the use of strong mixes or of ordinary or
sulphate-resisting Portland cement in mortars used
in these situations. Calcium silicate and concrete
masonry units do not contain significant amounts of
soluble sulphates. However, where it is intended to
use concrete masonry units, expert advice should be
sought, taking into account local ground conditions.
22.5 Architectural features
For aesthetic reasons, designers may sometimes
include features which lead to increased local
exposure of the masonry. As a result, the masonry
will be more likely to become very wet or saturated,
so increasing the risk of frost damage or
disfiguration. In such cases it is essential to select
more durable masonry units and mortar, and this
may in turn govern the choice for the whole
building.
Examples of architectural features leading to
increased local exposure are:
a) recessed windows with sloping masonry at the
bottom;
b) flush sills;
c) inadequate or non-existent overhangs at
verges;
d) large expanses of glazing or impermeable
cladding with no effective form of construction at
the base designed to shed run-off clear of the
masonry beneath;
57
BS 5628-3:1985
e) areas of rendering adjoining the masonry and
recessed from it without an efficient seal or other
detail at the junction of the rendering and the
masonry;
f) vertical tile hanging, the lower edge of which
has little or no projection over the walling below.
There has been an increasing tendency to use
cappings for masonry parapet walling. The capping
may be brick-on-edge, brick-on-end, bonded
brickwork or a purpose-made capping unit. Such
cappings give relatively little protection to the
masonry beneath, which may become saturated for
up to 1 m below the capping level, depending on the
water absorption of the masonry units used. It is
strongly recommended that parapets and chimneys
be protected by copings and d.p.cs (see 21.7).
Since chimney stacks are normally exposed on all
four faces and the top, they may be more liable to
saturation and frost attack than other parts of the
building, especially where an effective coping has
not been provided at the terminal.
58
Cappings of brickwork and tile creasings, even
though flaunched with mortar, cannot be relied
upon to keep out moisture indefinitely and require
an effective d.p.c. beneath them. Where possible, a
precast concrete coping in one piece, with weathered
top and ample overhang, properly throated, is
preferred.
22.6 Selection of masonry units and mortar for
durability
Table 13 gives guidance on the choice of masonry
units and mortar designations most appropriate for
particular situations as regards durability. At the
design stage, the weather conditions at the time of
building will rarely be known and indeed building
may continue through more than one winter period.
The recommendations given, therefore, relate to
cold weather when night frost is expected but even
so it is essential to protect fully masonry units,
mortar and masonry under construction from
saturation and freezing (see clauses 30 and 35).
Reference to experience of durability in service of
masonry units and mortar produced from local
constituent materials in the geographical area
concerned may provide valuable guidance.
BSI 11-1999
 Table 13 Durability of masonry in finished construction
BSI 11-1999

(A) Work below or near external ground level

Quality of masonry units and appropriate mortar designations
Masonry condition
Calcium silicate Remarks
or situation Fired-clay units Concrete bricks Concrete blocks
units

A1 Low risk of FL, FN, ML or MN Classes 3 to 7 W 15 N/mm2 a) of block Some types of autoclaved aerated concrete
saturation in i), ii) or iii) in iii) or iv) in iii) density W 1 500 kg/m3; block may not be suitable. The manufacturer
with or without (see remarks) or should be consulted.
freezing b) made with dense If sulphate ground conditions exist, the
aggregate complying recommendations in 22.4 should be followed
with BS 882 or Where designation iv) mortar is used it is
BS 1047; or essential to ensure that all masonry units,
c) having a mortar and masonry under construction are
compressive protected fully from saturation and freezing
strength W 7 N/mm2; (see clause 30 and clause 35)
or The masonry most vulnerable in A2 and A3
d) most types of is located between 150 mm above,
autoclaved aerated and 150 mm below, finished ground level. In
block (see remarks) this area masonry will become wet and may
in iii) remain wet for long periods of time,
particularly in winter. Where FN or MN
A2 High risk of FL, FN, ML or MN Classes 3 to 7 W 15 N/mm2 As for A1 in ii) or iii) fired-clay units are used in A2 or A3,
saturation in i) or ii) in ii) or iii) in ii) or iii) sulphate-resisting cement should be used
without freezing (see remarks) (see 22.4)
A3 High risk of FL or FN in i) Classes 3 to 7 W 20 N/mm2 As for A1 in ii)
saturation or ii) in ii) in ii) or iii)
with freezing
(B) D.p.cs
B1 In buildings Damp-proof Not suitable Not suitable Not suitable Masonry d.p.cs can resist rising damp but
course 1 as will not resist water percolating downwards.
described in If sulphate ground conditions exist, the
BS 3921, in i) recommendations in 22.4 should be followed.

BS 5628-3:1985
B2 In external Damp-proof Not suitable Not suitable Not suitable D.p.cs of fired-clay units are unlikely to be
works course 2 as suitable for walls of other masonry units, as
described in differential movement may occur (see 20.1)
BS 3921, in i)
59
 Table 13 Durability of masonry in finished construction
60

BS 5628-3:1985
(C) Unrendered external walls (other than chimneys, cappings, copings, parapets, sills)
Masonry condition Quality of masonry units and appropriate mortar designations Remarks
or situation
Fired-clay units Calcium silicate Concrete bricks Concrete blocks
units
C1 Low risk of FL, FN, ML or MN Classes 2 to 7 W 7 N/mm2 Any in iii) or iv) Walls should be protected by roof overhang
saturation in i), ii) or iii) in iii) or iv) in iii) (see remarks) and other projecting features to minimize
(see remarks) the risk of saturation. However, weathering
C2 High risk of FL or FN in i) or ii) Classes 2 to 7 W 15 N/mm2 Any in iii) details may not protect walls in conditions of
saturation (see remarks) in iii) in iii) very severe driving rain (see 21.3). Certain
architectural features, e.g. brickwork below
large glazed areas with flush sills, increase
the risk of saturation (see 22.5).
Where designation iv) mortar is used it is
essential to ensure that all masonry units,
mortar and masonry under construction are
protected fully from saturation and freezing
(see clause 30 and clause 35).
Where FN fired-clay units are used in
designation ii) mortar for C2,
sulphate-resisting cement should be used
(see 22.4).
(D) Rendered external walls (other than chimneys, cappings, copings, parapets, sills)
Rendered external FN or MN in i) Classes 2 to 7 W 7/mm2 Any in iii) or iv) Rendered walls are usually suitable for most
walls (other than or ii) (see remarks) in iii) or iv) in iii) (see remarks) wind-driven rain conditions (see 21.3).
chimneys, cappings, or FL or ML in i), ii) (see remarks) Where FN or MN fired-clay units are used,
parapets, sills) or iii) sulphate-resisting cement should be used in
the mortar and in the base coat of the render
(see 22.4).
Where designation iv) mortar is used it is
essential to ensure that all masonry units,
mortar and masonry under construction are
protected fully from saturation and freezing
(see clauses 30 and 35)
(E) Internal walls and inner leaves of cavity walls
Internal walls FL, FN, ML, MN, Classes 2 to 7 W 7 N/mm2 Any in iii) or iv) Where designation iv) mortar is used it is
BSI 11-1999

and inner leaves OL or ON in iii) or iv) in iv) (see remarks) essential to ensure that all masonry units,
of cavity walls in i), ii), iii) or iv) (see remarks) (see remarks) mortar and masonry under construction are
(see remarks) protected fully from saturation and freezing
(see clauses 30 and 35)
 Table 13 Durability of masonry in finished construction
BSI 11-1999

(F) Unrendered parapets (other than cappings and copings)

Quality of masonry units and appropriate mortar designations
Masonry condition
Calcium silicate Remarks
or situation Fired-clay units Concrete bricks Concrete blocks
units
F1 Low risk of FL, FN, ML or MN Classes 3 to 7 W 20 N/mm2 a) of block density Most parapets are likely to be severely
saturation, in i), ii) or iii) in iii) in iii) W 1 500 kg/m3; or exposed irrespective of the climatic exposure
e.g. low b) made with dense of the building as a whole. Copings and
parapets on aggregate complying d.p.cs should be provided wherever possible.
some with BS 882 or Some types of autoclaved aerated concrete
single-storey BS 1047; or block may not be suitable. The manufacturer
buildings should be consulted.
c) having a
compressive strength Where FN fired-clay units are used in F2,
W 7 N/mm2; or sulphate-resisting cement should be used
d) most types of (see 22.4)
autoclaved aerated
block (see remarks)
in iii)
F2 High risk of FL or FN in i) or ii) Classes 3 to 7 W 20 N/mm2 As for F1 in ii)
saturation, (see remarks) in iii) in iii)
e.g. where a
capping only is
provided for
the masonry
(G) Rendered parapets (other than cappings and copings)
Rendered parapets FN or MN in i) Classes 3 to 7 W 7 N/mm2 Any in iii) Single-leaf walls should be rendered only
(other than cappings or ii) (see remarks) in iii) in iii) on one face. All parapets should be provided
and copings) or FL or ML with a coping. Where FN or MN fired-clay
in i), ii) or iii) units are used, sulphate-resisting cement
should be used in the mortar and in the
base coat of the render (see 22.4)

BS 5628-3:1985
61
 Table 13 Durability of masonry in finished construction
62

BS 5628-3:1985
(H) Chimneys
Quality of masonry units and appropriate mortar designations
Masonry condition
Calcium silicate Remarks
or situation Fired-clay units Concrete bricks Concrete blocks
units
H1 Unrendered FL, FN, ML or MN Classes 3 to 7 W 10 N/mm2 Any in iii) Chimney stacks are normally the most
with low risk of in i), ii) or iii) in iii) in iii) exposed masonry on any building. Due to the
saturation possibility of sulphate attack from flue gases
H2 Unrendered FL or FN in i) Classes 3 to 7 W 15 N/mm2 a) of block density the use of sulphate-resisting cement in the
with high risk or ii) in iii) in iii) W 1 500 kg/m3; or mortar and in any render is strongly
of saturation recommended (see 22.4). Brickwork and tile
b) made with dense
cappings cannot be relied upon to keep out
aggregate complying
moisture indefinitely. The use of a coping is
with BS 882 or
preferable.
BS 1047; or
Some types of autoclaved aerated concrete
c) having a
block may not be suitable for use in H2.
compressive strength
The manufacturer should be consulted.
W 7 N/mm2; or
d) most types of
autoclaved aerated
block (see remarks)
in ii)
H3 Rendered FL or ML in i), ii) Classes 3 to 7 W 7 N/mm2 Any in iii)
or iii) or FN or MN in iii) in iii)
in i) or ii)
(I) Cappings, copings and sills
Cappings, copings FL or FN in i) Classes 4 to 7 W 30 N/mm2 a) of block density Some autoclaved aerated concrete blocks
and sills in ii) in ii) W 1 500 kg/m3; or may be unsuitable for use in I. The
b) made with dense manufacturer should be consulted.
aggregate complying Where cappings or copings are used for
with BS 882 or chimney terminals, the use of
BS 1047; or sulphate-resisting cement is strongly
c) having a recommended (see 22.4).
compressive strength D.p.cs for cappings, copings and sills should
W 7 N/mm2; or be bedded in the same mortar as the
d) most autoclaved masonry units.
BSI 11-1999

aerated blocks
(see remarks)
in ii)
 Table 13 Durability of masonry in finished construction
BSI 11-1999

(J) Freestanding boundary and screen walls (other than cappings and copings)
Quality of masonry units and appropriate mortar designations
Masonry condition
Calcium silicate Remarks
or situation Fired-clay units Concrete bricks Concrete blocks
units
J1 With coping FN or MN in i) or ii) Classes 3 to 7 W 15 N/mm2 Any in iii) Masonry in free-standing walls is likely to be
or FL or ML in i), ii) in iii) in iii) severely exposed, irrespective of climatic
or iii) conditions. Such walls should be protected
J2 With capping FL or FN in i) or Classes 3 to 7 W 20 N/mm2 a) of block density by a coping wherever possible and d.p.cs
ii) (see remarks) in iii) in iii) W 1 500 kg/m3; or should be provided under the copings and at
the base of the wall (see clause 21).
b) made with dense
aggregate complying Where FN or MN fired-clay units are used
with BS 882 or for J1 in conditions of severe driving rain
BS 1047; or (see clause 21), the use of sulphate-resisting
cement is strongly recommended (see 22.4).
c) having a
compressive strength Where designation iii) mortar is used for J2,
W 7 N/mm2; the use of sulphate-resisting cement is
(see remarks); or strongly recommended (see 22.4).
d) most types of Some types of autoclaved aerated concrete
autoclaved aerated block may also be unsuitable. The
block (see remarks) manufacturer should be consulted.
in ii)

BS 5628-3:1985
63
 Table 13 Durability of masonry in finished construction
64

BS 5628-3:1985
(K) Earth-retaining walls (other than cappings and copings)
Quality of masonry units and appropriate mortar designations
Masonry condition
Calcium silicate Remarks
or situation Fired-clay units Concrete bricks Concrete blocks
units
K1 With FL, FN, ML or MN Classes 3 to 7 W 15 N/mm2 a) of block density Because of possible contamination from the
waterproofed in i) or ii) in ii) or iii) in ii) W 1 500 kg/m3; or ground and saturation by ground waters, in
retaining face b) made with dense addition to subjection to severe climatic
and coping aggregate complying exposure, masonry in retaining walls is
with BS 882 or particularly prone to frost and sulphate
BS 1047; or attack. Careful choice of materials in
relation to the methods for exclusion of
c) having a
water recommended in clause 21 is
compressive strength
essential.
W 7 N/mm2; or
It is strongly recommended that such walls
d) most types of
be backfilled with free draining material.
autoclaved aerated
The provision of an effective coping with a
block (see remarks)
d.p.c. (see clause 21) and waterproofing of
in ii) the retaining face of the wall (see 22.1.3) is
K2 With coping or FL or FN in i) Classes 4 to 7 W 30 N/mm2 As for K1 but in i) desirable.
capping but no in ii) in i) or ii) or ii) (see remarks) Where FN or MN fired-clay units are used,
waterproofing the use of sulphate-resisting cement may be
on retaining necessary (see 22.4).
face
Some types of autoclaved aerated concrete
block are not suitable for use in K1. The
manufacturer should be consulted.
Most concrete blocks are not suitable for use
in K2. The manufacturer should be
consulted.
BSI 11-1999
 Table 13 Durability of masonry in finished construction
BSI 11-1999

(L) Drainage and sewerage, e.g. inspection chambers, manholes

Quality of masonry units and appropriate mortar designations
Masonry condition
Calcium silicate Remarks
or situation Fired-clay units Concrete bricks Concrete blocks
units
L1 Surface water Engineering bricks, Classes 3 to 7 W 20 N/mm2 a) of block density Where FN fired-clay units are used,
FL, FN, ML or MN in ii) and iii) in iii) W 1 500 kg/m3; or sulphate-resisting cement should be used.
(see remarks) in i) b) made with dense If sulphate ground conditions exist the
aggregate complying recommendations in 22.4 should be followed.
with BS 882 or Some types of autoclaved aerated block are
BS 1047; or not suitable for use in L1. The manufacturer
c) having a should be consulted.
compressive strength Some types of calcium silicate brick are not
W 7 N/mm2; or suitable for use in L2 or L3. The
d) most types of manufacturer should be consulted.
autoclaved aerated
block (see remarks)
in ii)
L2 Foul drainage Engineering bricks, Class 7 in ii) W 40 N/mm2 Not suitable
(continuous FL, FN, ML or MN (see remarks) with cement
contact with in i) content
masonry) W 350 kg/m3 in
i) or ii)
L3 Foul drainage Engineering bricks, Classes 3 to 7 W 40 N/mm2 Not suitable
(occasional FL, FN, ML or MN in ii) and iii) with cement
contact with in i) (see remarks) content
masonry) W 350 kg/m3
in i) or ii)

BS 5628-3:1985
65
BS 5628-3:1985

22.7 Protection of components embedded in Bolts, nuts, screws, etc. should be given the same
masonry from corrosion protection as the components with which they are to
22.7.1 Metal anchorages, dowels and fixings. Metal be used and be compatible with these components,
components other than wall ties built into masonry e.g. consideration should be given to the possibility
should be in the appropriate category given in of electrolytic action between dissimilar metals.
Table 14. (For wall ties see Table 9.) 22.7.2 Reinforcement. Reinforcement for structural
Components in contact with or embedded in an use should be protected as described in BS 5628-2.
inner leaf which is damp or exposed to periodic Reinforcement for non-structural use should be in
wetting should be protected in the same way as the appropriate category given in Table 14.
components in contact with or embedded in an outer 22.7.3 Timber components. Where joist ends are
leaf, e.g. below d.p.c. built into external walls or the inner leaves of cavity
In Severe or Very Severe exposure conditions as walls, they should be treated with preservatives.
defined in 21.2, only category D should be used in For guidance, see BS 5268-5. Joists should not
walls of three storeys or less. project into a cavity.
Table 14 Protection of metal components (other than wall ties) built into masonry
Category given in Table 1 (material and
Type of component Situation recommended protective measures)

Three storeys or less More than three storeys

Anchorages, bonding ties, slip brick All C or D D

ties and continuous support angles
Dowels and restraint straps Internal walls A,B,C,D A,B,C,D
Joist hangers In contact with A,B,C,D A,B,C,D
Reinforcement for non-structural use or embedded in
inner leaf
In contact with or C or D D
embedded in outer
leaf or single leaf
walls
Lintels All As specified in Not normally
BS 5977-2 for applicable. If used,
the appropriate special precautions
type of lintel may be necessary
i.e. installed with
or without d.p.c.
Cavity trays All As specified in As specified in
BS 5977-2 for BS 5977-2 for
lintels installed lintels installed
without d.p.c. without d.p.c.

66 BSI 11-1999
 BS 5628-3:1985

23 Selection of mortars Before deciding upon the mortar, the designer

should pay particular attention to local practice and
23.1 General
to any mixes that have been developed to deal with
The designer should carefully select the mortar special conditions. Where mortars are to be specified
designation and type by reference to structural by strength or where special category construction
requirements and taking into account the type of control is to be used, the proportions should be
masonry unit, type of construction, position in the determined from tests (see Appendix A of
building, degree of exposure (see clause 21) and the BS 5628-1:1978).
possibility of early exposure to frost (see clause 22), In practice the designer has the following three
together with the general properties of mortar given options.
in Table 15 and 23.2.
a) Specify designation and type of mortar and
The mortars given in Table 15 have been selected to leave contractor free to batch mix to obtain
provide the most suitable mortar that will be readily adequate workability.
workable to allow the bricklayer or blocklayer to
produce satisfactory work at an economic rate, be b) Specify actual mix proportions to be used for a
sufficiently durable and be able to assist in particular sand or provide sufficient guidance on
accommodating the strains arising from minor the grading of sand to enable the contractor to
movements within the wall. Where a mortar determine where, within the range, the sand
designation richer than the minimum designation should be proportioned. Not all sands complying
recommended for durability in Table 13 is required with BS 1200 will be suitable for conditions of
for structural reasons, careful consideration should Severe or Very Severe exposure or where flexural
be given to the accommodation of movement strength (adhesion) is critical, owing to high fines
(see clause 20). content and/or particle distribution. In such
cases, consideration should be given to using
The range of volume proportions given in Table 15 is sands having a particle size distribution towards
to allow for the effect of the differences in sand the coarser end of the BS 1200 grading envelope.
grading upon the properties of the mortar. Such sands may be found amongst those
Proportioning by mass will produce more consistent complying with grade M of BS 882.
mortars than volume proportioning, provided that
the variation in bulk densities of the materials is c) Specify the lowest mix proportions for each
checked on site constantly. type and designation, e.g. specify 1 : 1 : 5 for
designation iii) cement : lime : sand.
Table 15 Mortar mixes
Mortar Type of mortar (see note 2)
designation
Cement : lime : sand Air-entrained mixes (see note 5)
(see note 3)
Masonry cement : Cement : sand with
sand (see note 3) plasticizer (see note 3)
Proportions by Proportions by Proportions by
volume (see note 4) volume volume
Increasing Increasing i) 1 : 0 to ! : 3
strength ability to ii) 1 : " :4 to 4" 1 : 2" to 3" 1 : 3 to 4
(see note 1) accommodate
and movements iii) 1 : 1 : 5 to 6 1 : 4 to 5 1 : 5 to 6
improving due to iv) 1 : 2 : 8 to 9 1 : 5" to 6" 1 : 7 to 8
durability temperature v) 1 : 3 : 10 to 12 1 : 6" to 7 1:8
and moisture
changes

Direction of change in properties is shown by the Increasing resistance to frost attack during construction
arrows Improvement in adhesion and consequent resistance to rain penetration

NOTE 1 Where mortar of a given compressive strength is required by the designer, the mix proportions should be determined from
tests following the recommendations of Appendix A of BS 5628-1:1978.
NOTE 2 The different types of mortar that comprise any one designation are approximately equivalent in compressive strength and
do not generally differ greatly in their other properties. Some general differences between types of mortar are indicated by the arrows
at the bottom of the table, but these differences can be reduced (see 23.2.1).
NOTE 3 The range of sand contents is to allow for the effects of the differences in grading upon the properties of the mortar. In
general, the lower proportion of sand applies to grade G of BS 1200 whilst the higher proportion applies to grade S of BS 1200.
NOTE 4 The proportions are based on dry hydrated lime. The proportion of lime by volume may be increased by up to 50 % (V/V)
in order to obtain workability.
NOTE 5 At the discretion of the designer, air entraining admixtures may be added to lime : sand mixes to improve their early frost
resistance. (Ready mixed lime : sand mixes may contain such admixtures.)

BSI 11-1999 67
BS 5628-3:1985
23.2 Types of mortar
23.2.1 General. About one volume of binder is
needed for three volumes of sand to give a workable
mix but cement mortar of this kind is stronger than
is necessary for most uses. For weaker mortars, lime
or plasticizers are needed to maintain workability.
Cement : lime : sand mortars give a stronger bond
than can be obtained with air-entrained mortars of
similar compressive strength. This better bond is
likely to result in greater resistance to rain
penetration and improved flexural strength.
However, the air-entrained mortars are generally
more resistant to damage by freezing, particularly
at early ages (see 35.3). These general differences
between the properties of types of mortar may be
reduced by admixtures or special treatments. For
example, the adhesion of air-entrained mortars to
dry absorbent units can be considerably improved
by water-retaining admixtures. Air-entrainment of
cement : lime : sand mortars will improve their
resistance to damage by freezing at an early age.
However, the use of such admixtures should be at
the discretion of the designer.
23.2.2 Cement mortar. Adequate strength in the
fully hardened mortar, combined with a rapid
development of strength in the early stages, is most
conveniently attained by the use of Portland
cement, but it is not practicable to adjust the
strength simply by varying the ratio of cement to
sand, because lean mixes of cement and sand are
harsh and unworkable.
23.2.3 Cement : lime : sand mortar. Mortars made
with appropriate proportions of Portland cement,
including sulphate-resisting Portland cement and
lime, take advantage of the useful properties of
each. Cement : lime : sand mortars are designed on
the principle that part of the cement is replaced by
an equal volume of lime so that the binder-paste still
fills the voids in the sand. In this way good working
qualities, water retention, adhesion and early
strength can be secured without the mature
strength being too high. The lime used should be
non-hydraulic (high calcium or magnesian) or
semi-hydraulic.
23.2.4 Masonry cement mortar. The good working
properties of mortar mixes made with masonry
cement are derived from the plasticizing effects of
the fine filler and the entrained air.
23.2.5 Air-entrained (plasticized) mortar. Mortar
plasticizers which entrain air in the mix provide an
alternative to lime for imparting good working
qualities to lean cement : sand mixes. In effect, the
air bubbles serve to increase the volume of the
binder paste, filling the voids in the sand, and this
correspondingly improves the working qualities.
68
23.2.6 Ready-to-use retarded cement : lime : sand
mortar and cement : sand mortar. Ready-to-use
retarded cement : lime : sand mortars and
cement : sand mortars may be considered for use
where consistent non-structural properties,
e.g. colour, are particularly required. For use in
structural masonry, see 15.2 of BS 5628-1:1978.
23.2.7 Lime : sand mortar. Lime : sand mortar
should be in accordance with clause 13 of
BS 6270-1:1982.
23.3 Admixtures intended to resist frost
damage to mortar
Although when frost conditions are anticipated
there would be some advantage in accelerating the
setting of the mortar, in practice no suitable
admixtures are known that are free from other
undesirable effects. In particular, calcium chloride
or admixtures based on this salt may lead to
subsequent dampness or corrosion of embedded
metals, including wall ties, and therefore should
never be used. There is little experience of the
successful use of any admixture intended to provide
frost protection by depressing the freezing point of
the mixing water. Some substances that might be
contemplated for this purpose, e.g. ethylene glycol,
are known to adversely affect the hydration of the
cement.
24 Fire resistance
Masonry walls should be designed to have a fire
resistance appropriate to their use.
NOTE The fire resistance is taken to be the time from the start
of the tests laid down in BS 476-8 until failure first occurs under
any one of the listed criteria, i.e. stability, integrity and thermal
insulation. This time ranges from 30 min to 6 h and is a property
of the complete element of structure.
Table 16 gives notional fire resistances of walls for
various types of construction. Other forms of
construction may be used, provided evidence of
satisfactory performance in use, based on the
results of standard fire resistance tests, is produced.
If the required fire resistance of a loadbearing cavity
wall with a thickness taken from Table 16 is more
than 2 h, the imposed load should be shared by both
leaves; otherwise, if the load is carried by the
exposed leaf only, the minimum thickness of the
exposed leaf should be that given for loadbearing
single-leaf walls.
For panel walls required to provide fire resistance
where edge isolation is necessary, special
consideration should be given to the edge details.
Where movement joints or edge clearances are
required for walls designed to resist fire, they
should be filled with a non-combustible material,
such as mineral fibre, which still allows the
movement joint to function.
BSI 11-1999
 BS 5628-3:1985

Table 16 Notional fire resistance of walls (see note 1)

(A) Loadbearing single-leaf walls
Finish Minimum thickness of masonry (in mm) (see note 3) for
Material Masonry unit Type (see notional period of fire resistance of
note 2) 6h 4h 3h 2h 90 min 60 min 30 min

Fired, Brick Solid None 200 170 170 100 100 90 90

brick-earth (see note 4) (see note 5)
clay or shale VG 170 100 100 90 90 90 90
(see note 5)
Not less None 200 200 170 170 170 100
than 75 % or
solid, e.g. SC/SG
perforated VG 200 170 170 170 100 100 90
Not less SC/SG 215 215 215 215
than 50 % VG 215 215 215 215 215 215
solid
Not less None 215 215
than 40 % or
solid SC/SG
Block Two cells SC/SG 100 100 100 100
(outer-web (see note 6)
not less than not less
13 mm thick) than 50 %
solid
Three cells SC/SG 150 150 150 150 150 150
(see note 6)
not less
than 60 %
solid
Concrete or Brick Solid None 200 190 190 100 100 90 90
calcium (see note 4) VG 200 100 100 90 90 90 90
silicate
Concrete, Block Solid None 150 150 140 100 100 90 90
class 1 VG 150 100 100 90 90 90 90
aggregate
(see note 7) Other, None 100 100 100 90
e.g. hollow
Concrete, Block Solid None 100 100 90 90
class 2 or
aggregate SC/SG
(see note 7) VG 100 100 90 90 90 90
Other, SC/SG 190
e.g. hollow VG 200 200 190 190
Aerated Block Solid None 215 180 140 100 100 90 90
concrete, VG 180 150 100 100 90 90 90
density
480 kg/m3 to
1 200 kg/m3
See notes at end of table.

BSI 11-1999 69
BS 5628-3:1985

Table 16 Notional fire resistance of walls (see note 1)

(B) Non-loadbearing single-leaf walls
Finish Minimum thickness of masonry (in mm) (see note 3) for
Material Masonry unit Type see notional period of fire resistance of
note 2) 6h 4h 3h 2h 90 min 60 min 30 min
Fired Brick Solid None 200 170 170 100 90 75 75
brick-earth, (see note 4) VG 100 100 90 90 90 75 75
clay or
shale Not less None 200 200 170 170 100 100 75
than 75 % VG 170 170 100 100 90 75 75
solid, e.g.
perforated
Not less SC/SG 215 215 215 215
than 50 % (see note 8) (see note 8)
solid VG 215 215 215 215 215 215
(see note 8) (see note 8)
Not less None 215 215
than 40 %
solid
Block One cell SC/SG 100 75
(outer-web (see note 6)
not less than not less
13 mm thick) than 50 %
solid
One cell SC/SG 150 150
(see note 6)
not less
than 30 %
solid
Two cells SC/SG 100 100 100 75
(see note 6)
not less
than 70 %
solid
Two cells SC/SG 225 225 150 150
(see note 6)
not less
than 45 %
solid
Two cells SC/SG 75
(see note 6)
not less
than 50 %
solid
Three cells SC/SG 150 150 150 150 150 150
(see note 6)
not less
than 70 %
solid
Concrete or Brick Solid None 200 170 170 100 90 75 75
calcium (see note 4) VG 100 100 90 90 90 75 75
silicate
See notes at end of table.

70 BSI 11-1999
 BS 5628-3:1985

Table 16 Notional fire resistance of walls (see note 1)

(B) Non-loadbearing single-leaf walls
Material Masonry unit Type Finish Minimum thickness of masonry (in mm) (see note 3) for
(see notional period of fire resistance of
note 2)
6h 4h 3h 2h 90 min 60 min 30 min

Concrete, Block Solid None 150 140 125 75 75 75 50

class 1 SC/SG 150 100 90 75 75 75 50
aggregate
(see note 7) VG 100 75 75 75 63 50 50
Other, None 225 150 140 100 90 90 75
e.g. hollow SC/SG 150 140 140 100 75 75 75
VG 150 100 90 75 75 63 63
Concrete, Block Solid None 200 150 140 100 90 75 50
class 2 SC/SG 150 140 100 90 90 75 50
aggregate
(see note 7) VG 125 100 90 75 75 75 50
Other, None 215 150 140 140 125 125 90
e.g. hollow SC/SG 150 140 140 140 125 125 90
VG 150 125 125 100 90 90 75
Aerated Block Solid None 150 100 75 63 63 50 50
concrete,
density
480 kg/m3 to
1 200 kg/m3
(C) Load-bearing cavity walls
Fired Brick Solid None 100 100 100 100 100 90 90
brick-earth, (see note 4) (see (see
clay or shale, note 9) note 9)
concrete or
calcium
silicate
Fired Block Not less SC/SG 150 150 100 100 100 100
brick-earth, (outer-web than 70 %
clay or shale not less solid, e.g.
13 mm thick) perforated
Not less SC/SG 100 100 100 100
than 50 %
solid
Concrete, Block Solid None 100 100 100 100 100 90 90
class 1 (see
aggregate note 9)
(see note 7) Other, None 100 100 100 100 100 90
e.g. hollow
Concrete, Block Solid None 100 100 90 90
class 2
aggregate
(see note 7)
See notes at end of table.

BSI 11-1999 71
BS 5628-3:1985

Table 16 Notional fire resistance of walls (see note 1)

(C) Load-bearing cavity walls
Material Masonry unit Type Finish Minimum thickness of masonry (in mm) (see note 3) for notional
(see period of fire resistance of
note 2)
6h 4h 3h 2h 90 min 60 min 30 min
Aerated Block Solid None 150 150 140 100 100 90 90
concrete,
density
480 kg/m3 to
1 200 kg/m3
(D) Non-loadbearing cavity walls
Fired Brick Solid None 100 75 75 75 75 75 75
brick-earth, (see note 4)
clay or shale, Not less None 100 90 90 90 90 90
concrete or than 50 %
calcium solid
silicate
Fired Block Not less SC/SG 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
brick-earth, (outer-web than 70 %
clay or shale not less than solid, e.g.
13 mm thick) perforated
Not less SC/SG 100 100 100 100 100 100
than 50 %
solid
Concrete, Block Solid None 90 75 75 75 75 75 75
class 1 Other, None 100 75 75 75 75 75 50
aggregate e.g. hollow
(see note 7)
Concrete, Block Solid None 90 75 75 75 75 75 50
class 2
aggregate
(see note 7)
Aerated Block Solid None 90 75 75 63 63 50 50
concrete,
density
480 kg/m3 to
1 200 kg/m3
NOTE 1 Non-loadbearing walls are assumed to carry no load other than their own weight and edge restraint. Loadbearing walls
may carry any load up to that which produces the maximum permissible design stresses.
Interpolation between Table 16(A) and Table 16(B) or between Table 16(C) and Table 16(D) is not permitted.
NOTE 2 The finish should be not less than 13 mm plaster or rendering on each face of a single-leaf wall and on the exposed faces of
a cavity wall.
SC/SG is sand : cement or sand : gypsum (with or without lime). Plasterboard of an equivalent thickness may be substituted for fire
resistance periods up to 2 h.
VG is vermiculite : gypsum plaster (1" : 1 to 2 : 1 by volume). Perlite may be substituted for vermiculite for fired-clay bricks and other
materials with similar surfaces.
NOTE 3 The thickness represents either the work size of the unit, or, where applicable for solid walls, the sum of the work sizes of
two units together with the work size of the joint between them.
NOTE 4 A solid brick is a brick without frogs or with frogs up to 20 % of its volume, but with no through holes or perforations.
NOTE 5 The minimum thickness given is suitable for 75 mm brick-on-edge construction with a completely solid unit with plane
faces.
NOTE 6 The number of cells is that in any cross section through the wall thickness.
NOTE 7 Class 1 aggregates for concrete blocks include limestone, air-cooled blast-furnace slag, foamed or expanded slag, crushed
brick, well-burnt clinker, expanded clay or shale, sintered pulverized-fuel ash and pumice. Class 2 aggregates for concrete blocks
include all gravels and crushed natural stone, except limestone.
NOTE 8 These thicknesses may be reduced to 100 mm for walls built with cellular bricks.
NOTE 9 These thicknesses may be reduced to 90 mm if the load is distributed over both leaves.

72 BSI 11-1999

Consideration should also be given to
non-combustible cover strips fixed to both faces of
the wall on one side of the joint.
25 Thermal properties
25.1 General
The thermal properties of a wall should strike a
balance between heat loss and gain, thermal
capacity and energy consumption. Internal wall
surface temperatures should be considered in
relation to user comfort and the risk of
condensation. The loss or gain of heat through a wall
depends on the temperature difference between the
air on both sides of the wall, the thermal resistance
of the materials, their surfaces and the spaces
between them.
25.2 U-values
For the purposes of comparing alternative
constructions or checking compliance with
legislation, thermal conductivity figures for use in
calculating standardized U-values are given in the
CIBS Guide Section A3 Thermal properties of
building structures6) 1980. It should be noted that
large discrepancies may occur between calculated
and achieved U-values, due mainly to the effect on
thermal resistance of moisture content, wind speed
and surface roughness. The CIBS Guide allows for
this and recommends adjusting U-values to suit the
particular form of construction to be used on specific
sites.
25.3 Thermal insulation
The insulation value of masonry external walls may
be improved by adding insulants of high thermal
resistance. These may be positioned externally,
internally or within the cavity. Reference should be
made to appropriate British Standards concerning
methods of application and suitability for particular
exposure conditions (see 21.3.2.8). The designer
should ensure that the construction selected is also
in accordance with other recommendations of this
code.
25.4 Thermal capacity
When considering space heating, buildings may be
categorized as low thermal capacity (lightweight) or
high thermal capacity (heavyweight), according to
the characteristics they display to the interior.
Lightweight structures respond quickly to changes
in external and internal conditions. Heavyweight
structures dampen the effects of heat gains and
therefore heat up and cool down more slowly.
6) Available from the Chartered Institution of Building Services, Delta House, 222 Balham High Road, London SW12 9BS.
BSI 11-1999
BS 5628-3:1985
If a masonry construction is finished internally with
a thermally insulating lining, this will modify the
response to internal temperature changes. In
summer, the adverse effects of solar gain are
reduced by the use of masonry external walls.
25.5 Cold bridges
Where the insulant is not continued across the
entire construction for structural or other reasons,
the thermal resistance is reduced. This is
characterized by a drop in the surface temperature
of the wall in the region of the cold bridge. This
may cause pattern staining and surface
condensation.
25.6 Condensation
Condensation will occur on a surface when its
temperature is below the dewpoint of the air in
contact with it. The internal surface temperature of
constructions which avoid cold bridges and have
some thermal mass on the inside of the insulation
will often remain high enough to prevent surface
condensation. Cold non-absorbent surfaces are
particularly prone to condensation. Absorbent
materials can disguise condensation and allow it to
evaporate later. If, however, persistent
condensation occurs, there is a risk that decorations
will be damaged by mould growth. For further
information, see BS 5250.
Interstitial condensation may form within the
layers of a construction when the temperature of the
structure falls below the temperature at which
water vapour will condense as it passes through the
wall. Problems are unlikely to arise in cavity walls
where the layers of the construction offer
progressively less vapour resistance towards the
external face.
26 Sound absorption and noise
reduction
26.1 Sound absorption
Sound absorption should not be confused with sound
insulation. Sound absorbent materials reflect only a
small proportion of the incident noise falling on
their surface. In this way the level of noise within
adjacent spaces or enclosures may be reduced, but
this does not influence greatly the sound
transmitted through to another area or enclosure.
Sound absorbent materials are not necessarily good
sound insulating materials.
73
BS 5628-3:1985
26.2 Sound insulation and resistance to sound
transmission
26.2.1 General principles. Sound is transmitted
from its source to adjacent spaces or enclosures by a
multitude of routes involving airborne and
structure-borne transmission. Structure-borne
sound can originate from impact on a surface or
from airborne sound impinging on the surface of the
structure; however, when designing walls, the
origin is generally assumed to be airborne rather
than impact sound.
Sound generated in the air in one room radiates to
the surfaces of the enclosing structure and is
transmitted through the structural elements.
separating walls, and flanking walls and floors to an
adjacent room, where the sound is finally
transmitted through the air to the ear.
The sound insulation of single-leaf masonry walls is
largely related to their mass per unit area, provided
that there are no direct air paths through the wall.
Even very small air paths such as cracks and poorly
filled cross joints in unplastered masonry or
masonry finished with a dry lining, will greatly
reduce the sound insulation.
The sound insulation of a cavity wall is related to its
mass per unit area, the width of the cavity and the
rigidity and spacing of the wall ties. A cavity wall of
nominal cavity width 50 mm and with leaves
connected by wire butterfly ties as recommended
in 19.5 may be expected to have a resistance to
sound transmission similar to that of a solid
masonry wall of the same surface mass. If more
rigid ties or a greater number of ties per square
metre are used, the sound insulation of the wall will
decrease. Conversely, if the ties are omitted, the
sound insulation will improve. In addition, the
wider the cavity, the better the sound insulation.
Of equal importance is the reduction of flanking
transmission. Direct air paths around the
separating wall have to be avoided. Window reveals
have to be sealed to prevent direct transmission
with the cavity. Care has to be taken to avoid air
paths through floors which are continuous through
the separating wall. Unplastered walls in attics or
roof spaces should be well built with all bed joints
and perpend joints filled.
The designer should consider the detailed
recommendations given in 26.2.2 when seeking to
achieve satisfactory sound insulation.
26.2.2 Construction details
26.2.2.1 Separating walls. The minimum thickness
of a separating wall required for sound insulation
should always be maintained, particularly where
chases, recesses, chimney flues, electrical sockets,
etc. are to be built into a wall.
74
Where joists span perpendicular to the separating
wall, they should be supported on joist hangers and
not built into the wall. Hollow cored concrete floor
units supported on separating walls should have
their voids filled at the bearings.
The surface of a wall formed from materials with
coarse interconnecting pores should be sealed, even
when dry lined. In addition, surfaces should be
sealed below suspended floors within the depth of
the floor construction and in the roof space.
Plastered resilient materials, e.g. polystyrene
board, should not be used for sound insulation
without expert advice.
Connections between leaves of party walls should be
kept to the minimum consistent with structural
stability. If butterfly ties are not permissible, it is
better to use a single-leaf wall.
26.2.2.2 External flanking walls. To minimize the
risk of direct sound transmission around a
separating wall and to provide stiffness to the
separating wall, full storey height window or door
openings should not be placed adjacent to the
separating wall. Adjoining openings should be
separated across the party wall or the party wall
should be continued beyond the flanking wall.
Reveals of openings should be sealed to reduce
transmission along the cavity of the external wall.
Fibrous materials used for fire stops cannot be
relied upon to provide an adequate acoustic barrier
in the flanking path.
Masonry-separating walls should be preferably
bonded to one leaf of the external masonry walls,
rather than tied across a butt joint.
Plastered resilient materials, e.g. polystyrene
board, on the internal face should not be used for
sound insulation without expert advice.
27 Masonry bonds and other
constructional details
27.1 Masonry bonds
27.1.1 General. The horizontal distance between
cross joints in successive masonry courses should
normally be not less than one-quarter of the length
of the units but in no case less than 50 mm for bricks
or 75 mm for blocks. Those patterns which depart
from the principle of having adequate distance
between the cross joints in adjacent courses,
particularly stack bond, should be used only where
experience or experimental data indicate that they
are satisfactory for the particular construction.
BSI 11-1999

The overall dimensions of walls and the positions
and sizes of openings and piers should be chosen
bearing in mind the dimensions of the type of unit to
be used and the dimensions of the special units
available, so that cutting of the units will be kept to
a minimum and irregular or broken bond will be
avoided. Flue blocks, where built into a wall, should
be bonded.
The choice of bond may be affected by the need to
include reinforcement.
The types of masonry bonds and joint finishes that
are commonly used are detailed in Appendix B.
27.1.2 Brickwork masonry bonds. The masonry
bonds described in B.1 are commonly used in
brickwork. Other ornamental bonds, designed for
appearance only, may be derived from these
principal bonds.
Stretcher bond, which consists of stretchers only in
each course, is normally used for leaves one-half
brick thick whether in solid or cavity walls; other
bonds should not be used for such cavity walls
unless purpose-made bats are available. The lap is
normally half the length of the brick but the
distance may be reduced to not less than 50 mm, as,
for example, in short lengths of partition walls to
accommodate block bonding of return and
intersecting walls made of thin blocks. Sleeper walls
and non-loadbearing screen walls may be built
using honeycombed construction provided the lap
between courses is at least one-quarter the length of
the brick.
Quetta or Rat-trap bonds may be used in reinforced
brick-work, because these bonds leave voids for the
vertical reinforcement. Rat-trap bond is sometimes
used for garden walls. As the bricks are edge
bedded, leaving voids in the thickness of the wall,
such walls are economical in material; however,
they lack the strength of a single-leaf wall of the
same overall thickness.
27.1.3 Blockwork masonry bonds. Because of the
wide range of available shapes and sizes of blocks, a
great variety of bonding patterns for facing
blockwork is possible. The general principles of
bonding given in 27.1.1 should be observed. The
masonry bonds described in B.2 are commonly used
in blockwork.
Hollow blockwork may be suited to the
incorporation of reinforcement within the voids of
the units, which are filled with concrete. Where
quoin or reveal blocks are used, alternate short and
long blocks should be used in successive courses to
ensure that the bond within the wall is retained.
BSI 11-1999
BS 5628-3:1985
Shell bedding for solid and cellular blocks may be
used only by permission of the designer, since it
affects the strength of the finished wall.
27.2 Architectural features
27.2.1 Architectural features such as plinths, string
courses and cornices may be formed of bricks, blocks
or other suitable materials. Their design may
involve considerations of stability, resistance to
abrasion, moisture penetration (see 21.3.1
and 21.3.2.7) and durability (see 22.5), particularly
where dissimilar materials are associated.
Wherever possible, all features should be designed
to fit with the masonry in length, height or
thickness.
27.2.2 Features which project from the main plane
of the wall should have their upper surfaces
protected by flashings or weatherings from
downward penetration of water. In modern cavity
wall construction, projecting features cannot readily
be secured in the wall by weight above as in older
solid walls. It may therefore be necessary to hold
them in place by other means, such as a reinforced
concrete, reinforced masonry or steelwork core.
27.2.3 Unless bricks are selected for size, their
variation in length will usually preclude the
building of one brick single-leaf bonded walls having
a fair face on both sides, but this can readily be
achieved by using double-leaf (collar-jointed) walls
instead.
27.2.4 The facing of external walls of common bricks
by veneering materials requires careful
consideration of their weathering and jointing
characteristics. If absorbent, the veneer will add to
the capacity of the wall to act as an overcoat but if
the veneer is impermeable, the success of jointing in
resisting penetration will become critical. If water
gets behind such veneers and cannot readily escape
it may cause disruption by sulphation of the mortar
of the backing material or by crystallization of
soluble salts.
27.2.5 Sometimes a separate leaf of brickwork of an
ornamental leaf is added to a common brick wall to
improve the appearance. The ornamental leaf
should be adequately fixed to the parent wall, using
metal ties, and due consideration should be given to
stability.
The parent wall should be regarded as carrying the
load independently of the ornamental leaf, i.e. as a
veneered wall.
75
BS 5628-3:1985
27.3 Brick and block slips
The practice has grown up of masking the edges of
concrete floors or beams with courses of brick or
block slips to match the facing masonry. However,
lack of appreciation of the shrinkage and creep of a
concrete frame, insufficient provision for thermal
movement, inaccuracy of construction and lack of
care in the preparation of the surfaces and choice of
mortars has given rise to problems, with the slips
failing in adhesion and falling from the face of the
building.
Where the use of slips is unavoidable, designers
should pay attention to the tolerances on the
materials and components to ensure correct
alignment of the concrete face or nib, both
horizontally and vertically, with the floors above
and below. Reference may be made to BS 5606
which quotes characteristic accuracies for various
materials and components. It is important also that
the wall above does not overhang its support by
more than one-third its width, e.g. 34 mm for
a 100 mm wide leaf. The accurate positioning of the
face of concrete in relation to the eventual finished
face of the masonry is critical and needs close
attention at all stages of design and construction.
The method of fixing slips using adhesives is
described in 32.12. Where more than two courses
are to be fixed, a mechanical method of tying back
slips, such as the one shown in Figure 13(a), should
always be used to supplement the adhesives.
Where fired-clay brick slips are bonded to the nib or
toes of a concrete slab or beam, arrangements
should be made to minimize horizontal and vertical
stresses acting on the courses of slips (see 20.2.4).
Bituminous paint should never be applied to
concrete surfaces, as this would severely affect the
adhesion between the concrete and the slips.
The design should ensure that there is enough cover
to reinforcement to allow for removal of laitance
before fixing the slips.
76
27.4 Pistol bricks
The pistol brick may be used as an alternative to
brick slips to mask the toes of reinforced boot lintels
or beams. Unlike brick slips, its use is limited to the
vertical or soldier arrangement and, in certain
cases, this directional restriction may not be
architecturally acceptable. However, it may not
require adhesive fixing systems and permits the
application of damp-proof coatings to the concrete
surfaces when necessary. Special corner units may
be supplied by some manufacturers.
Generally a barrel thickness of 20 mm may be
achieved with most types of facing bricks but it is
important that over-run of the horizontal cut be
avoided, as this will weaken the barrel at what is
already its weakest point.
When the bottom of the barrel rests on brickwork
below, a flexible compressible horizontal joint as
recommended for bricks slips in 20.2.4 should be
provided for the full thickness of the barrel and its
vertical backing joint.
Figure 13(b) shows the essential dimensional
requirements when using pistol bricks.
27.5 Cut blocks
Concrete blocks similar to pistol bricks may be used
as an alternative to block slips to match facing
concrete blockwork. An alternative method for
masking the concrete slab or beam is the use of cut
hollow blocks [see Figure 13(c)]. The cut block is cast
into the slab or beam and acts as permanent
shuttering whilst the concrete is being laid. It is
important to ensure that the cut blocks are
supported adequately on the formwork whilst the
concrete is being placed.
BSI 11-1999
 BS 5628-3:1985

Figure 13 Matching facing masonry

BSI 11-1999 77
BS 5628-3:1985

Figure 13 Matching facing masonry (continued)

78 BSI 11-1999
 BS 5628-3:1985

Figure 13 Matching facing masonry (continued)

BSI 11-1999 79
BS 5628-3:1985
27.6 Brick arches
The traditional masonry arch, which can have many
shapes, e.g. segmental, parabolic, semicircular or
elliptical, is a curved assembly of voussoirs solidly
buttressed at each end and proportioned so that the
line of resistance to the loads falls within the middle
third of the depth of the arch ring, so avoiding the
development of tension at the intrados or extrados.
The sides of each voussoir are determined by lines
radiating from the arch centre or centres so that
they are normal to the curve of the arch and thus are
approximately perpendicular in minor arches to the
internal line of thrust (see Figure 14).
In brick masonry, the wedge shaped voussoirs, if of
hard material, have to be specially made.
Alternatively, if of soft bricks known as rubbers,
they may be formed on site, either method resulting
in gauged arches. These methods may still be
demanded for restoration work (see BS 6270-1) but
in modern practice normal bricks are used and the
wedge shape is achieved by varying the thickness of
mortar joint from intrados to extrados. Arches built
this way were known previously as rough arches
and were used as backing to gauged arches, but
today they are used for facing work.
For uniform loads, a parabolic shape is ideal
because the line of thrust coincides with the centre
line of the arch ring and eliminates bending and
tension. In practice, masonry arches are built as
segments of circles and a parabola is approximated
when the rise of the arch equals one-eighth of the
span.
The difficulties of determining the actual loads
acting on arched openings formed within brick
masonry walls means that accurate structural
design is unlikely to be achieved. Usually minor
arches of segmental, parabolic or semicircular form
and up to, for example, 2 m span, can be
proportioned empirically, provided care is taken to
ensure that there is an adequate amount of masonry
over the arch ring and between it and any line of
floor loads and also that adequate resistance is
provided at the abutments
80
The latter is more important in the uppermost
storeys of loadbearing walls or where arched
brickwork openings are provided in any storey
height of a framed structure where the brickwork is
not self-supporting.
Arch construction is less suitable for the external
skins of cavity walls than for solid walling of greater
thickness because of the added complications of
damp-proofing the junctions between inner and
outer skin. The normal cavity tray (see 21.5.5)
cannot readily be sloped outward and
simultaneously curved to follow the outer skin
unless it is in very malleable material, such as lead.
27.7 Jointing and pointing
Jointing is preferable to pointing because it leaves
the bedding mortar undisturbed. The mortar used
for pointing should have mix proportions similar to
those used in the bedding mortar.
Types of finish for jointing and pointing of work are
described in B.3. These should be carefully chosen
in relation to colour, texture, form and durability of
the units used and the conditions of exposure.
Tooling of the joints to compact the mortar helps to
improve the durability of the mortar and the
rain-shedding capacity of the wall. Recessed joints
should not be used where there is a danger of
excessive wetting which may lead to damage by
frost action or rain penetration. The depth of the
recess should be related to the distance of any
perforation of cavity from the exposed face of the
unit.
BSI 11-1999
 BS 5628-3:1985

Figure 14 Brick arches

BSI 11-1999 81

27.8 Corbelling
Where courses are corbelled out one above the other,
the extent of corbelling should not exceed that
shown in Figure 15, unless the work is otherwise
supported or reinforced.
27.9 Provision for services and fittings
In deciding upon the type and thickness of the
masonry unit to be used, consideration should be
given to the suitability for accommodating services
and for the fixing of fittings. Services may be run
through ducts or on the surface of the masonry in
chases. Preferably chases and sleeves should be
provided during the erection of the work.
Figure 15 Sizes of corbels
BSI 11-1999
BS 5628-3:1985
27.10 Ducts across cavities of cavity walls
Where ducts are used to ventilate a building, or
bridge or close the cavity of a cavity wall, they
should be designed to prevent water penetrating the
inner leaf of the wall. Such ducts should, where
possible, slope away from the inner leaf of the wall
and be protected by a stepped d.p.c. Both ends of the
duct should be protected from rubbish and vermin
by an airbrick, grating or mesh such that a 10 mm
diameter sphere cannot pass through.
82

Section 4. Workmanship
28 Setting out
28.1 General
This clause gives general guidance on setting out
brick and block masonry. For more detailed
information on the control of accuracy in setting out,
see BS 5606.
28.2 Horizontal setting out
The building should be located with reference to the
dimensioned setting out drawing, which may be on
a grid system, and to agreed datums and building
lines. Horizontal dimensions should be set out using
a steel tape or rule. Angles should be determined by
optical instruments or by triangulation or by
accurately constructed builders squares. It is
essential that large or intricate buildings be set out
using an optical instrument. The corners of the
building should be located by nails or by saw-cuts in
pegs driven firmly into the ground and the accuracy
of the pegs checked by triangulation. Profiles,
i.e. boards which are securely fixed to pegs driven
into the ground and upon which the width of
foundations, thickness of walls and the projection of
offsets may be clearly marked by saw-cuts or nails,
should then be set up in line with peg marks but
further away from the corners so as to allow their
use during preliminary building operations whilst
remaining undisturbed. Intermediate profiles may
then be established for setting out party walls and
partitions. Where the shape of the wall does not
permit the use of profiles, e.g. curved walls,
accurately formed templates for the whole or part of
the shape may be used. Curved work may be set out
by theodolite; this is preferable on large radius
work. Where a number of openings of similar width
are to be formed, a rod cut to the required size may
be used to check the width of openings as the work
rises. To be of use, rod and templates have to be
clearly marked.
28.3 Vertical setting out
A levelling instrument and staff should be used to
establish a site datum in relation to the reference
level shown on the setting out drawing. The site
datum should be fixed at some convenient height,
preferably ground floor level, and pegs should be
established indicating the datum level near each
quoin; the pegs should be protected (backed up) with
concrete. Where long straight length of walling
occur, it may be useful to establish intermediate
levels. If it is inconvenient to use pegs, brick or block
piers should be used to mark the datum level. Storey
or gauge rods setting out the heights in relation to
the site datum should be prepared. Saw cuts in the
storey rod should mark the top of each course of
units, the heights of window and door openings and
of other relevant features.
BSI 11-1999
BS 5628-3:1985
29 Scaffolding
All scaffolding should be erected and maintained in
accordance with BS 5973 or BS 5974. Putlog holes
should be filled with an appropriate mortar or bat as
the scaffold is demounted. Lack of care in removal of
putlog scaffolding can result in cracking of
horizontal mortar joints and may impair the
stability of the wall. Use of independent scaffolding
minimizes the risk of damage to walls.
30 Storage on site
30.1 General
Consignments of materials should be placed so that
they will normally be used in order of delivery and
so as to permit the inspection and sampling of
individual consignments.
All materials should be inspected both when
delivered to site and immediately before use, to
check whether they have been subject to
deterioration or damage.
30.2 Masonry units
Masonry units should be unloaded by machine or by
hand on to a dry and reasonably level area or
scaffold. It is important that they should be
carefully stacked to avoid damage and to ensure
stability, and should be protected from rain and
snow.
For concrete and calcium silicate masonry units, it
is desirable that provision is made for the free
circulation of air within the stack so that masonry
units may dry out before being built into the work.
Particular care should be taken with facing masonry
units.
Masonry units should not be stacked directly on
sulphate-bearing ground, clinker or ashes because
of the danger of chemical contamination through
rising moisture, nor should masonry units be
stacked on newly cast slabs until the slabs have
attained sufficient strength.
Strict precautions should be taken to ensure that
stacks of material on floor slabs do not overload the
structure. This is particularly important where
masonry units delivered in packs are hoisted direct
to areas where they are to be used.
It is desirable that facing masonry units should be
mixed either on site or, by agreement with the
manufacturer, at the works, to avoid the effect of
bands of colour in the finished work.
30.3 Cement and hydrated lime
Cement and hydrated lime should be stored off the
ground, kept dry and used in order of delivery.
Cement or hydrated lime affected by dampness
should never be used.
83
BS 5628-3:1985
30.4 Fine aggregate
Fine aggregates should be stored in separate bins
according to type so that they will not become
contaminated, preferably in bins with a dry solid
base. Variations in moisture content will affect
gauging (see clause 31).
For guidance on work when frosty or freezing
conditions may occur, see 35.3.
30.5 Ready-to-use mortars and ready-mixed
lime : sand
Ready-mixed lime : sand for mortar should be
stored in a clean area on a hard impervious surface
and should be protected from the weather to prevent
wetting, drying out or freezing. Extreme variations
of moisture will affect subsequent gauging.
Particular care should be taken when using
coloured lime : sand mixes, which should be sheeted
against rain water to safeguard them from
segregation of pigment.
Ready-to-use retarded cement : lime : sand and
cement : sand mortars should be kept in
containers, e.g. skips. The containers should be
covered when not in use to protect the contents from
the weather.
30.6 Flexible d.p.cs
Rolls should be stored on end and on a level surface
away from heat taking care that the rolls do not get
distorted or squashed. Preformed cavity trays
should be treated with great care and stored in an
area where there is no danger of items being placed
on top of them. Manufacturers instructions should
be read and carefully followed.
31 Batching, mixing and use of
mortars
31.1 General
The general recommendations on mix proportions
given in Table 15 and Table 17 relate to normal site
control where strength requirements are not
specified. Where the mortar is specified by strength
or where special category construction control is
required by the designer, reference should be made
to BS 5628-1.
Mortar made on site should preferably be mixed by
machine but for small quantities hand mixing may
be used and should be carried out on a clean
watertight platform. The machine and platform
should be cleaned before use, when changing mixes,
particularly with coloured mortars and immediately
after mixing is completed for the shift.
84
Details of the preparation of lime putty and
lime : sand mixes (coarse stuff) are given in
BS 6270-1; however, it is now common practice
where lime is used in a mortar for it to be either
added as a dry constituent during mixing or
proportioned with sand and delivered to the site as
ready-mixed lime : sand for mortar (see 6.6).
Admixtures added on site should be used only with
the permission of the designer.
Guidance on batching, mixing and use of
ready-to-use building mortars is given
in Appendix A of BS 4721:1981.
31.2 Batching
The materials for mortar should be accurately
measured. When mixing by volume, a gauge box,
bucket or similar standard container should be used
to measure the materials. Gauging by shovels
cannot be relied upon to give consistent results. The
volume of each gauge box or container should be
such that a whole number of volumes of each
material is required for each batch of mortar. It is
essential that all gauge boxes or containers are
completely filled and emptied.
Table 15 gives the proportions by volume for
standard specified mortars. Table 17 gives the
lime : sand mixes required for specified
cement : lime : sand mortars and also the
proportions in which the lime : sand mixes should
be mixed with cement. Table 18 gives the average
yield, water content and bulk density of mortars.
Proportioning by mass will produce more consistent
mortars than volume proportioning, provided that
the variation in bulk densities of the materials is
checked constantly.
31.3 Mixing
For site mixing, mortar is usually mixed in small
tilting drum concrete mixers. Mortar pan mills and
pan mixers are seldom found on sites and details for
their use are not included in this code.
When mixing, care should be taken to ensure that
the correct quantity of water is used, as too much
will produce light shades of mortar; reduced
strength and durability may also result. An
estimation of the water requirements for a mix may
be determined from the average properties of wet
mortar given in Table 18.
BSI 11-1999
 BS 5628-3:1985

Consistency, both as regards proportioning of Special cement, retarded ready-to-use

materials and mixing time, is essential to produce cement : lime : sand and cement : sand mortars,
good mortar and masonry. Wide variation in mixing and dry-packaged cementitious mixes should be
time should be avoided, particularly where mixed in accordance with manufacturers
plasticizers are added to the mix. In general, a instructions.
mixing time of between 3 min to 5 min after all the When colouring agents (pigments) are used, they
constituents have been added to the mixer should be should be mixed in accordance with the
suitable. Shorter mixing time may result in manufacturers instructions. The percentage of
non-uniformity, poor workability and low water colouring agent by mass of the cement in the mortar
retention. Longer mixing time may adversely affect should not exceed 3 % (m/m), for carbon black,
the strength and bond of mortars containing a or 10 % (m/m), for other agents.
plasticizer of the air entraining type, owing to
excessive air entrainment. 31.4 Use of mortars
Generally, where mortar or lime : sand (coarse stuff) Mortars containing cements (except ready-to-use
is mixed by machine, about three-quarters of the retarded mixes) should be used within about 2 h of
required mixing water and sand should be added to mixing of the cement and water and any mortar not
the mixer; the appropriate amount of lime and/or then used should be discarded and not retempered.
cement should then be added gradually and allowed If necessary, to restore workability within a 2 h
to mix in. This should then be followed by the period, mortar can be retempered by adding a small
remainder of the sand and any necessary water to amount of water, and remixing thoroughly.
achieve workability. When the mortar is being made Ready-to-use mortars should be used in accordance
from coarse stuff, about three-quarters of the with the manufacturers instructions and following
required mixing water should be added to the mixer, the recommendations in Appendix A of
followed by the required quantity of cement, which BS 4721:1981.
should be added slowly to ensure a thin paste free If coloured mortar is used, retempering may cause a
from lumps. The required quantity of coarse stuff significant colour change of the mortar.
should then be added and allowed to mix in,
The working life of mortar will be shorter in hot
together with any additional water to achieve
weather. Fresh mortar should be prepared at the
workability.
rate it is used so that its workability will remain
Admixtures should be used only with the designers about the same throughout the day. Mortar that has
permission and following the manufacturers been mixed but not used immediately tends to dry
instructions. out and stiffen. Loss of water by absorption and
When mixing plasticized cement : sand mortars or evaporation on a dry day can be reduced by wetting
masonry cement mortars, care should be taken not the boards and covering the mortar.
to add too much water at the start, as these mortars All tools and containers should be cleaned and
become more fluid as air is entrained. Plasticizers washed after use and when changing coloured
should be mixed with part of the mixing water mortar.
unless the manufacturers instructions specify
otherwise. The proportion of mortar plasticizer
should be that recommended by the manufacturer of
the plasticizer according to the mix and type of
aggregate to be used.
Table 17 Ready-mixed lime : sand mixes for specified cement : lime : sand mortars
Mortar Type of mortar Gauging of cement Mean
designation with lime : sand mix water demand
Specified cement : lime : sand (coarse stuff)
Lime : sand mix
mortar

Proportions by volume Proportions by volume Proportions by volume L/50 kg cement

i) 1 : 0 to !: 3 1 : 12 1:3 30
ii) 1 : " : 4 to 4" 1:9 1 : 4" 35
iii) 1 : 1 : 5 to 6 1:6 1:6 45
iv) 1 : 2 : 8 to 9 1 : 4" 1:9 60
v) 1 : 3 : 10 to 12 1:4 1 : 12 80
NOTE Where mortar of a given compressive strength is specified by the designer, the mix proportions should be determined
from tests or the supplier.

BSI 11-1999 85
BS 5628-3:1985

Table 18 Bulk density, water demand and yield of wet mortars

Mortar Type of mortar
designation
Cement : lime : sand Masonry cement : sand Cement : sand with plasticizer

Specified mix Yield Mean Specified mix Yield Mean Specified Yield Mean
water water mix water
demand demand demand

Proportions
by volume

m3/50 kg L/50 kg m3/50 kg L/50 kg m3/50 kg L/50 kg

cement cement cement cement cement cement

i) 1 : 0 to ! : 3 0.14 40
ii) 1 : " : 4 to 4" 0.19 50 1 : 2" to 3" 0.15 35 1 : 3 to 4 0.16 40
iii) 1 : 1 : 5 to 6 0.25 70 1 : 4 to 5 0.21 45 1 : 5 to 6 0.24 50
iv) 1 : 2 : 8 to 9 0.37 100 1 : 5" to 6" 0.27 55 1 : 7 to 8 0.30 60
v) 1 : 3 : 10 to 12 0.49 140 1 : 6" to 7 0.3 65 1:8 0.32 65

32 Laying of masonry units 32.2 Joint thickness

32.1 Setting out
When setting out masonry, care should be taken to
reduce the cutting of masonry units to a minimum
and to avoid irregular or broken bond, particularly
at openings or in piers. Great care should be taken
to ensure accuracy in the setting out of the first
course of masonry units in order to avoid
subsequent inaccuracies in the finished work.
Dimensions should be checked from time to time as
the work rises.
Masonry units should be laid in true and regular
courses. The horizontal distance between cross
joints in successive courses should normally be not
less than one-quarter of the length of the units but
in no case less than 50 mm for bricks or 75 mm for
blocks. In lengths of walling between corners, the
masonry units should be laid to a string line
stretched tight between the corners. To avoid
excessive deflection, string lines should be
supported at not more than 6 m intervals by tingles.
Where corners and other advanced work are raised
above the general level, they should be racked back
not higher than 1.2 m at one lift and for facing work
the whole lift completed in one operation. Advanced
work has to be plumbed and the height checked with
the gauge rod. Where masonry units are laid on the
batter, as in retaining walls, they should be aligned
by laying the face of the units to the desired angle,
using a tapered profile board.
A full masonry unit should be positioned directly
beneath a lintel bearing.
The average thickness of both horizontal and
vertical mortar joints is dictated by the coordinating
size of the masonry units and is normally taken to
be 10 mm exclusive of any key in the jointing
surface of the masonry units. This joint size allows
for irregularities in the masonry units and should
accommodate most oversize particles in the fine
aggregate whilst being reasonably economical in the
use of mortar. Joint sizes may need to be varied from
the nominal 10 mm but the joints in any section of
work should be kept as consistent as possible.
Flanking or abutting work may predetermine the
joint size. For example, where a wall is composed of
two different types of masonry unit as in the two
leaves of a cavity wall, it may be necessary to adjust
the joint thickness so that the appropriate courses
correspond throughout the height of the wall. Where
work is to be built into a framed building, the length
and height of a selection of units should be checked
to determine whether the joint thickness should be
modified from the nominal 10 mm to accommodate
any tendency for units to be over or under size.
32.3 Achieving good adhesion
It is essential to ensure that in any masonry
construction adequate adhesion exists between the
masonry units and the mortar. Depending on their
characteristics, masonry units may be highly porous
and, particularly in warm weather, rapidly absorb
the moisture from the mortar when laid. In such
cases the mortar becomes harsh and insufficiently
plastic to accommodate movement of the unit during
laying and levelling and it is possible that no
adhesion between the unit and the mortar will be
obtained.

86 BSI 11-1999

Experience has shown that adhesion will be
adversely affected when masonry is allowed to dry
out rapidly in warm, dry conditions. In such
conditions, laying mortar beds in shorter lengths,
thus limiting water loss from the mortar before the
next course is laid, is advantageous.
Wetting may assist in removing dust from the bricks
and thus further improve adhesion. However, the
bricks should not be over wetted, as this may lead to
floating on the mortar bed and also to excessive
efflorescence and staining of the brick face.
In fired-clay brickwork, adjustment of the suction
rate of the bricks at the time of laying may be
required by the designer for structural reasons. The
consistency of the mortar should be adjusted or the
bricks should be wetted (docked) for not longer
than 2 min just before use (less time may be
required, depending on the moisture content of the
bricks).
In very dry conditions, easier laying and better
adhesion of calcium silicate bricks may be achieved
by adjusting the consistency of the mortar or
dipping the bricks briefly in water just before use.
The bricks should not be soaked in water.
Concrete masonry units should not be wetted.
Instead the consistency of the mortar should be
adjusted to suit the suction, if necessary using
water-retaining admixtures.
For guidance on the characteristics of particular
masonry units and appropriate wetting procedures,
the manufacturer should be consulted.
32.4 Appearance
The achievement of vertical alignment of perpends
may require gauging of bricks, particularly for
narrow piers; setting out from the base in relation to
openings; careful variation of vertical joint width.
To avoid a patchy appearance, care should be taken
to mix facing masonry units from different
consignments (see 30.2). Colour variation in
different batches of mortar, which will also lead to
uneven appearance, may be reduced by consistent
mixing and preparation (see clause 31).
When laying masonry units, the mortar should not
be allowed to encroach on their exposed faces, since
it is not easily removed when dry. This applies
particularly to open-textured masonry units.
Wherever practicable, facing work racked back
should not be left overnight before being brought up
level.
The appearance of finished masonry may be affected
by failure to protect the work during construction
(see 35.2).
BSI 11-1999
BS 5628-3:1985
32.5 Jointing
Jointing as the work proceeds is preferable to
pointing. Mortar joints on the face of the masonry
should be to the required profile (see 27.7 and B.3).
The joints should be tooled to compact the mortar, to
give a firm joint between mortar and unit and to
give the desired profile. Tooling helps to improve the
durability of the mortar and the rain-shedding
capacity of the wall.
Rendering may be satisfactorily applied to masonry
units but it may be preferable in certain
circumstances to provide additional mechanical key
by raking out joints or by using keyed units.
32.6 Pointing
If pointing is desired, the joints should be well raked
out to a depth of between 10 mm and 15 mm as the
work proceeds to give an adequate key. Joints
should be brushed out to remove dust and loose
material and should be lightly wetted using a brush.
The mortar used for pointing should not be stronger
than that used when constructing the wall. It is
desirable to carry out pointing from the top of the
wall downwards.
32.7 Bricklaying
Bricks should be laid on a full bed of mortar and all
cross joints and collar joints should be filled.
Immediately after the brick is laid, excess mortar
should be struck off the external face of the work
and off the internal faces of leaves of cavity walls.
Care should be taken to ensure that mortar is not
scraped into the exposed face of the brick. Any
accidental smears should be lightly brushed off the
face after the mortar has taken its first set.
Where grout is used to fill collar joints or voids
within the thickness of the wall, it should follow the
recommendations for mortar given in clause 23.
Only enough water to make a pourable mix should
be added, as excess water may cause segregation
and undue shrinkage. For any given mortar, the
water content should be appropriate to the suction
rate of fired-clay bricks (see 32.3). The daily lifts
should be regulated accordingly.
Unless otherwise specified, frogged bricks should be
laid frog up and the frogs should be completely filled
with mortar. The position and filling of the frogs are
important, as both can affect the strength and sound
insulation of the wall. Cellular bricks should be laid
with their cavities downwards and unfilled.
Reinforced and prestressed brick masonry should be
constructed following the recommendations
of BS 5628-2.
87
BS 5628-3:1985
32.8 Blocklaying
Solid and cellular blocks should normally be laid on
a full bed of mortar (not furrowed) and cross joints
and collar joints should be filled. Shell bedding
(see 2.25) may be used only by permission of the
designer, since it affects the strength of the finished
wall. Sufficient mortar should be used to ensure
that all keys in the joint surface are properly filled.
Bed joints of hollow blocks should be shell bedded,
with or without mortar strips under the cross webs;
the vertical joints may be either full or shell bedded.
The mortar stiffness used should be adjusted to
ensure good adhesion (see 32.3) or, for heavy blocks,
to prevent extrusion from bed joints. For fair-faced
work, excess mortar should be struck off
immediately after the block is laid. Care should be
taken to ensure that mortar is not scraped into the
exposed face of the block. Any accidental smears
should be lightly brushed off the face after the
mortar has taken its first set.
Blocklaying can be facilitated by placing the blocks
on stagings at the same height as the work, which
enables the blocklayer to transfer the unit
horizontally rather than lifting each block from floor
level. Where large or heavy blocks are to be used,
consideration should be given at an early stage to
the problem of their handling. Whilst the blocklayer
may be able to lay a small number of heavy units
without difficulty, he cannot continue the process
repeatedly without either risking injury or losing
efficiency. The provision of lifting gear and other
specialized handling equipment may be necessary.
Reinforced and prestressed block masonry should be
constructed following the recommendations of
BS 5628-2.
32.9 Reinforced block lintels
Reinforced block lintels should be made from
U-shaped blocks in which reinforcement is laid to
the full length, including bearings. The blocks
should be filled with concrete and the joints between
them should be filled with mortar. Temporary
support will be required during construction and
until the concrete infill has gained sufficient
strength.
88
32.10 D.p.cs, cavity trays and flashings
32.10.1 D.p.cs should be laid on a smooth bed of
fresh mortar, unless they are required to
accommodate differential sliding movements
between the units on either side of them, in which
case the mortar bed should be trowelled smooth and
allowed to set, and then cleaned off before the d.p.c.
is laid. It is essential not to use coarse aggregates
which might damage the d.p.c. Joints or
perforations in the underlying course should be
flushed up. This is particularly important where a
flexible membrane is used, since the membrane is in
danger of being torn or punctured if it is forced into
hard-edged cavities by the load of the wall above. It
is essential to joint all laps other than those in
simple horizontal work, and all such unsealed laps
should not be less than 100 mm long. Care should be
taken not to pierce d.p.cs and cavity trays by
services, reinforcement, fixings, etc. and not to
bridge d.p.cs by pointing, rendering, plastering,
tiling, etc.
32.10.2 For bitumen-coated materials, the surfaces
to be jointed should be heated until the bitumen is
softened and then pressed together. For pitch and
bitumen polymer materials, an adhesive
recommended by the manufacturer should be used
as directed. For polyethylene d.p.cs, a double-sided
adhesive tape should be used. Joints for lead d.p.cs
should be formed either by welting or burning
whilst joints for copper and zinc based materials
should be formed either by welting or soldering.
32.10.3 Asphalt should be dressed up to d.p.cs and
into a chase. The asphalt should preferably be
sufficiently fluid to adhere to the material of the
d.p.c. In this case, polyethylene-based materials
should not be used, since they will melt and holes
will be formed.
32.10.4 Where a sufficiently durable material, such
as metal, is to be used, it should be allowed to project
beyond the surface of the wall by 10 mm. All d.p.cs
except brick d.p.cs should project a minimum
of 5 mm beyond the external face of the wall.
BSI 11-1999

32.10.5 Wherever possible, all cavity trays should
be supported, either by laying directly on existing
supporting structures, e.g. the concrete slab upon
which the inner leaf is built, or by building up the
base of the cavity to form a suitable support.
32.10.6 Weepholes should be formed by leaving
open perpend joints at not less than 1 m intervals,
with not less than two weepholes over each opening.
Care should be taken to avoid holes being blocked by
mortar droppings; where necessary, they should be
cleaned out. This is particularly important where
the use of cavity fill is anticipated.
32.10.7 Wherever possible, flashings should be built
in as the work proceeds.
32.11 Cavity walls
32.11.1 The purpose of a cavity in a wall is to
prevent water penetrating to the inner surface. The
inner face of the outer leaf of a cavity wall will often
be wet during the life of a building, particularly in
exposed situations.
32.11.2 When building a cavity wall, it is essential
that the cavity is not bridged by any material which
could transmit water from the outer to the inner
skin. Accumulations of mortar droppings in the
cavity should be prevented by using laths,
drawholes, fine sand and/or thick rope. Any mortar
which does fall on wall ties or cavity trays should be
cleaned off and the bottom of the cavity should be
cleared out daily through temporary openings. It
may be found more convenient to leave these
openings in the inner leaf, so avoiding any
patchiness on the finished facing work. Cavity
clearing operations should be carried out carefully
to avoid damage to d.p.cs.
32.11.3 Both leaves of a cavity wall should be raised
at the same time. The difference between the
heights of the two leaves should be:
a) about the vertical spacing of consecutive rows
of ties, for vertical twist ties;
b) not greater than six block courses, for double
triangle and butterfly ties;
c) not greater than 225 mm in a section of wall
where pressed steel lintels are installed, to avoid
twisting the lintel.
32.11.4 The wall ties should be placed in the bed
joint of the appropriate course of the higher leaf as
it is built and not pushed in after the units are
bedded. Wall ties should be bedded a minimum
of 50 mm in each leaf and have a slight fall to the
outer leaf.
BSI 11-1999
BS 5628-3:1985
32.11.5 It is essential that the cavity is free from
protrusions which would form ledges and thus
facilitate the build up of mortar droppings. If a bond
pattern is desired which necessitates the use of
snap-headers, these should be either accurately cut,
sawn or purpose made. The cavity should extend for
at least 150 mm below the lowest d.p.c. If cavity
walls are built off the foundation, they should be
filled in solid to external ground level. At the base of
the cavity every fourth vertical joint in the outer leaf
of external walls may be left open to drain the
cavity.
32.12 Slips
32.12.1 Preparation of surfaces. It is essential to
clean all surfaces of the slips and the substrate
thoroughly, ensuring that they are free from dust,
particles, grease and mould oil, and remove the
laitance from any concrete surface to expose the
aggregate. Adequate cover to reinforcement should
be maintained. Bituminous paint should never be
applied to concrete surfaces, as this would severely
affect the adhesion between the concrete and the
slips.
32.12.2 Application of adhesive. Reference should be
made to the manufacturers instructions but
generally the adhesive should cover the whole of the
back face of the unit and be continuous against the
concrete face. (Application in the form of dabs of
adhesive will cause pockets which may trap water
and so lead to frost damage.) Movement joints
should not be bridged by adhesive.
32.12.3 Types of adhesive system. The main types of
adhesive system used are epoxy resin systems,
polyester resin systems and systems based on
cementitious mortars with styrene/butadiene
rubber (SBR).
Epoxy resin systems have a working life of 2 h
to 3 h, with full cure developing in 24 h. They
should not be used when the ambient temperature
is below 4 C. There are important differences
between proprietary formulations, such as the
relative proportions of individual components and
the tolerable degree of moisture which is acceptable.
For site work, the risk of error should be minimized
by the provision of prepared proportions of each
individual component, which should be mixed
thoroughly in the correct order. The tolerance of a
system to damp conditions should be checked by
referring to the manufacturers.
89
BS 5628-3:1985
Polyester resin-based adhesive systems have a
working life varying from 5 min to 24 h, depending
on the ratio of resin to hardener, which is generally
quite critical. Tolerance to moisture also appears to
vary widely. However, as with epoxy resin systems,
polyester resin adhesives, when properly mixed and
applied, rapidly develop a high strength bond which
is resistant to water and most chemicals.
In systems based on cementitious mortars with
SBR, the mortar is prepared by mixing one part by
mass of Portland cement with 2" to 3 parts of clean
sand, i.e. sand as free as possible from clay, with the
gauging water wholly or partly replaced by SBR.
The surfaces to be joined should be prepared by
coating with a slurry of cement and SBR. Whilst this
is still tacky, the mortar should be buttered on to the
grouted surfaces and the slips pressed into place. It
should be noted that, as with conventional mortars,
the strength of the bond will be slow to develop at
low temperatures.
32.13 Masonry bonds
To maintain a regular masonry bond and neat
appearance at quoins, reveals, joints, etc, special
bonding units or closers may be required. A number
of special shaped units are manufactured
(see BS 4729). However, it is advisable to consult
the manufacturer at an early stage about the
availability of such units.
33 Constructional details
33.1 Quoins and reveals
When constructing quoins and reveals, particular
care should be taken to check gauge and verticality
as the work proceeds. The use of toothings should be
avoided.
Quoins and reveals in vulnerable positions should
be protected during the period of work on site.
33.2 Piers
Broken bond should be avoided in piers and the
bonding of the quoins should be such as to preserve
symmetry in the appearance of the work. Piers
which are required to strengthen the wall should be
properly bonded or tied into the parent wall.
33.3 Sills and thresholds
One-piece sills or thresholds, e.g. stone or concrete,
should be bedded with mortar only below the ends or
stoolings, to prevent fracture of the sill in the event
of thermal movement and differential settlement.
The open joint should be pointed with mortar on
completion of the masonry. Timber, pervious or
jointed sills or subsills should be provided with a
d.p.c. for the full length and width of the sill bed.
Sills should be adequately weathered to prevent
water lying on their upper face.
90
33.4 Lintels
Lintels should have adequate bearing on the wall at
the sides of the openings (see 19.3) and should be
bedded on mortar. They should not bear on a short
length of cut block. Precast concrete lintels should
have matured and dried before being built into the
wall, to prevent cracking at the ends due to drying
shrinkage of the lintel. Cast in situ lintels of
reinforced concrete or of reinforced masonry
(see 32.9) should be propped and allowed sufficient
time to develop adequate strength before they are
made to carry superimposed loads.
Where composite lintels, e.g. prestressed concrete
plank lintels, are used, no chase or hole should be
formed in the area comprising the composite section
nor should any inclusion, such as joists, be built into
this section, with the exception of d.p.c. materials
which intrude not more than one-quarter of the
width of the bed joint or 30 mm, whichever is the
lesser. Installation should follow the
recommendations of the manufacturer.
33.5 Arches
When building an arch, temporary support should
be provided and the arch should be allowed
sufficient time to develop adequate strength before
it is made to carry superimposed loads. Care should
be taken to butt up the voussoirs, either by using
rubbers or by varying the thickness of the joint
(see 27.6). In cavity construction, cavity trays
should be of malleable material, curved to follow the
arch, or preformed.
33.6 Toothing and indenting
Where future extensions are required to be provided
for in a wall, the course terminating in a header or
bat should have that header, and the adjacent
closer, if one occurs, bedded in designation iv)
mortar so that these units can be easily removed to
enable the bond to continue. Alternatively, units can
be left projecting or omitted and where this is done,
the upper exposed surfaces of the units should be
weathered in designation iv) mortar.
33.7 Connections between walls and partitions
Walls and partitions should generally be bonded,
tied or dowelled to one another at angles and
junctions, but particular care should be taken to
construct joints as shown on detailed drawings, as
they may be required to accommodate movement in
a particular direction or to be totally discontinuous.
Where it is necessary for a partition to be connected
to an adjacent wall or column, this should be done by
toothing or block bonding unless otherwise
specified.
BSI 11-1999

33.8 Movement joints
Movement joints should be formed as the work
proceeds. For efficiency in the performance of
sealants, it is essential that the joint is properly
designed and prepared (see 20.3 and 20.4). Back-up
material should be placed within the joint in such a
way that the distance of its face from the joint face
will allow the correct depth of seal to be used. The
faces of the joint to which sealant is to be applied
should be clean and free from loose material; they
should also be dry unless otherwise specified.
Application of primer and sealant should be in
accordance with the manufacturers instructions.
Care should be taken to apply the sealant to the full
specified depth, avoiding bubbles. The sealant
should adhere to each side of the joint.
33.9 Fixing of frames
Frames may either be built in when the walling is
being built or fixed after the opening has been
formed. When built in with the walling, temporary
strutting of the frame is necessary to prevent
distortion during the process. The horns may be cut
off or built in, providing the building-in does not
weaken the structure of the wall. Cramps should be
fixed to the backs of the posts and built into the
walling; it is not usually necessary to use fixings at
the heads of door frames, except, perhaps, with very
wide doorways. Care should be taken in building-in
frames to prevent staining by mortar splashings,
especially if the wood is not to be painted.
34 Provision of services, including
fixings and chases
Chases, fixings and holes in masonry may seriously
affect the strength of the masonry (see 19.6). As far
as is practicable, in order to eliminate unnecessary
cutting away and making good, sleeves and chases
should be provided during the erection of the
masonry. This applies especially to electric
ductwork. In external walls, all sleeves and pipes
should preferably be laid with a fall towards the
outside. No services should be run within the cavity
of cavity walls. The installation of services should be
completed before plastering or other finishing work
is begun.
BSI 11-1999
BS 5628-3:1985
Where chases have to be cut, suitable power tools
which do not operate by heavy impact, e.g. rotary
tools, should be used so that the depth
recommended in 19.6 is not exceeded. Fixing units
(bricks or blocks), where required, should be built
into the wall or partition in the correct positions for
skirting, rails and other items of joinery, fittings,
etc.
35 Protection against damage during
construction
35.1 General
Care should be taken to anticipate and prevent
damage or disfigurement to the finished work due to
weather, subsequent building or other operations.
Care should also be taken over the siting of hoists.
The arrisses around openings to be used by barrows,
etc. should be protected. Temporary support to walls
may be required during construction to prevent
damage by wind.
Work below ground poses particular problems. It is
essential to prevent contact with strong salt
solutions, e.g. those used for clearance of snow and
ice.
35.2 Protection against rain
Newly erected masonry should be protected to
prevent the mortar being washed out of the joints by
rain. Walls should be prevented from becoming
saturated by covering the top of the wall with
tarpaulins or other waterproof sheets; this is
particularly important to minimize the incidence of
efflorescence and lime bloom. When any working
platform is not in use, the inner board should be
turned away from the wall to prevent the splashing
of the wall face.
35.3 Work in cold conditions
Generally, when masonry construction is carried
out during freezing weather, proper facilities should
be made available for preparing the mortar,
protecting the materials and protecting the fresh
masonry work against frost damage. If there is a
break in the construction programme during the
winter period, unfinished masonry may be exposed
to saturation and freezing for a considerable period
of time.
91
BS 5628-3:1985
Where work is to be carried out in frosty or freezing
conditions, particular attention should be paid to
protection of the materials and finished masonry,
since water in the mortar mix and masonry units
may cause considerable damage to the masonry if it
is allowed to freeze. During cold weather, the mortar
will be slow to gain strength and, therefore, any
precautions should be maintained until the mortar
has gained sufficient strength to resist being frozen.
Because of the possible damage that may occur to
newly constructed masonry in cold weather, no
masonry units should be laid when the temperature
is at or below 3 C, unless precautions are taken to
ensure that the mortar has a minimum temperature
of 4 C when laid and that the masonry is protected
from becoming frozen until the mortar has
hardened. In addition, precautions may be required
where the temperature is above 3 C when the
mortar is laid but where the subsequent
temperature may fall below freezing before the
mortar has hardened, e.g. overnight.
The precautions to be taken should be agreed with
the designer and may include the following.
a) Protection of the mixing plant, at times by a
heated enclosure.
b) Heating the aggregate and water before use.
When this is done, the mortar should be used
immediately after mixing, before it loses all its
heat. The water temperature should normally not
exceed 60 C.
92
c) Protection of the finished work by an insulated
waterproof covering.
d) Provision of complete heated enclosures to
protect both masonry and operatives. In this
condition, both the mixing plant and materials
should, ideally, be housed within the enclosure.
The following precautions should generally be
implemented in freezing conditions:
1) the masonry units in the stack should be
protected from becoming saturated;
2) the sand should be protected by waterproof
insulating covers (insulating quilts, tarpaulins or
similar) supported clear of the sand to improve
thermal insulation.
NOTE Unprotected sand may remain frozen some considerable
time after air temperature has risen above freezing point.
Antifreeze admixtures, particularly calcium
chloride, should not be used (see 23.3).
36 Supervision
The design recommendations given in section 3 of
this code assume the quality of workmanship
described in section 4. Supervision should ensure
that this quality is achieved.
BSI 11-1999

Appendix A Determination of
movement in masonry
A.1 General
This appendix gives information on the various
movements that can occur in masonry. It should be
noted from the start that it is extremely difficult, if
not impossible, to predict with any degree of
certainty the movement that will actually occur.
This movement is a complex combination of
movements caused by such factors as temperature
and moisture variations (see A.2). Furthermore,
each movement is controlled to some extent by the
degree of restraint to which the masonry is
subjected. To complicate matters further, the actual
effect on movements of the same basic restraint may
well vary according to the general shape of the
building and in many cases cannot be quantified.
The determination of movement is thus a complex
problem which cannot be solved simply by adding or
subtracting individual values for thermal
movement, moisture movement, creep, deflection,
etc. The various individual movements are treated
separately in A.4 to A.6.
Any estimation of movement has to rely to a great
extent on engineering judgement, since many
factors, such as the temperature and moisture
content of the material at the time of construction,
weather conditions and degree of restraint, are
unpredictable.
A.2 Determination of total movement within a
wall
A.2.1 General
To determine the movement that is likely to take
place within an actual wall, the individual
movements described in A.4 to A.6 have to be
considered in combination.
An estimate of the total movement may be made by
summing all the potential free movements.
However, thermal and moisture movements are not
directly additive. For example, a wall which
expands due to thermal or moisture action alone
generally becomes cooler when wetted by rain. The
exact effect of such a combination is in practice
extremely difficult to determine. All that can be said
is that the maximum thermal and moisture
movements should not be added together to arrive
at the total effective free movement.
BSI 11-1999
BS 5628-3:1985
A.2.2 Total effective free movement for
fired-clay masonry
For fired-clay masonry where the ambient
temperature remains reasonably constant, e.g. for
internal walls, the long term or time-dependent
movement described in A.5.2.2 predominates. Since
this is an expansive movement, the masonry is
unlikely to develop tensile cracks, except in short
returns of less than 1 m in length. External
masonry of fired-clay masonry units will be
subjected to the effects of thermal expansion
superimposed on the long term movement.
A.2.3 Total effective free movement for concrete
and calcium silicate masonry
Owing to the number of factors involved, it has not
been found practicable to recommend coefficients for
total effective free movement of concrete and
calcium silicate masonry. However, where joints are
provided in accordance with 20.3.2.3 and 20.3.2.4,
the total effective free movement will be small and
detailed calculations are unnecessary.
A.3 Determination of spacing and widths of
movement joints
There is no convenient mathematical expression for
determining the position of movement joints in
masonry. However, the basic principle is that the
distance between joints should be such that the
longitudinal strain induced in the wall is no greater
than the strain capacity of the wall. Owing to the
difficulty of computing joint spacings on this basis,
recommended spacings based on practical
experience have been given in clause 20. It is
essential that the maximum movement in the
masonry should be no greater than the permitted
movement in the joint sealant.
Thus:
Length of masoary Permitted strain in sealant
--------------------------------------------------- = ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
Width of joint Effective strain in wall
93
BS 5628-3:1985
A.4 Thermal movement
The theoretical free movement due to thermal
effects, which is reversible, is equal to the
temperature range multiplied by the appropriate
coefficient of thermal expansion and the length
[see Figure 16(a)]. However, the movement that
actually occurs within a wall after construction
depends not only on the range of temperature but
also on the initial temperature of the masonry units
when laid. This will vary according to the time of
year and the exact conditions during the
construction period and, in some cases, how soon
after manufacture the masonry units are
used, i.e. when they come straight from the kiln or
curing chamber. Thus, in order to determine the
potential free movement that could occur in a wall,
some estimate of the initial temperature and the
likely range of temperature should be made.
This potential free movement then needs to be
modified to allow for the effect of restraints.
Table 19 indicates typical ranges for coefficients of
thermal movement. Some estimate of the actual
value for the particular material being used should
be made. In many instances, this information may
be obtained from the manufacturers.
Table 19 Linear thermal movement of
masonry units and mortar
Coefficient of linear
Material
thermal movement/C
Fired-clay masonry units 4 to 8 106
(see note 1)
Concrete masonry units
7 to 14 106
(see note 2)
Calcium silicate masonry
11 to 15 106
units
Mortars
11 to 13 106
NOTE 1 Thermal movement of fired-clay masonry units
depends on the type of clay.
NOTE 2 Thermal movement of concrete masonry units
depends on the type of material and the mix proportions.
The longitudinal coefficient of thermal movement of
masonry may be taken to be the same as that of the
constituent masonry units.
Movement in the vertical direction may be
determined by summing the values obtained by
multiplying the dimensions of the masonry units
and the mortar by the respective coefficients. It
should be borne in mind that the magnitude of
movement in the horizontal and vertical directions
will differ when the coefficients for mortar and
masonry units are not the same and when the
masonry units height and length are unequal.
7) Adsorptionis the term used to describe the bonding of water molecules to the molecules of the masonry material. It should not
be confused with absorption, which refers to the entry of water molecules into the pores of the masonry.
94
A.5 Moisture movement
A.5.1 General
The moisture movement of fired-clay masonry units
and calcium silicate or concrete masonry units differ
in magnitude and in kind. They have therefore been
dealt with separately in A.5.2 and A.5.3.
A.5.2 Fired-clay masonry units
A.5.2.1 Wetting movement. It has been shown that
fired-clay masonry units can exhibit small
reversible dimensional changes due to changes in
moisture content. The effective movement that
occurs within a wall is basically controlled in a
similar way to thermal movements, i.e. by
minimum, initial and maximum moisture contents.
Once again, the actual movement will be modified
by the effect of any restraints. The typical range of
movement to be expected is generally less
than 0.02 %, which is comparatively insignificant.
A.5.2.2 Long term expansion. Although it is found
that the general wetting movement is extremely
small in fired-clay masonry units, there is an
irreversible expansion which occurs as a result of
adsorbing7) moisture from the atmosphere. This will
occur in both internal and external walls but may
take place slightly more quickly in the latter. The
rate of expansion is at its greatest just after the
masonry units have cooled and decreases thereafter.
The amount of expansion depends on the type of clay
and the degree of firing. The actual movement
within a wall will depend on the degree of restraint
and the amount of creep that has taken place in the
mortar.
A.5.3 Concrete and calcium silicate masonry
units
The potential free movement that can occur in
concrete and calcium silicate masonry units
depends on the minimum, initial and maximum
moisture contents [see Figure 16(b)]. An additional
range is shown which represents the limits for
compliance with drying shrinkage test
requirements in British Standards for these units.
However, the drying shrinkage test described in
BS 187 and BS 6073-1 determines the shrinkage of
units-between saturated and oven dry states,
whereas in practice a wall is seldom totally
saturated. Thus the free movement may be expected
to be less than the movement encountered during a
drying shrinkage test.
BSI 11-1999

In considering Figure 16(b), it may be seen that the
potential free movement within a wall is related to
the moisture content at the time of laying. Since
concrete and calcium silicate masonry units have a
general tendency to shrink as they dry out, it is clear
that keeping these masonry units as dry as
practicable before and during construction will
reduce any subsequent movement. Also, the
expected movement may be less for walls built
under cover than external walls, subject to the
relative humidity.
The potential free movement may be modified by
restraints. It should be noted that such restraints,
particularly at the end of a wall, are likely to
increase the tensile stresses in the wall.
Table 20 indicates the range of drying shrinkage for
various masonry units. The higher figures are the
limits specified in the appropriate British
Standards for quality control purposes and should
not be taken to represent the movement of units in
a wall.
Table 20 Moisture movement of concrete
and calcium silicate masonry units
Material and type of Shrinkage as percentage
masonry unit of original (dry) length
% contribute to the total movement of the masonry in
Autoclaved aerated 0.04 to 0.09
concrete masonry units
Other concrete masonry 0.02 to 0.06
units
Calcium silicate bricks 0.01 to 0.04
NOTE These figures are obtained from tests carried out as
described in BS 1881-5.
A.5.4 Mortar
The free moisture movement of mortar is similar to
that of concrete masonry units, although the
potential free movement is likely to be greater, since
initial moisture loss will not take place before
construction [see Figure 16(c)]. The effect of mortar
on longitudinal movement may be neglected.
BSI 11-1999
BS 5628-3:1985
Typical shrinkage values for mortars are given
in Table 21. The actual values will depend on the
constituents of the mortar, the proportions of the
mix and the ambient relative humidity. For
convenience, however, the lower values in the table
may be taken to apply to mortars in external walls
and the higher values to mortars in internal walls.
The resulting movement of internal walls may
generally be neglected, since they are unlikely to
become wet after drying out initially.
Table 21 Shrinkage of mortars due to
change in moisture content
Stage Shrinkage
%
Initial drying 0.04 to 0.10
Subsequent reversible movement 0.03 to 0.06
It should be noted that the values given in Table 21
relate to unrestrained mortar. In practice,
movement in the horizontal direction will largely be
controlled by the surrounding masonry. However for
fired-clay masonry, the effect of the mortar
shrinkage may counteract the long term expansion
described in A.5.2.2. Movement in the vertical
direction will usually be unrestrained and will thus
that direction.
A.6 Movement due to carbonation
An additional shrinkage of concrete masonry units
and mortar can occur as a result of carbonation of
the cement by atmospheric carbon dioxide. The
extent of carbonation and the subsequent movement
depends on the permeability of the concrete and on
the ambient relative humidity. In dense masonry
units and in autoclaved masonry units, the
magnitude of this movement is extremely small and
may be neglected. In unprotected open textured
masonry units and mortar, the shrinkage due to
carbonation may be between 20 % and 30 % of the
initial free moisture movement.
95
BS 5628-3:1985

Figure 16 Factors affecting movement

96 BSI 11-1999
 BS 5628-3:1985

Figure 16 Factors affecting movement (continued)

BSI 11-1999 97
BS 5628-3:1985
Figure 16 Factors affecting
movement (continued)
Appendix B Masonry bonds and joint
finishes
B.1 Brick masonry bonds
B.1.1 English bond
English bond shows on both faces alternate courses
of headers and stretchers [see Figure 17(a)].
B.1.2 Flemish bond
Flemish bond shows on the face alternate headers
and stretchers in each course [see Figure 17(b)]. It
may be built as a single Flemish bond, which
shows Flemish bond on both faces of the wall.
98
B.1.3 English garden-wall bond
English garden-wall bond shows a sequence of three
courses of stretchers laid with half lap to one course
of headers.
B.1.4 Flemish garden-wall bond (Sussex
garden-wall bond)
Flemish garden-wall bond shows on both faces a
sequence of three stretchers to one header in each
course of a full brick wall [see Figure 17(c)]. In
thicker walls, one face is formed in English bond.
B.1.5 Heading bond (header bond)
Heading bond consists of bricks with their ends
showing on the face of the wall, laid with a half lap
of the brick width [see Figure 17(d)].
B.1.6 Quetta bond
Quetta bond is used for walls a minimum of one and
a half bricks thick and consists of alternate
stretchers and headers arranged to leave a series of
vertical voids in the wall thickness, in which is
placed vertical reinforcement, the voids being filled
with grout or fine concrete as the work proceeds
[see Figure 17(e)].
B.1.7 Rat-trap bond
Rat-trap bond shows bricks laid on edge, each
course consisting of alternate headers and
stretchers. It has a similar appearance to Flemish
bond and may be vertically reinforced in the same
way as Quetta bond [see Figure 17(f)].
BSI 11-1999
 BS 5628-3:1985

Figure 17 Brick masonry bonds

BSI 11-1999 99
BS 5628-3:1985

B.2 Block masonry bonds B.2.2 Thin stretcher bond

B.2.1 Running or stretcher bond
Running or stretcher bond requires block thickness
to be equal to half block length. Half blocks at wall
ends [see Figure 18(a)].
Thin stretcher bond requires cut-block closers or
quoins at corner and half blocks at wall ends
[see Figure 18(b)].
B.2.3 Off-centre running bond
Off-centre running bond requires three-quarters or
two-thirds cut blocks at wall ends [see Figure 18(c)].

Figure 18 Block masonry bonds

100 BSI 11-1999

 BS 5628-3:1985

B.3 Joint finishes

The principal types of joint finish used for brick and
block masonry are shown in Figure 19.

Figure 19 Joint finishes

BSI 11-1999 101

BS 5628-3:1985

Index
In this index references are to clause, appendix, table and figure numbers.
Access for the disabled 3 Bed joints 2.24.1, 26.2.1, 32.8, 32.11.4 fired-clay
Accidental loading 18.1 Blocks, concrete8) see also Masonry units design
design adhesion 17.5
Accuracy in building 3, 17.1
adhesion 17.5
Acoustic properties 17.1, 26 durability 22.6, Table 13
cut to match facing masonry 27.5 frost attack 22.3.2
Adhesion
durability 22.6, Table 13
design 17.1, 17.5 movement Appendix A
frost attack 22.3.4
workmanship 32.3 selection 17.6, Table 6
movement Appendix A slips 2.27.4, 27.3
Admixtures
selection 17.6, Table 6
mix design 23.2.1, 23.3 sulphate attack 22.4
slips 27.3
specification 6.4 water absorption 22.3.2
sulphate attack 22.4
workmanship 31 specification 5.1
specification 5.1 workmanship
Adsorption 20.1, Appendix A
workmanship
Aggregates adhesion 32.3
adhesion 32.3
effect on d.p.cs 21.5.7 laying 32.7
handling 32.8
mix design 23.1, Table 15 slips 32.12
laying 32.8
specification 6.3 pistol 2.27.3, 27.4
slips 32.12
storage on site 30.4
workmanship 32.2, 32.10.1 Blockwork, concrete see also Masonry
design Calcium chloride, prohibition
Airbricks of 6.4.2, 23.3
masonry bonds 27.1.3
design 27.10 Cappings
movement joints 20.3, 2.4
specification 12 definition 2.2
resistance to rain
Alternative components 4 penetration 21.3.2.5, 21.3.3 design 21.7
Alternative materials 4 durability 22.1.3, Table 13(I)
Bonding ties
Alternative methods 4 protection against corrosion 22.7.1, effect on durability of masonry 22.5
Analysis of structures 3 Table 14 Carbonation 20.1, Appendix A
Anchorages specification 8, Table 1 Cast stone 13, 15
design workmanship 33.7 Cavity closers 21.5.4
fixed supports 18.4.2.2, Figure 5 Cavity insulation foreword, 21.3.1,
Bricks see also Masonry units
floors Figure 7 calcium silicate 21.3.2.6, 21.4.2, 21.4.6, 21.5.5, 25.3,
roofs Figure 7 32.10.6
design
simple supports 18.4.2.2, Figure 5 Cavity trays
adhesion 17.5
protection against corrosion 22.7.1, definition 2.3
durability 22.6, Table 13
Table 14 design 21.4.2, 21.4.3, 21.4.4
frost attack 22.3.3
specification 8, Table 1 in arches 27.6
movement Appendix A
types 19.4, Figure 8 in chimneys 21.5.8
selection 17.6, Table 6
Appearance of facing work 32.4, 32.8 in external wall becoming internal
sulphate attack 22.4 wall 21.8
Arches specification 5.1
design 27.6 in parapets 21.5.7
workmanship in structural frames 21.9
workmanship 33.5
adhesion 32.3 over openings 21.5.5
Architectural features laying 32.7
design 27.2 protection against corrosion 22.7.1,
concrete8) Table 14
effect on durability 22.5
design workmanship 32.10.5
effect on rain
adhesion 17.5 Cavity walls see also Masonry and Walls
penetration 21.3.1, 21.3.2.7
durability 22.6, Table 13 definition 2.28.2
Balcony thresholds 21.5.6, Figure 12(f)
frost attack 22.3.4 design
Bat 2.1
movement Appendix A area of walls with edge
Bearings
selection 17.6, Table 6 restraint 18.4.2.1
design
sulphate attack 22.4 condensation 25.6
floors 19.1
specification 5.1 damp-proof courses 21.4.2
lintels 19.3
workmanship ducts 27.10
walls beneath structural
members 20.2.2 adhesion 32.3 exclusion of moisture 21.1,
laying 32.7 21.3.2.6, 21.3.2.7
walls subjected to concentrated
loads 18.3 damp-proof course 10, Table 12, fire resistance 24, Table 16(C) and
Table 13 Table 16(D)
workmanship 32.1, 33.4
projecting features 27.3

8) Where a clause refers both to concrete blocks and concrete bricks the term precast concrete masonry units is used for brevity.

102 BSI 11-1999


sound insulation 26.2.1
support conditions 18.4.2.2
wall ties 19.5
workmanship 32.11
Cellular masonry units 18.3, 32.7
Cement
mix design 23.1, 23.2, Table 15
specification 6.1
storage on site 30.3
sulphate attack 22.4
workmanship 31
Chases
design 19.6, 27.9
effect on stability 18.4, 18.5, 19.6
placing of movement joints 20.3.2.5
workmanship 34
Chimneys
design
damp-proof courses 21.5.8
durability 22.1.3, Table 13(H)
stability 19.7
Cladding
effect on durability of
masonry 22.1.1, 22.5
exclusion of moisture 21.3.2.1,
21.3.2.7, Table 11(B)
Cleaning masonry 3
Cloaks, pre-formed 21.4.5
Closer 2.3, 32.13, Figure 17
see also Cavity closer
Cold bridges 25.5
Collar joints 2.24.2, 32.7
Collar-jointed walls 2.28.3, Table 8
Colouring agents 6.4.4, 31.3
Columns 18.1, 18.2, 18.3
Composite action 18.1
Concentrated loads 18.3
Condensation 25.6
Connections see also Anchorages, Dowels,
Fixings and Movement joints
design
floors 19.1, Figure 7
general 18.1
roofs 19.2, Figure 7
sound insulation 26.2.2
stability 18.4.2.2, 18.5, Figure 3
and Figure 4
workmanship 33.7
Control joints see Movement joints
Copings
damp-proof courses 21.5.7
definition 2.5
design 21.7
durability 22.1.3, Table 13(I)
effect on durability of
masonry 22.1.1, 22.5
specification 15
Corrosion, protection of components 22.7,
Table 14 (Table 9 for wall ties)
Courses 2.6, 27.1.1, 32.1, 32.2, 33.6
see also String courses
Corbels 27.8
BSI 11-1999
Creasing, tile 2.5, 21.7
Cross joint 2.30.3, 32.1
Damp-proof courses (d.p.cs.)
design
general 21.4
positioning 21.5
above ground level 21.5.2
balcony thresholds 21.5.6,
Figure 12(f)
below ground level 21.5.1
cappings 21.7
chimneys 21.5.8, Figure 9
copings 21.7
external wall becoming an internal
wall 21.8, Figure 12(h)
freestanding walls 18.4.1
jambs of openings 21.5.4,
Figure 12(a), Figure 12(c)
openings 21.5.5, Figure 12(d),
Figure 12(e)
parapets 21.5.7, Figure 12(g)
sills 21.5.3, Figure 12(a),
Figure 12(b)
slip planes 20.3.1
slips 20.2.4
structural frames 21.9, Figure 12(i)
durability (masonry d.p.c.s) 22.6,
Table 13(B)
Specification 10, Table 12
storage 30.6
sulphate attack 22.4
workmanship 32.10
Datum 2.7, 28.2
De-icing salts 22.3.1, 22.3.3
Design 17 to 27
factors to be considered 17.1
Docking bricks 17.5
Doors see also Openings
design
exclusion of moisture 21.3.2.6,
21.5.4
placing of movement joints 20.3.2.5
stability 19.3
workmanship 33.9
Double-leaf walls 2.28.3, Table 8, 27.2.3
Dowels
design 20.3.1
protection against corrosion 22.7.1,
Table 14
specification 8, Table 1
types 19.4, Figure 8(c)
Driving rain index see Wind-driven rain
index
Dry-packaged cementitious mixes 6.6
Ducts 27.10, 34
Durability 22
Efflorescence 2.8, 22.1.3, 35.2
Exclusion of moisture 21
Exposure categories 21.2, Table 10
BS 5628-3:1985
Exposure, Severe/Very Severe
effect on choice of wall ties 19.5
effect on durability 21.1.1, 22.1.3, 22.4
effect on protection of metal
components 22.7.1
effect on quality of
workmanship 21.3.2.2
Factors affecting design 17.1
Fair faced work 2.9, 32.8
Finishes 17.1, 17.3, 20.3.1, 21.3.1,
21.3.2.1
Fire resistance 24, Table 16
Fittings 19.6, 20.3.1, 27.9
Fixing units 2.27.1, 34
Fixings
design 19.6, 20.3.1, 21.4.7
protection against corrosion 22.7.1,
Table 14
specification 8, Table 1
types 19.4, Figure 8
workmanship 32.10.1, 34
Flashings
design 21.6
for cappings 21.7
specification 16
workmanship 32.10
Floors
connections 19.1, Figure 7
concrete 19.1, Figure 7(c), 21.4.2
placing of movement joints 20.2.1,
20.3.2.5
stability 18.1
suspended timber 19.1, 20.2.1
Flue blocks 5.1, 27.1
Flues 12, 19.7, Figure 9
Foundations 3, 17.4, 18.1, 22.1.3
Frames
door 19.3, 20.3.2.5, 21.3.2.6, 21.5.4,
33.9
structural 20.2.3, 21.9, Figure 12(i)
window 19.3, 20.3.2.5, 21.3.2.6,
21.5.4, 33.9
Freestanding walls
definition 2.28.4
design 18.4.1
durability 22.1.3, 22.4, 22.6,
Table 13(J)
Frogged masonry units 18.3, 32.7
Frogs 2.10, 19.2, 32.7
Frost attack 21.3.2.1, 22.1.2, 22.1.3, 22.3,
22.5, 23.3, 35.3
Gables 18.4.2.1
Gratings 12, 27.10
Grouted cavity wall 2.28.5, Table 8
Handling 17.6, Table 6, 32.8
Header 2.26.2, B.1, Figure 17
Holes 19.6
Hollow masonry units 18.3, 27.1.3, 32.8
103
BS 5628-3:1985

Impact resistance 17.3 workmanship general 18

Indenting 2.11, 33.6 bearings 32.1 concentrated loads 18.3
Inspection chambers 22.1.3, Table 13(L) general 33.4 imposed lateral load
Insulants 21.3.2.8, Table 11(B), 25.3 reinforced block 32.9 only 18.4
wall ties 32.11.3 imposed vertical and lateral
loads 18.2
Jambs 2.12, 21.5.4 Loading 17.2
internal walls 18.5
Jointing 2.13, 27.7, 32.5, B.3 Local spell index 21.2, Table 10
partitions not designed for
Joints see also Wind-driven rain index
imposed loading 18.5
damp-proof course 21.4.1, 32.10 materials 5, 6
design Manholes 3, 22.1.3, Table 13(L) workmanship 28 to 36
arches 27.6 Masonry constructional details 33
bonding 27.1 definition 2.15 laying of masonry units 32
finish 21.3.1, 21.3.2.4, B.3, Figure 19 design 17 to 27 mortars 31
profile 21.3.1, 21.3.2.4 adhesion 17.5 protection against damage 35
tooling 27.7 constructional details 27 scaffolding 29
movement see Movement joints durability 22 services 34
recessed 21.3.2.4, 27.7 architectural features 22.5 setting out 28
types 2.2.4 exposure to the weather 22.2 storage on site 30
workmanship frost action 22.3 supervision 36
bonding 32.1, 32.13 general 22.1 Masonry bond
bricklaying 32.7 selection of masonry units 22.6, definition 2.16
blocklaying 32.8 Table 13 design 17.1, 27.1
reinforced block lintels 32.9 selection of mortars 22.6, types Appendix B
Table 13
size 32.2 workmanship 32.1, 32.13
sulphate attack 22.4
tooling 32.5 Masonry cement
excslusion of moisture 21
Joist hangers mix design 23.1, 23.2.4
classification of exposure to
design local wind-driven rain 21.2, specification 6.1
floors 19.1 Table 10 workmanship 31
roofs 19.2 damp-proof systems 21.4 Masonry paint
protection against corrosion 22.7.1, to 21.9 effect on durability 22.1
Table 14 selection of external effect on rain penetration 21.3.2.1,
specification 8, Table 1 constructions 21.3 Table 11(B)
factors to be considered 17.1 Masonry units see also Bricks and Blocks
fire resistance 24, Table 16 definition 2.17
Lateral restraint 19.1, 19.2
foundations 17.4 design
Lateral restraint straps
general 17 adhesion 17.5
protection against corrosion 22.7.1,
Table 14 impact resistance 17.3 bonding 20.1, 27.1
specification 8, Table 1 loading 17.2 durability 22.6, Table 13
Lightweight aggregates 6.3.2 mortars 23 frost attack 22.3
Lime movement 20, Appendix A movement Appendix A
mix design 23.1, 23.2, Table 15, accommodation 20.3 selection 17.6, Table 6
Table 17 adjoining structural sulphate attack 22.4
specification 6.2 members 20.2
special shapes 32.13
storage on site 30.3 determination Appendix A
specification 5.1
workmanship 31 general 20.1
types 2.27
Lime : sand 6.6, 23.2.7, 30.5, 31.3, reinforcement 20.5
workmanship
Table 17 sealing of movement joints 20.4
adhesion 32.3
Lime bloom 2.14, 22.1.3, 35.2 sound absorption and noise
appearance 32.4
Lintels reduction 26
laying 32.7, 32.8
design selection of masonry units and
materials 17.6, Table 6 protection during construction 35
bearings 19.3
stability 18, 19 setting out 32.1
cavity bridges 21.4.2 storage on site 30.2
detailing 19
composite 19.3 Materials 5 to 16
chimneys 19.7
concentrated loads 18.3
floors 19.1 Mortars
damp-proof systems 21.5.5, design
Figure 12(d) and Figure 12(e) fittings 19.6
fixings 19.4 adhesion 17.5
pressed steel 19.3
openings 19.3 admixtures 23.3
protection against corrosion 22.7.1,
Table 14 roofs 19.2 durability 20.1, 22.6, Table 13
stop-ends 21.5.5 services 19.6 mixes 23.1, Table 15
specification 14 wall ties 19.5

104 BSI 11-1999

 BS 5628-3:1985

resistance to rain movement joints 20.2.3, 20.3.2 non-structural 22.7.1, Table 14

penetration 21.3.1, 21.3.2.3, stability 18.4.2, Figure 2(b) structural 22.7.2
21.3.2.4
Parapets specification 9
types 23.2.1
damp-proof courses 21.5.7, workmanship 32.7, 32.8, 32.10.1
air-entrained (plasticized) Figure 12(g)
23.2.5 Rendering
durability 22.1.3, 22.4, 22.6, design 21.3.2.1, 21.4.7, Table 11, 22.5
cement 23.2.2 Table 13(F) and Table 13(G)
cement : lime : sand 23.2.3 workmanship 32.5
movement 20.3.2.2 Retaining walls 22.1.3, Table 13(L)
lime : sand 23.2.7 stability 18.4.1
masonry cement 23.2.4 Reveals 33.1
Partitions Roofs
ready-to-use 23.2.6
design connections 19.1, Figure 7
specification 6 movement 20.2.2
workmanship stability 18.1
stability 18.5
adhesion 32.3
workmanship 33.7
appearance 32.4 Paved surrounds, effect on adjacent Saturation, risk of 22.1.1, 22.1.2, 22.1.3,
batching 31.4, Table 17 and 22.3.1, 22.5, Table 13, 35.2, 35.3
masonry 22.1
Table 18 Scaffolding 29
Perpend joints
jointing 32.5 Sealants
definition 2.24.5
mixing 31.4 design 20.4
design 21.4.6, 26.2.1
pointing 32.6 specification 11
workmanship 32.4, 32.10.6
protection during construction 35 workmanship 33.8
Piers
storage on site 30.5 Selection of masonry units and mortars
definition 2.19
Movement 20 durability 22.6, Table 13
design
accommodation general 17.6, Table 6
movement 20.3.2.5
adjoining structural members 20.2 Services 19.6, 21.4.7, 27.9, 32.10.1, 34
stability 18.1, 18.3
general 20.1 Setting out 28, 32.1
workmanship 33.2
masonry 20.3 Sewerage Table 13(L)
Pigments see Colouring agents
determination Appendix A Shell bedding 2.26, 21.3.2.5, 27.1.3, 32.8
Pistol brick 2.26.3, 27.4
effect on stability 18.1, 18.5 Sills
Plaster
reinforcement 20.5 design
damp-proof courses 21.4.7
Movement joints see also Slip planes damp-proof courses 21.5.3,
partitions 18.5 Figure 12(a) and Figure 12(b)
definition 2.24.4
Plasticizers durability 22.1.3, 22.6, Table 13(J)
design 20.3.1, 21.7
mix design 23.2.1, 23.2.5, Table 15 effect on durability of
effect on stability 18.1, 20.2.3.2
specification 6.4.3 masonry 22.1.1, 22.5
fire resistance 24
workmanship 31.3 specification 13
provision 20.3.2
Pointing 2.20, 27.7, 32.6, B.3 workmanship 33.3
sealing 20.4
Protection against corrosion 22.7, Simple support 2.33.2, Figure 5
slips 20.2.4 Table 14
types Figure 10 Single-leaf walls see also Masonry and
Protection against damage during Walls
wall ties 19.5 construction 35 definition 2.28.1
workmanship 33.8
design
Quoins 2.21, 27.1.3, 33.1 area of walls with edge
Noise reduction 26 restraint 18.4.2.1
exclusion of moisture 21.3.2.5,
Rain penetration, resistance to Table 11(A)
Openings design fire resistance 24, Table 16(A)
damp-proof courses 21.5.5, cavity insulation 21.3.2.8 and Table 16(B)
Figure 12(a), Figure 12(b),
Figure 12(d) and Figure 12(e) factors affecting cavity walls 21.3, free standing walls 18.4.1
Table 11(B) sound insulation 26.2.1
movement joints 20.3.2.5
general 21.1 support conditions 18.4.2.2
partitions 18.5
selection of external Sleeper walls 2.28.6, 19.1
reinforcement 20.5 constructions 21.3
support over 19.3 Slips
thickness of single-leaf walls
wall ties 19.5 Table 11(A) definition 2.26.4
walls without edge restraint 18.4.2, workmanship 21.3.2.2, 32.5, 32.11 design 20.2.4, 27.3
Figure 2(b) Recessed joints 21.3.2.4, 22.1.1, 27.7, workmanship 32.12
32.5, B.3 Slip planes 18.1, 20.2.2, 20.3.1
Padstones 18.3, 19.2 Reinforcement Snap headers 2.26.5
Panels bed joint 20.2.1, 20.3.2.2 Sound absorption 26.1
definition 2.18 crack control 20.5 Sound insulation
design damp-proof courses 21.4.7 construction details 26.2.2
fire resistance 24 protection against corrosion general 26.2.1

BSI 11-1999 105

BS 5628-3:1985
movement joints 20.3.1
wall ties Table 9(B)
workmanship 32.7
Special masonry units 2.27.6, 32.13
Spreader beams 18.3, 19.2
Squints 2.26.7
Stability 18, 19
Stop-ends 21.4.5, 21.5.5, Figure 12
Storage on site 30
Stretchers 2.26.8, Figure 17
String courses 2.22, 27.2.1
Suction rate 17.5, 32.3
Sulphate attack 21.3.2.1, 22.1.2, 22.1.3,
22.4
Sulphate-resisting cement 6.1, 22.4,
Table 13
Supervision 36
Support conditions 18.4.2.2
Supports 2.27, Figure 5
Temporary support during
construction 18.1, 18.5, 32.9, 33.4,
33.5
Thermal insulation 21.3.2.8, 25.3
Thermal properties 25
Thresholds 21.5.6, 33.3
Throatings 21.7, 22.1.1, Figure 9
106
Timber, protection against
corrosion 22.7.3
Toothing 2.23, 33.6, 33.7
Truss roofs, connections
with straps Figure 7(d)
without straps Figure 7(e)
Veneering 27.2.4
Veneered walls 2.28.7, 27.2.5
Walls see also Masonry, Single-leaf walls
and Cavity walls
external becoming internal (d.p.c.s)
21.8, Figure 12(h)
external flanking walls (sound
insulation) 26.2.2.2
internal (stability) 18.5
separating (sound insulation) 26.2.2.1
subjected to concentrated loads 18.3
subjected to imposed loads 18.2
subjected to imposed lateral load
only 18.4
types 2.28
with edge restraint 18.4.2
Wall plates 19.1, 19.2
Wall ties
design
general 19.5, Table 9
sound insulation 26.2.1
specification 7
workmanship 32.11
Water, quality of 6.5
Water repellents 21.3.2.1, Table 11(B)
Weathering 2.29, 16, 21.6
Weepholes 21.4.6, 32.10.6
Wetting of masonry units 17.5, 32.3
Wind-driven rain index 21.1, 21.2
Windows see also Openings
design
effect on durability of masonry 22.5
exclusion of moisture 21.3.2.6, 21.5.4,
Figure 12(c)
placing of movement joints 20.3.2.3,
20.3.2.4
workmanship 33.9
Wind zones 18.4, Figure 1
Workmanship 21.3.2.2, 30 to 36
BSI 11-1999
 BS 5628-3:1985

Publications referred to

BS 12, Specification for ordinary and rapid-hardening Portland cement.

BS 146, Portland-blastfurnace cement.
BS 146-2, Metric units.
BS 187, Specification for calcium silicate (sandlime and flintlime) bricks.
BS 402, Specification for clay plain roofing tiles and fittings.
BS 473 & BS 550, Concrete roofing tiles and fittings.
BS 476, Fire tests on building materials and structures.
BS 476-8, Test methods and criteria for the fire resistance of elements of building construction.
BS 493, Specification for airbricks and gratings for wall ventilation.
BS 729, Hot dip galvanized coatings on iron and steel articles.
BS 743, Materials for damp proof courses. Metric units.
BS 747, Specification for roofing felts.
BS 849, Plain sheet zinc roofing.
BS 877, Formed or expanded blastfurnace slag lightweight aggregate for concrete.
BS 877-2, Metric units.
BS 882, Specification for aggregates from natural sources for concrete.
BS 890, Building limes.
BS 915, High alumina cement.
BS 915-2, Metric units.
BS 970, Specification for wrought steels for mechanical and allied engineering purposes.
BS 970-1, General inspection and testing procedures and specific requirements for carbon, carbon
manganese, alloy and stainless steels.
BS 988, BS 1076, BS 1097, BS 1451, Mastic asphalt for building (limestone aggregate).
BS 1014, Pigments for Portland cement and Portland cement products.
BS 1047, Specification for air-cooled blastfurnace slag coarse aggregate for concrete.
BS 1178, Specification for milled lead sheet and strip for building purposes.
BS 1186, Quality of timber and workmanship in joinery.
BS 1186-1, Quality of timber.
BS 1186-2, Quality of workmanship.
BS 1197, Concrete flooring tiles and fittings.
BS 1198, BS 1199 and BS 1200, Building sands from natural sources.
BS 1243, Specification for metal ties for cavity wall construction.
BS 1286, Clay tiles for flooring.
BS 1289, Precast concrete flue blocks for domestic gas appliances.
BS 1449, Steel plate, sheet and strip.
BS 1449-1, Specification for carbon and carbon manganese plate, sheet and strip.
BS 1449-2, Stainless and heat resisting steel plate, sheet and strip.
BS 1470, Wrought aluminium and aluminium alloys for general engineering purposes plate, sheet and
strip.
BS 1554, Specification for stainless and heat-resisting steel round wire.
BS 1881, Methods of testing concrete.
BS 1881-5, Methods of testing hardened concrete for other than strength.
BS 2870, Specification for rolled copper and copper alloys: sheet, strip and foil.
BS 2873, Copper and copper alloys. Wire.
BS 2874, Copper and copper alloys. Rods and sections (other than forging stock).
BS 2989, Specification for continuously hot-dip zinc coated and iron-zinc alloy coated steel: wide strip,
sheet/plate and slit wide strip.

BSI 11-1999 107

BS 5628-3:1985

BS 3111, Specification for steel wire for cold forged fasteners and similar components.
BS 3111-2, Stainless steel.
BS 3148, Methods of test for water for making concrete (including notes on the suitability of the water).
BS 3416, Black bitumen coating solutions for cold application.
BS 3797, Specification for lightweight aggregates for concrete.
BS 3797-2, Metric units.
BS 3826, Silicone-based water repellents for masonry.
BS 3921, Specification for clay bricks.
BS 4027, Specification for sulphate-resisting Portland cement.
BS 4254, Specification for two-part polysulphide-based sealants.
BS 4360, Specification for weldable structural steels.
BS 4721, Specification for ready-mixed building mortars.
BS 4729, Shapes and dimensions of special bricks.
BS 4887, Mortar plasticizers.
BS 5215, One-part gun-grade polysulphide-based sealants.
BS 5224, Specification for masonry cement.
BS 5250, Code of basic data for the design of buildings: the control of condensation in dwellings.
BS 5262, Code of practice for external rendered finishes.
BS 5268, Code of practice for the structural use of timber.
BS 5268-5, Preservative treatments for constructional timber.
BS 5390, Code of practice for stone masonry.
BS 5440, Code of practice for flues and air supply for gas appliances of rated input not exceeding 60 kW (1st
and 2nd family gases).
BS 5440-1, Flues.
BS 5493, Code of practice for protective coating of iron and steel structures against corrosion.
BS 5606, Code of practice for accuracy in building.
BS 5618, Code of practice for the thermal insulation of cavity walls (with masonry inner and outer leaves)
by filling with urea-formaldehyde (UF) foam.
BS 5628, Code of practice for use of masonry.
BS 5628-1, Structural use of unreinforced masonry.
BS 5628-2, Structural use of reinforced and prestressed masonry.
BS 5642, Sills and copings.
BS 5642-1, Specification for window sills of precast concrete, cast stone, clayware, slate and natural stone.
BS 5642-2, Specification for copings of precast concrete, cast stone, clayware, slate and natural stone.
BS 5810, Code of practice for access for the disabled to buildings.
BS 5838, Specification for dry packaged cementitious mixes.
BS 5838-2, Prepacked mortar mixes.
BS 5889, Specification for silicone based building sealants.
BS 5896, Specification for high tensile steel wire strand for the prestressing of concrete.
BS 5973, Code of practice for access and working scaffolds and special scaffold structures in steel.
BS 5974, Code of practice for temporarily installed suspended scaffolds and access equipment.
BS 5977, Lintels.
BS 5977-2, Specification for prefabricated lintels.
BS 6017, Specification for copper refinery shapes.
BS 6073, Precast concrete masonry units.
BS 6073-1, Specification for precast concrete masonry units.
BS 6100, Glossary of building and civil engineering terms.
BS 6100-5, Masonry.
BS 6150, Code of practice for painting of buildings.
BS 6178, Joist hangers.

108 BSI 11-1999

 BS 5628-3:1985

BS 6178-1, Specification for joist hangers for building into masonry walls of domestic dwellings.
BS 6180, Code of practice for protective barriers in and about buildings.
BS 6213, Guide to the selection of constructional sealants.
BS 6232, Thermal insulation of cavity walls by filling with blown man-made mineral fibre.
BS 6270, Code of practice for cleaning and surface repair of buildings.
BS 6270-1, Natural stone, cast stone and clay and calcium silicate brick masonry.
BS 6323, Specification for seamless and welded steel tubes for automobile, mechanical and general
engineering purposes.
BS 6398, Specification for bitumen damp-proof courses for masonry.
BS 6399, Design loading for buildings.
BS 6399-1, Code of practice for dead and imposed loads.
BS 6457, Specification for reconstructed stone masonry units.
BS 6461, Installation of chimneys and flues for domestic appliances burning solid fuels (including wood and
peat).
BS 6510, Specification for steel windows, windowboards and doors.
BS 6515, Specification for polyethylene damp-proof courses for masonry.
BS 6577, Specification for mastic asphalt for building (natural rock asphalt aggregate).
BS 6649, Specification for clay and calcium silicate modular bricks.
BS 8301, Code of practice for building drainage.
CP 3, Code of basic data for the design of buildings.
CP 3:Chapter V, Loading.
CP 3-2, Wind loads.
CP 101, Foundations and substructures for non-industrial buildings of not more than four storeys.
CP 102, Protection of buildings against water from the ground.
CP 143, Sheet roof and wall coverings.
CP 143-16, Semi-rigid asbestos bitumen sheet. Metric units.
CP 144, Roof coverings.
CP 144-3, Built-up bitumen felt.
CP 2004, Foundations.
CP 2005, Sewerage.
DD 93, Methods for assessing exposure to wind-driven rain.
CIBS Guide Section A3 Thermal properties of building structures9).
BCRA Special Publication No. 56 Model Specification for Load-bearing Clay Brickwork10).
BRE Report Driving Rain Index11).
BRE Digest 176 Failure patterns and implications11).
BRE Digest 236 Cavity insulation11).

9)
Published by the Chartered Institution of Building Services.
10)
Published by the British Ceramic Research Association.
11)
Published by the Building Research Establishment.

BSI 11-1999
BS 5628-3:
1985
BSI British Standards Institution
BSI is the independent national body responsible for preparing
British Standards. It presents the UK view on standards in Europe and at the
international level. It is incorporated by Royal Charter.

Revisions

British Standards are updated by amendment or revision. Users of

British Standards should make sure that they possess the latest amendments or
editions.

It is the constant aim of BSI to improve the quality of our products and services.
We would be grateful if anyone finding an inaccuracy or ambiguity while using
this British Standard would inform the Secretary of the technical committee
responsible, the identity of which can be found on the inside front cover.
Tel: 020 8996 9000. Fax: 020 8996 7400.

BSI offers members an individual updating service called PLUS which ensures
that subscribers automatically receive the latest editions of standards.

Buying standards

Orders for all BSI, international and foreign standards publications should be
addressed to Customer Services. Tel: 020 8996 9001. Fax: 020 8996 7001.

In response to orders for international standards, it is BSI policy to supply the

BSI implementation of those that have been published as British Standards,
unless otherwise requested.

Information on standards

BSI provides a wide range of information on national, European and

international standards through its Library and its Technical Help to Exporters
Service. Various BSI electronic information services are also available which give
details on all its products and services. Contact the Information Centre.
Tel: 020 8996 7111. Fax: 020 8996 7048.

Subscribing members of BSI are kept up to date with standards developments

and receive substantial discounts on the purchase price of standards. For details
of these and other benefits contact Membership Administration.
Tel: 020 8996 7002. Fax: 020 8996 7001.

Copyright

Copyright subsists in all BSI publications. BSI also holds the copyright, in the
UK, of the publications of the international standardization bodies. Except as
permitted under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 no extract may be
reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any
means electronic, photocopying, recording or otherwise without prior written
permission from BSI.

This does not preclude the free use, in the course of implementing the standard,
of necessary details such as symbols, and size, type or grade designations. If these
details are to be used for any other purpose than implementation then the prior
written permission of BSI must be obtained.

If permission is granted, the terms may include royalty payments or a licensing

agreement. Details and advice can be obtained from the Copyright Manager.
BSI Tel: 020 8996 7070.
389 Chiswick High Road
London
W4 4AL