Experiment # 1

Objective:
To measure the diameter of pins with the help of Vernier calipers

Apparatus:
Sample pins
Vernier calipers

Theory:

Vernier caliper:

The Vernier Caliper is a precision instrument that can be used to measure internal and
external distances extremely accurately

Some examples of use of Vernier calipers:

For depth measurements For measure inside For measure outside

1|P ag e
How to read Vernier caliper:

Step 1: Holding the Caliper:

This is the proper way to hold a caliper. Use your thumb to slide the jaws open
and closed.

Step 2: Course Reading #1:

First, a quick math refresher. Whole numbers (1,2,3, etc.) are followed by a decimal point and
an endless number of zeros (2.000000). We are going to be working with the 3 places to the
right of the decimal point. The first number to the right of the decimal point is a tenth of an
inch (1/10), the second number signifies a hundreth of an inch (1/100), and the third number
signifies a thousand of an inch (1/1000). A human hair is about 3 thousands of an inch (0.003),
give or take a thousanth. This number (0.456) is read as four hundred and fifty-six thousands.
If you noticed, the "handle" of the caliper has a scale that starts from zero on the left and goes
up to 6 inches on the right, in this case. Other calipers can be much longer in length. The big
number in the center of the scale is the inch number. In this case we are looking mostly at the
area AFTER the first inch mark on the left, and then we see the number 2 on the right, which
indicates the second full inch. Notice that each inch is divided into 10 equal parts with the
numbers 1 through 9. That makes each one of those lengths 1/10 of an inch (0.100). And then
each amount of space between each 1/10 of an inch has 3 lines - which breaks each 1/10 of
an inch into 4 equal pieces. Each one of those little pieces, therefore, is twenty-five
thousanths of an inch (0.025) long. There's also a scale on the bottom of the picture. It starts
at zero, there's a 5, a 10 and a 15. It goes up to 25, but the image doesn't show that. THAT, is
the vernier part of the caliper. Notice that the line for the 0 (zero) is to the right of the second
line after the number 3. Since we know that there is a large number 1 to the left of the
image that we can't see (which signifies 1 whole inch), let's write that down (1.) and we'll put
the decimal point in. The 3 is to the left of the zero on the vernier, so we'll add that to our
number (1.3). The zero line is to the right, of the second line after the 3. So there is at least
fifty thousanths there (0.050), but there's more. Notice how the zero line is just a smidge to
the right of that second line after the 3. Now look at the large 2 and notice that the vernier

2|P ag e
line of 13 is to the LEFT. So the trick is to find which lines on the vernier lines up exactly with
the scale on the center. In this case, it looks like 6...but let's get a closer look.

Step 3: Fine Reading #1:

Yup. It's 6 all right.
NOT the 6 on the top scale - the 6 on the bottom vernier scale.
So, we were up to 1.3, plus we knew we had at least another fifty thousanths (0.050), and
the vernier tells us there is an addition six thousanths (0.006). Add them all up and we have
1.356 - read 1 inch, three hundred and fifty-six thousands.

Step 4: Course Reading #2:

Let's try another one.The zero on the vernier is to the left of the 1 whole inch mark...so the
number is LESS THAN 1 full inch. Let's write that down (0.) and don't forget the decimal
point.We're between 6 and 7 on the 1/10 scale, so let's write that down too (0.6). Hmmm,
the vernier zero line is almost at the number 7; there are 3 lines...seventy-five thousanths
(0.075)...to the left of the vernier zero line...and some more.Let's look at the vernier scale

3|P ag e
and see what lines up to understand how much more.6, 17, 18 - not sure. Let's get a better
shot of that.

Step 5: Fine Reading #2:

It looks like 15.So, that's 0.6 plus 0.075 plus 0.015.That would be 0.690.Read, six hundred
and ninty thousandths.

What are the different types of caliper?

Dial calipers:
Dial Calipers have a dial that displays the measurement with an indicator needle. This
measurement is then combined with the reading given on the scale running along the beam
of the caliper. Dial calipers are used to take outside measurements, inside measurements,
step measurements and depth measurements.

4|P ag e
 Vernier calipers:

Vernier Calipers have dual scales that run along the top and bottom of the caliper, and show
both imperial and metric measurements. They are capable of measuring outside and inside
diameters and most will measure depth

Digital or electronic calipers

Digital calipers are the latest innovation in caliper technology. Instead of a rack and pinion
mechanism, an internal microprocessor calculates the position of the jaws and shows the
reading in a display window.

Jenny calipers:
Jenny calipers are sometimes called odd leg calipers or hermaphrodite calipers.They are
used to draw a line a set distance from the edge of a workpiece but are also useful for
locating the centre of a workpiece.

5|P ag e
Spring joint calipers:
Spring joint calipers consist of two legs, a spring, and an adjusting nut The space between
the legs can be altered by twisting the screw and nut. They can be used to take either inside
or outside measurements. As they do not have a graduation scale, spring joint calipers must
be checked against a measuring tool such as a ruler or micrometer.

Micrometers
Micrometers are devices used to measure very small distances, usually to 1/1000 mm.They
are widely used in for precisely measuring the thickness of blocks, outer and inner

diameters of shafts and depths of slots.

Zero error : On bringing both the jaws together, if the zero marks of the vernier scale
does not coincide exactly with the zero mark of the main scale then it is said to
There are two kinds of zero error:
(i) Positive zero error and
(ii) Negative error.

Positive zero error:

Positive zero error occurs when the 0 marking of the vernier scale appears after the 0
marking of the main scale. The error is +x cm. To correct the reading, we subtract the error

6|P ag e
from the measurement.

Negative error:
Negative zero error occurs when the 0 marking of the vernier scale appears before the
0 marking of the main scale. The error is -(0.1-y) cm. To correct the reading, we

subtract the error from the measurement.

Procedure:
First of all join the both jaws of Vernier calipers together and see if there is some zero error.
If there is zero error then find out its value. If zero error is negative then zero correction is
positive and if zero error is positive then zero correction is negative.
Now to measure the dimensions of the pin, fix the pin between the jaws of the Vernier
calipers and note the main scale reading. Now note that which division of the vernier scale
matches with any division of the main scale. It will be the vernier scale reading. Now find
out the measurement with the help of the following formula.
Length= main scale reading + vernier scale reading * (Least count)
Now calculate the final value of the dimension by adding or subtracting the zero correction.
Calculate other dimensions of the pin with the same procedure.

7|P ag e
OBSERVATIONS & CALCULATIONS:

Sr. No. Sample Main Vernier Least Total

Scale Scale Count
Reading
Reading Reading Reading
(mm)
(mm) (mm) (mm)

D1 25 6 0.05 26.2

D2 15 6 0.05 16.2

Sample 1 D3 9 8 0.05 10.3

H1 12 12 0.05 13.5

H2 44 3 0.05 45.05

H3 72 14 0.05 73.6

D1 25 6 0.05 26.2

D2 15 15 0.05 16.65

Sample 2 D3 8 18 0.05 9.8

H1 12 9 0.05 13.35

H2 44 3 0.05 45.05

H3 73 0 0.05 73.9

8|P ag e
Conclusions:
First of check the zero error in vernier caliper. If there is zero error then keep it in mind
during taking measurements.
Lab instructor should be familiar with apparatus so that minimum possibility of error in
readings during performing experiments.
Perform the experiment paying full attention.
Read carefully the main and vernier scale during taking reading.
Unexperienced operator may results in incorrect measurements.
Using digital vernier caliper accuracy approaching results can be obtained.

9|P ag e
 Experiment # 2
Objective:
To develop required dimensions with the help of block gauges.

Apparatus:
Block gauges
Petrol & kerosene oil
Petrol jelly
Piece of cloth
Container
Dish

Theory:

Gauge Blocks :
Gauge block calibration is one of the oldest high precision calibrations made in dimensional
metrology. Since their invention at the turn of the century gauge blocks have been the major
source of length standardization for industry. In most measurements of such enduring
importance it is to be expected that the measurement would become much more accurate and
sophisticated over 80 years of development

10 | P a g e
Gauge Block Measurement Procedure :

The gauging faces are examined for burrs and, if present, these are removed with a
deburring stone. The bottom end is tested for wringability with a quartz optical flat. The
transparency of the flat makes possible a judgment of the wring. A uniform grey color at
the interface indicates a good wring. Any colored or light areas indicate a gap of more
than 25 nm between the faces in that area, and such a gap may result in an erroneous
length measurement. Deburring and cleaning is continued until a good wring is achieved.
The quartz flat is left wrung to the gauging face to keep it clean until preparations are
completed for wringing the block to the steel optical flat (platen).

MATERIAL :
Pressure gauge tubes are made of many materials, but the common design factor
for these materials is the suitability for spring tempering. This tempering is a form
of heat treating. It causes the metal to closely retain its original shape while
allowing flexing or "elasticity" under load. Nearly all metals have some degree of
elasticity, but spring tempering reinforces those desirable characteristics.
Beryllium copper, phosphor bronze, and various alloys of steel and stainless steel
all make excellent Bourdon tubes. Beryllium copper is usually reserved for high
pressure applications.
The movement mechanism is made of glass filled polycarbonate, brass, nickel
silver, or stainless steel. Brass and combinations of brass and polycarbonate are
most popular.
A dial and pointer, which are used to provide the viewer with the pressure
indication, are made from nearly all basic metals, glass, and plastics.

ADHESIVE PROPERTY :

An adhesive is a material used for holding two surfaces together. An adhesive must wet
the surfaces, adhere to the surfaces, develop strength after it has been applied, and remain
stable. Adhesion is a specific interfacial phenomenon. There are three main theories of
adhesion: adsorption, electrical and diffusion. The raw materials for adhesives are mainly
polymeric materials, both naturally occurring and synthetic.

For a material to perform as an adhesive it must have four main requirements:

It must "wet" the surfaces -

It must adhere to the surfaces -
It must develop strength - It must remain stable -.
A material used for bonding that exhibits flow at the time of application.

Wringing Phenomenon:
The property due to which gauges are attached to each other.

11 | P a g e
 Wringing of the gage blocks plays a very important role in generating these lengths, as
the blocks that do not wring well are not reliable and contribute more uncertainty to the
measurements.

There is any correlation between surface parameters and wringing and

characterizing the differences between wring able, non-wring able and stoned
gage blocks. Wringing is done by hand though sliding and twisting motions. One
gauge is placed perpendicular to other using standard gauging pressure and rotary
motion is then applied until the blocks are lined up. This adherence is caused
partly by molecular attraction and partly by atmospheric pressure. Similarly, for

separating two wring slip gauges, combined sliding and twisting motion should be
used.

Applications and Future:

Once the calibrated gauge is assembled and packaged, it is distributed to
equipment manufacturers, service companies, and testing laboratories for use in
many different applications.
These varied applications account for the wide range in design of the case and
lens enclosure. Some dials are illuminated by the luminescent inks used to print
the graduations or by tiny lamps connected to an outside electrical source.
The use of pressure gauges in the future appears to be dependant on the quickly
growing electronic sensor industry. These sensors are electronic components that
provide an electrical signal and have essentially no moving parts.
Many gauges today already have these sensors mounted within the case to send
information to process control computers and controllers. These sensors are
intrinsically safe, allowing their use in flammable or explosive environments.
The whole process control issue has grown in recent years as a result of the need
to prevent accidental releases of the process media, many of which are harmful to
the environment.

12 | P a g e
 Procedure:
Join the different block gauges by the wringing process and calculate the
required dimensions.
Note the dimensions in the table. Before performing the wringing operation, first put
some drops of a cleansing agent (e.g. gasoline) and rub it with a piece of cloth to
make the mating surfaces shiny and smooth.

OBSERVATIONS & CALCULATIONS

Sr. # Required Guage 1 Gauge 2 Gauge 3

Dimensions (mm)
(mm) (mm)
(mm)

1 13.759 0.7 0.05

2 14.076 1.07 1.006

3 11.30 1.3 0

4 20.08 1.08 0

5 1.55 3 0

6 8.07 1.07 0

7 19 15 0

8 15.009 1.009 0

9 12.3 1.10 10

10 78.2 1.7 1.5

RESULTS & CONCLUSIONS:

During making combination carefully select the pair of gauge.
During performing experiment exact pair should be chosen to get accurate values.
Using jelly make sure that your cloth not in contact with jelly bottle.
After completing experiments wash your hand with soap to save your health.

13 | P a g e
 Experiment # 3
Objective:
To develop the different angles with the help of angle gauges

Apparatus:
Set of angle gauges
Duster
Petrol jelly

Theory:

1st series:
1,3,9,2,7 and 47 degree

2nd series:
1,3,9, and 27 degree

3rd series:
3,6,8 and 30 minutes

Angle block :
Angle blocks are a valuable tool for the alignment and measurement of precise angles. Using
an autocollimator, they can provide a reference angle for testing optical components such as
prisms and mirrors. They can also be stacked to create other angles. Precision-ground, steel
construction. 10 and 12 piece sets include a wooden storage case.

Application of angle blocks :

An angle block is a tool that helps wood or metal workers to cut materials at a specific
angle. The standard angle block tool consists of a precisely-engineered metal triangle

14 | P a g e
 with one 90degree angle. Using the other two corners of the triangle as a guide,
craftsmen can quickly and easily determine where to cut sheet metal or wooden
objects.
Most users own a variety of angle blocks to measure a wide range of angles.
These tools can be used for a number of functions in a home or commercial
workshop. In addition to helping workers measure for cuts, the angle block can be
placed between two objects to determine the size of an existing angle. For example, a
worker trying to recreate a piece of furniture can hold the angle block between two
adjacent pieces of wood to measure
the exact angle between these objects.

Angle blocks also help installers locate objects in the field and install them in the
correct position. An angle block set or kit contains a full selection of triangles to
represent different angles.

The most advanced units offer angles that vary by only one degree, while basic
kits include tools with angles in five-degree increments. Some of these kits also
allow workers to combine several different angles to achieve the desired size.
Typically, more expensive sets offer tools with smooth, precisely-machined edges
for maximum accuracy.

Procedure:
Angle gauges are used to measure an angle subtended at an object. These gauges are
also used through the wringing process. In the wringing process, when the positive
side of one gauge is connected to the positive side of other gauge, the angles are
added, but when the positive side of one gauge meets the negative side of other gauge,
the angles are subtracted.

15 | P a g e
 OBSERVATIONS & CALCULATIONS:

Sr no. Required Angle guage Angle guage Angle guage

angle(Deg) 1(Deg) 2(Deg) 3(Deg)
1 1o 5 1o 0 0o 5 0o 0

2 3o 15 3o 0 0o 15 0o 0

3 23o 5 14o 0 9o 0 0 o 5

4 19o 0 14 o 0 5 o 0 0o

5 0 45 0 15 0 30 0

6 6 9 3 0

7 13 5 14 0 0 5 0

8 5 0 14 0 9 0 0

9 8 0 14 0 6 0 0

10 59 60 0 1 0

16 | P a g e
 EXPERIMENT # 04

OBJECTIVE:
To Find out the inclined angle of given flat side plates with the help of Bevel protractor.

APPRATUS:
Bevel protractor
Flat plates

BEVEL PROTRACTOR
The bevel protractor is a type of protractor that is circular and has a pivoted arm used for
measuring and marking off angles. This type of protractor is commonly used for architectural
and mechanical purposes. Other types of protractors include the basic protractor, circular
protractor, and external protractor. The basic protractor is most commonly used in school
geometry classes for measuring angles up to 180 degrees. The circular protractor is used when
measuring angles up to 360 degrees. An external protractor is used for spheres, and commonly
utilized by astronomers. While these types of protractors are useful for basic angle
measurements, the bevel protractor will prove to be the most beneficial type in any design or
construction project.
A circle can be divided into 360 equal angles. Each angle is called degree. So a circle is 360
degrees (360o). For calculation a degree is divided into 60 parts called minutes and a minute is
sub-divided into 60 parts called seconds.

The bevel protractor is used to establish and test angles to very close tolerances. It reads to 5
minutes or 1/20o and can be used completely through 360o.

The bevel protractor consists of a beam, graduated dial and blade which is connected to swivel
plate (with Vernier scale) by thumb nut and clamp.

17 | P a g e
When the edges of the beam and blade are parallel, a small line on the swivel plate coincides with
the zero line on the graduated dial, and when any measurement of an angle between the beam
and the blade of 90 degrees or under is desired, the reading may be obtained direct from the
position of the line on the swivel plate with regard to the graduation numbers on the dial. But
remember this: To obtain the measurement of the angle between the beam and the blade of over
90 degrees subtract the number of degrees as indicated on the dial from 180 degrees. This is
because, the dial is graduated from opposite zero marks to 90 degrees each way.

Since the spaces, both on the main scale and the vernier scale, are numbered both to the right
and to the left from zero, any angle can be measured. The readings can be taken either to the
right or to the left, according to the direction in which the zero on the main scale is moved.
Picture below illustrates a variety of uses of the bevel protractor. The bevel protractor vernier
scale indicates every five minutes or 1/20 of a degree. Each space on the vernier scale is 5 minutes
less than two spaces on the main scale.
Twenty four spaces on the vernier scale equal in extreme length twenty three double degrees.
Thus, the difference between the space occupied by two degrees on a main scale and the space
of the vernier scale is equal to one twenty fourth of two degrees or one twelfth of one degree (or
five minutes).

Read off directly from the main scale the number of whole degrees between 0 on this scale and
the 0 of the vernier scale. Then count, in the same direction, the number of spaces from the zero
on the vernier scale to a line that coincides with a line on the main scale; multiply this number by
5 and the product will be the number of minutes to be added to the whole number of degrees.

18 | P a g e
For example: Zero on the vernier scale has moved 28 whole degrees to the right of the 0 on the
main scale and the 3th line on the vernier scale coincides with a line upon the main scale as
indicated. Multiplying 3 by 5, the product, 15, is the number of minutes to be added to the whole
number of degrees, thus indicating a setting of 28 degrees and
15 minutes.

2.Types of Bevel protector

1.Universal digital bevel protractor

This digital bevel protractor displays both decimal degrees and degrees-minutesseconds at
thesame time.

or 5'.
- 90 , 0 - 180 or 0 - 360 .

and 300 mm), a square and an acute angle attachment.

battery type CR203

Dial
bevel

protractor

19 | P a g e
OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS :
Sr.No. Main Scale Vernier V.S.R x L.C Final
Reading Scale Reading
Reading
(deg)
(min)

1 41 8 8x5 41 40
2 117 10 10x5 117 50
3 112 8 8x5 112 40
4 90 5 5x5 90 25
1 34 10 10x5 34 50
2 92 1 1x5 92 5
3 53 8 8x5 53 40

20 | P a g e