CONTENTS

Graphite

Composites

Cfiber Cmatrix Composites

Fiber Strenghening

Carbon Carbon Brake Discs

 1. Graphite
Graphite is an allotrope of Carbon composed of series of stacked parallel layer
planes, shown schematically in figure below, with the trigonal sp2 bonding with
a C-C bond length of 0.141nm .
The two layers are stacked together by weak Van der waal forces and the
sapcing of two layers is relatively large(0.335 nm).

Hexagonal Graphite: It is the most common stacking sequence of the graphite

crystal with ABAB stacking order where the carbon atoms in every other layer
are superimposed over each other. It is thermodynamically stable form of
Graphite and is found in all synthetic materials.
 1.1 Polycrystalline Graphite
Graphite materials such as pyrolitic Graphite, Carbon-Carbon etc are actually
aggregates of graphite crystallites (polycrystalline graphite). These crystallites
vary considerably in size and have an essentially random orientation.
A varying number of imperfections may be found within each crystallite:
Vacancies
Stacking fauts
Disinclination of planes
Screw and edge dislocations

In other aggregates, the crystallites have an essentially random orientation.

This occurs in TURBOSTRATIC (i.e., showing no evidence of three dimensional
order) or amorphous carbon
1.2 Physical Properties of Graphite
 Thermal conductivity

Electrical Conductivity
Electrically, graphite can be considered as a semi metal that is a conductor
in the basal plane and an insulator normal to the basal plane.

Mechanical Strength
In the graphite crystal the bond between atoms is stronger than bond
between the planes with an anisotropy ratio of approximately 75. Thus the
strength in the ab directions is considerable and that in the c direction is
low. So graphite shears easily between the basal planes.

NOTE: These values are of ideal crystal whereas of the real material the
properties are considerably different since they are controlled by
crystallite orientation, porosity, structural defects and other factors.
 2. COMPOSITES
A composite is a structural material made by combining two or more
constituents at a macroscopic level such that they are not soluble in each
other. The composites constitutes of a reinforcing phase which is
embedded in matrix phase. The reinforcing phase material may be in the
form of fibers, particles or flakes. The matrix phase materials are generally
continuous.
Advantages of Composites
Dimensional Stability: They have low thermal expansion coefficients of the order of 1.8
10-7 m/m/oC and high thermal conductivity that gives good thermal shock resistance.
Reduction in Weight: Composites possess low density without compromising with
required stiffness and strength.
Improved strength, stiffness, fatigue and impact resistance, thermal conductivity and
corrosion resistance.
Disadvantages of Composites
High cost of fabrication
Anisotropy: Mechanical characterization of material is complex. Their properties are not
the same in all directions.
Repair of composites is not a simple process.
Composites do not have high combination of strength and fracture toughness.
 2.1 Classification of Composites

COMPOSITES

GEOMETRY OF REINFORCEMENT TYPE OF MATRIX

Particulate Fibre Flake Polymer Metal Ceramic

 2.2 Factors contributing to the mechanical
performance of composite
2.2.1 Fiber: Factors affecting properties of composites are:
Length: Long length gives easy orientation, impact resistance,
low shrinkage, improved surface finish and dimensional stability
where as short fibers have increased strength and are easily and
economically fabricated.
Orientation: Fibers oriented in one direction give high stiffness
and strength in that direction.
Shape: Circular shaped fibers are easy to handle and
manufacture where as hexagon and square shaped fibers have
high strength and high packing factors.
Material: The material of the fiber directly influences the
mechanical performance of the composite such as elastic
modulus, strength etc
Diameter: Thin fibers have high strength, flexibility and better
load transfer capability due to larger fiber matrix interface area.
 2.2.2 Matrix: The matrix functions include binding the
fibers together, protecting fibers from environment,
shielding from damage due to handling and distribution
of load to the fibers. Matrix material properties that
influence mechanical properties of the composites are:
Transverse modulus and strength
Shear modulus and strength
Compressive strength
Inter laminar shear strength
Thermal expansion coefficient
Thermal resistance and fatigue strength
 2.2.3 Fiber matrix interface: It determines how the matrix will
transfer the load to the fibers. A strong bond transfers load more
efficiently whereas weak or cracked interface causes failure in
composites. A strong bond is a requirement in transferring loads
from the matrix to the fibers, weak bonding of the fiber matrix
interface is used advantageously in ceramic matrix composites.
Weak interfaces blunt matrix cracks and deflect them along the
interface. Following types of bonds generally form the interface:
Chemical bonding: A chemical bond is formed between the
matrix and the fibers. Coupling agents may be added or not.
Mechanical bonding: Natural roughness or etching of the fibers
surface may cause interlocking with the matrix leading to
mechanical bond. It may also be formed because of difference
in thermal expansion coefficient. This is the most desirable type
of bonding.
Reaction bonding: Diffusion of atoms or molecules of the fibers
ant the matrix into each other leads to formation of distinct
interfacial layer with different properties causing reaction
bonding. Although this layer helps to form a bond, it also forms
micro cracks in the fiber.
 3. CARBON(Fiber) CARBON(Matrix)
COMPOSITES
C C Composites are a type of ceramic matrix composites.
They use carbon fibers in carbon matrix. They have the
ability to withstand very high temperatures and have low
creep at high temperatures, low density, good tensile and
compressive strength, high fatigue resistance, high thermal
conductivity and high coefficient of friction. Drawbacks
include high cost, low shear strength and susceptibility to
oxidation at high temperatures. The major applications of
CC Composites are space shuttle nose cones, aircraft
brakes, mechanical fasteners etc.
They are used in very high temperature in inert
environments up to 33150C and are 20 times stronger and
30% lighter than graphite fibers.
 3.1 Carbon Fibers
The carbon fiber industry presently uses three different
precursor materials: Rayon and PAN fibers and Pitch, either
isotropic or liquid crystalline (mesophase).
 Carbon Fiber Product Forms
Discontinuous Fibers: They are generally between 6 to 13 mm in
length, the least expensive and the most widely used as
reinforcements to molding compounds. They are mostly
compounded with thermoplastic resin matrices. They impart reduced
shrinkage, greater stiffness, improved fatigue and greater resistance
to electrical conductivity to the molding compound. They are mainly
used to manufacture fibrous webs such as felts.
Continuous Fibers: The final step in carbon fiber production process
is spooling or winding of the tows on to the carrier tube.
Woven Fabrics: They on a whole have widths between 1-3 m. The
fabric pattern or construction is an x-y coordinate system. The y axis
represents the long axis of the fiber roll (30-150 m) and is known as
the warp direction. The warp yarns are known as ends. The x axis in
the width of the roll (0.9-3 m) is known as fill direction and the fill
yarns are known as picks. One of the defining characteristics of any
fabric construction is the numbers of end per unit length times the
number of picks per unit length. A weave is balanced if the same
yarn and weight are used in both directions. Fabrics in which weave
doesnt lie on 0/900 orientation to length direction are known as
angle ply fabrics.
There are basically three styles of weave used in composite industry:
Plain Weave: it is the most common weave used consisting of picks
and ends going over and under one another, resulting in an equal
amount of warp and fill yarns on either side of the fabric. The
curvature or deformation, arising as a result of the weaving is
known as crimp.
Twill or Basket weave: it is a variation of the plain weave in which
warp and fill yarn are paired, two up and two down.
Satin Weave: they are family of constructions with a minimum of
interlacing. In these weaves, the fill yarns periodically skip over
several warp yarns. A float is the term used to describe the length
of yarn between the crimped intersections. For example the eight
harness satin weave. It consists of each fill pick passing over seven
warp end and then under one end.
 3.2 Carbon Matrix
Types of Matrix Precursors:
Thermosetting Matrix:
Properties:
They polymerize at low temperatures (<2500C) to form highly 3-dimensionaly cross-
linked non-softening amorphous solid.
Then pyrolyzed resins form a glassy, isotropic carbon which does not graphitize at
temperatures up to 30000C.
Carbon Yield ranges from 50-60%. This is not increased by application of pressure during
carbonization.
Density of carbon formed is 1.5-1.6 g/cc.
High shrinkage occurs during carbonization.
route must be reimpregnated/recarbonized to minimize the porosity during pyrolysis.

Types:
Phenolic resins: They are a group of polymers in which the chain consist of phenolic
group interspersed with, for example, a methylene bridge. They are formed in a
condensation polymerization between phenol and formaldehyde.
Furan resins: They are made from furan, which is derived from waste vegetable matter.
It is produced by the resinification of furfuryl alchol in the presence of an acid catalyst,
until the desired degree of polymerization (usually exothermic) is achieved.
Thermoplastic Matrix (Pitches):
Properties:
They yield 50% of carbon by weight at 1 atm. However by carbonizing
the pitch under pressure of 10 MPa or greater, coke yields will
approach 90% for some cases.
Coke structures are graphitic.
Coke density is high (approximately 2 g/cc).
Pressure applied during carbonization affects coke microstructure.
They have low softening point and low melt viscosity.

Types:
Coal-tar Pitch: Coal-tar is a by-product of the coking of bituminous coal
to produce cokes. Pitch is obtained from the coal-tar by distillation and
heat treatment processes. Coal-tar pitch consists predominantly of
carbon and hydrogen with small amounts of nitrogen oxygen and
sulphur. Its boiling point is in the range of 340-5500C.
Petroleum Pitch: it is a heavy residue obtained from a catalytic cracking
process, from steam cracker tar, a by-product of stream cracking of
naphtha or gas oils to produce ethylene or any residues from crude oil
distillation or refining.
 Mesophase
An important feature of liquid phase pyrolysis is the development
of a liquid phase crystal in the pyrolysing liquid prior to the
formation of carbon. Around 4000C, spheres of 0.1 m diameter are
observed in liquid pitch, forming a highly oriented structure known
as mesophase. This is stacked in the form of parallel arrays to form
a lamellar molecular structure known as embryonic graphite. This
region develops further and finally solidifies to form carbon at
around 500-6000C

Polararised Light Micrographs showing the development of mesophase during pyrolysis

of pitch between 400 and 500 degree centigrade(courtesy Tonen Ltd.)
 3.3 Impregnation Technology
Prepregs:
Prepreg is a broad tape of aligned or woven fiber impregnated with
polymer resin. Prepregs designed as carbon-carbon precursors are
generally produced with a higher resin content to account for weight loss
with carbonization.
Fibers are converted into a prepreg either by bringing a number of spool
tows into a collimated tape or by impregnating a woven fabric. The fiber
construction may be impregnated using either a hot-melt or solvent-
coating process.
The measure of adhesion of the prepreg to the surface of tooling or other
prepreg sheets is known as tack.
The level of tack is carefully controlled to optimize lay up operations. It is
affected by apparent viscosity of the resin and is increased by increasing
resin and volatile contents, retarding polymerization, increasing lay-up
room temperature or humidity.
If tackiness is high, it would stick to surface of tooling and chances of
wearing out of fibers would be more. If it is low, the layers wont stick to
each other.
Flow is the measure of amount of resin squeezed from a specimen as it
cures (under heat and pressure) between press platens.
 3.4 Carbonization

Carbonization is basically heating (at a very

slow rate) of the prepregs in a furnace at a
temperature of 10000C at 1 atm, in order to
remove the volatile impurities to maximize the
carbon content in product. Due to the removal
of volatile matter, large amount of pores are
generated which are filled further by
densification process.
 3.5 Densification Techniques
3.5.1 Liquid Impregnation:
Low pressure processing: It is the most widely used
approach of introducing a carbon matrix into
multidirectional fibrous performs through
impregnation of the preform with an organic material
and subsequent carbonization of the resultant
composite under an inert atmosphere. Conventional
densification processing is usually conducted at
atmospheric or reduced pressure and must be
repeated several times to reduce the porosity to an
acceptable level
High pressure processing: It utilizes pressure effect on
coke yield and utilizes isostatic pressure to effectively
impregnate and densify carbon-carbon
composites during melting and coking stages of
carbonization cycle.
3.5.2 Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD):
The CVD process involves deposition of a hydrocarbon gas such as
methane or natural gas onto a carbon substrate. The process
involves diffusion of an active carbon bearing gas into a fibrous
substrate in such a manner as to achieve uniform matrix deposition.
A number of parameters such as substrate, susceptor design,
source and carrier gases, temperature and pressure will affect the
matrix characteristic as well as rate uniformity and efficiency of the
process. Three CVD infiltration techniques are:
Isothermal technique: in this process the carbon-carbon
substrate is heated radiatively by the induction furnace
susceptor
Thermal Gradient technique: In this case the induction coil and
susceptor must be tailored to the geometry of the specimen.
The outer substrate next to the susceptor is the hottest region.
Differential Pressure technique: It is a variation of isothermal
technique. In this technique the inner portion of the substrate is
isolated from the furnace chamber by sealing around the base.
 3.6 Graphitization
Graphitization is the process of a thermal transformation
(ordering) of non graphitic carbon materials into graphite.
The graphitization of materials which have passed through
a liquid state or carbonization or the stress-induced
graphitization of fiber-reinforced isotropic carbon, is
achieved by a controlled heat treatment temperatures
above 23000C. The furnaces to perform such a task consist
of a heavy wall, seamless extruded aluminum or stainless
steel chamber, water-cooled with an opening door. It
should be ensured that all traces of air are removed from
the furnace to prevent oxidation damage to furnace and
work piece during operation. The air can be removed by
using a rotary pump capable of producing a vacuum of 10-2
bar followed by backfilling with an inert gas (argon or
helium) or by flushing the furnace with nitrogen for
extended times. The furnace is installed with a safety
interlock system coupled with water supply, inert gas
supply, furnace body and contents over-temperature and
over-pressure trips as fail-safe devices.
 4. FIBER STRENGTHENING
Materials of high strength and specially high strength to weight
ratio, can be produced by incorporating fine fibers in a ductile
matrix. The fibers must have high strength and high elastic modulus
while the matrix must be ductile and non-reactive with the fibers.
The fibers may be long and continuous or they may be
discontinuous. The matrix serves to transfer the load to the fibers,
to protect the fibers from surface damage and to separate the
individual fibers and blunt cracks which arise from fiber breakage.
Because the fibers and matrix have different elastic moduli, a
complex stress distribution will be developed when a composite
body is loaded uniaxially in the direction of fibers.
Load Transfer
When a fiber-reinforced composite is loaded the matrix acts to
transfer the load to the fibers.The load transferring agent is the bond
between the matrix and the fiber which is represented by the
interfacial shear stress . The existence of the bond strength builds up
stresses in the fibers.The high shear stresses at the ends of the fiber
mean that the metal matrix will flow plastically. In order to fully utilize
the high strength of the fiber it is necessary that the plastic zone in the
matrix not extend from the fiber ends to its midlength before the
strain in the fiber reaches its failure strain
 Fiber-Matrix Interface
The nature of the interfaces in carbon-carbon composites and their
influences on thermo-mechanical properties is extremely complex. A
number of different types of interface may exist in carbon-carbon:
between fibers and matrix, within fiber bundles and between the different
microstructures which may exist within the matrix. The bonds may be
strong or weak chemical links, mechanical interlocking and friction
couplings. The fiber to matrix bonding depends on stresses developed
between the two components as a result of matrix shrinkage during
processing and by differences in thermal expansion. Increases in the
degree of chemical bonding or intimate contact (mechanical interlocking)
have been shown to manifest themselves in high tensile and compressive
strengths in the fiber direction.
If the interface becomes stronger than the matrix itself, then the load
transfer behavior between fiber and matrix will depend on mechanical
properties of the matrix. Poor interfacial bonding will conversely result in
failure at the interface. This has been demonstrated in tensile fractures
showing fibers pulled out of composites without any matrix adhering to
their surface. It is possible to engineer the nature of the Interface by
selection of fiber type, the matrix and processing conditions. A moderately
strong bond is preferred. Two weak an interface impairs stress transfer
from matrix to fibers, whereas too strong a bond may promote damage to
fibers during heat treatment and brittle fracture behavior.
 5. CARBON-CARBON BRAKE DISCS
Functions of brakes in aircrafts:
Provide drag (i.e. frictional torque) to stop the aircraft.
Absorb kinetic energy by converting it into heat.
Hold aircraft stationary against engine thrust.
Act as a structural component to transfer the load to the tyres.
The breaks should operate in Rejected Take-off(RTO) conditions.

Design and breaking Mechanism of Brake discs

 Basic requirements for friction purpose CC Composites are
The material density should be not less than 1.7g/cm3.
A high interlayer strength of the composite is needed, since
discs are in a complex stresses state in course of the breaking
operation.
The friction coefficient of the breaking pair should not be less
than 0.2 and not more than 0.4 and stable enough
The wear of friction elements should not exceed specified
values under any break operating conditions (usually 2-3
m/braking).
The material should have a reliable anti-oxidation protection at
temperature over 1000oC, exerting no adverse effects on friction
and wear characteristics.
The material should have a high thermal conductivity, including
that in the direction perpendicular to the friction surface.
The materials should meet additional requirements in resistance
to damages from vibrations to brake, thermal compatibility with
the housing parts, etc.
Advantages of C-C brake disc
High heat capacity (2.5 times that of steel).
Excellent thermal shock resistance due to high
thermal conductivity & low coefficient of thermal
expansion.
Retention of mechanical strength at elevated
temperatures up to 2500oC (Strength 2 times that of
steel at elevated temperatures)
Low density (3-4 times that of steel).
It doesnt soften or melt at high temperature
provides ability to absorb tremendous amount of heat
without fusing.
Stable frictional characteristics from the start of the
braking to the end of the braking.
Low wear rate due to its self-lubricating capability
Amenable for refurbishment
Chemically inert.
Limitations of C-C Brake Discs
Poor oxidation resistance: Carbon-Carbon brake discs acquire high
temperature in presence of air during breaking action. Thus they
are susceptible of high oxidation rate causing excessive loss of
material. Boudards reaction takes place:
C(s) + O2(g) 2 CO(g)
At low temperatures (below around 600 800oC) oxidation is
controlled by the reaction of oxygen with active sites on the carbon
surface. At higher temperatures the rate-limiting step is the diffusion
of oxygen through the boundary layers to the surface of the
composite.
Low co-efficient of friction in humid conditions:The film formed due
to sintering of particles absorbs moisture during night or in humid
conditions. This reduces the coefficient of friction drastically and
the brakes do not perform properly . To overcome this problem the
aircraft is moved to and fro for some time applying brakes from
time to time. This evaporates the moisture absorbed by raising the
temperature of the breaks. Thus the breaks start functioning
properly after a little exercise. This is often known as morning
sickness.
High Stacking volume: The carbon-carbon brake discs occupy larger
volume as compared to other traditional materials. This poses a
problem of fitting and handling.
 THANK YOU
REFERENCES
Carbon-Carbon Composites, Savage, G. (Gary), ISBN 0-
412-36150-7
Ceramic and Carbon Matrix Composites, V.I. Trefilov,
ISBN 0-412-58510-3
Handbook of Carbon, Graphite, Diamond and
Fullerenes, Hugh O. Pierson, ISBN 0-8155-1399-9
Mechanics of Composite Materials, Autar K. Kaw, ISBN
0-8493-9656-5
Mechanical Metallurgy, George E. Dieter, ISBN 0-07-
100406-8