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Narrativein Comics
2009TheAmerican forAesthetics
Society
elapses in time,and one cannotview a filmfaster word balloons: while literary, theyare also part
or slower(at least,notwithoutfrisky use ofthere- of a picture,a part whose placementis veryde-
motecontrol).Comicsare temporallystatic:while liberatelyselectedby the artist.The wordsthem-
thewordsplace constraints on thetimeittakesto selveswillnot allow thereaderto determinewho
read comics,these constraintsare largelyakin to is speaking.Instead, the proximityof word bal-
those we findin otherliterarymedia like novels. loons to the charactersto whose utterancesthey
The pace ofreadinga comicis literary,constructed correspond,togetherwiththe pictorialdirection-
by the reader.Because of the literarydimension, alityimplied by a balloon's "tail," cue us in to
the reader's eyes and mindplay over the succes- the identityof the speaker.Wordballoons,in ef-
sion of panels at the reader's own speed, rather fect,are an elegantpictorialequivalentofthe"she
than at film'srelentlesstwenty-four framesper said" deviceemployedin literature. But thereis a
second. bit more to it thanthat:word balloons may also,
The literaryaspectsof narrativein comicsare, throughtheirstyleor even color, give pictorial
as we have nowseen,crucialto our waysofunder- cues to the readeras to the mentalstatesand at-
standingcharactersand the narrativesin which titudesof theirutterers(somethingmuch more
they are embedded, particularlytemporalrela- cumbersometo conveyin words).WaltKellywas
tionswithinthestory.And the literarydimension a masterof this technique:by representinghis
seems to shape our readingprocesses.One might P. T. Bridgeportcharacter'swordballoons as cir-
wonder,then,what the picturesare for,anyway. cus posters,Kellyleftno doubtaboutBridgeport's
Given that the literaryelementsare already in comicalpomposityand self-aggrandizement.
place, are the picturesof comicsjust narratively In addition to allowing the reader to deter-
inertbutcharmingaccessories,likeJohnTenniel's mine what is spoken or thoughtby whom,the
drawingsforAlice in Wonderland?Abbott,whose picturethatconstitutesa singlepanel of comics
analysesof thefunctionof wordsin comicsare so has straightforward narrativefunctionsof three
insightful, seems to claim as much: "the subor- kinds.
dinationof the pictorialto the literaryis one of First,a picturecan establishthesettingor scene
the subtlestrealitiesof the medium the comic of a storyand can guide the reader's perception
artdrawing,as a narrativeelement,mustconform ofspatialrelationships withinit.Like establishing
to an orderof perceptionthatis essentiallyliter- shotsin film,some panels serveto givethereader
ary."19I thinkthatsuch views are misplaced;to a sense of the place in whichthe storywillbe oc-
see why,we mustdelve moredeeplyintotheroles curring.22 And panels can show how characters
thepicturesactuallydo playin comics. and otherphysicalobjectsare arrayedin diegetic
space, enablingus to understandthatBatman is
punchingratherthan being punched,thatChar-
III. THE PICTORIAL DIMENSION lie Brown's kite is stuckin a tree,thatthe train
is arrivingat the stationinstead of leaving,and
In workingout theparticularsof thepictorialnar- so on.
rative dimensionof comics,one initialpoint to Second,we acquirenarrativeinformation from
note is that (as I have argued elsewhere) with- the artist'sstyle.The waysin whichthewordbal-
out pictures,there are no comics.20An artwork loons and sound effectsare drawn,togetherwith
composed exclusivelyout of wordsor othernon- characterdesign,inking,and color choices (if ap-
pictorialsymbols,even if these are containedin plicable), serve importantstorytelling purposes.
a sequence of panels,may be comic-like,sharing They allow the artistto create a mood, give the
manyof the same featuresas comics,but it is not emotionalcontextof a scene or story,increaseor
a comic. If I am rightthatcomics are essentially decrease thedramaof a moment,and so on.23
pictorial,it would be quite odd indeed ifthe pic- Third,as I mentionedearlierin passing,a panel
turesplayedno significant role in theirnarratives; can informthe readerpictoriallyabout the emo-
ifthestoryofa comiccouldbe toldjustwithwords, tional and othermentalstates of the characters
therewould be no point in makingit a comic in containedin it,withoutthe use of words.We can
thefirstplace.21 telljust bylookingthattheThingis angry.In fact,
The picturesof comics add somethingto their practicallyspeaking,words may be exceedingly
narratives, but whatis it,exactly?Thinkagain of awkwardin such cases: by and large,it is better
two panels is the same color and make as in the enoughtimeto leave work,changeclothes,go to
earlierpanel, and experiencetellsthereaderthat theball,and so on.
itwouldbe odd indeedforSupermanto putdown The amountof diegetictimethatcan occurbe-
theformercar,finda similarone, and liftitabove tweenpanels is limitedonlyby the artist'simag-
his head in thesame way.No: closuretellsus that inationand technique,togetherwiththe reader's
theseare depictionsofthesame car,justa moment abilityto followtemporalchangesthroughtheex-
in timelater. ercise of closure.In general,more diegetictime
In Westerncomics,thereader'sabilitiesof clo- transpiring in the gutterimpliesmore potential
sureare forthemostpartemployedto makesense difficultyin followinga comic's narrative.Unless
of such transitions.McCloud, in fact,has spent an artistintendsthestoryto be difficult,he or she
considerableeffortcategorizingthe panel transi- is goingto have to leave an abundance of picto-
tionsof comicsintovarioustypes;those in which rial and verbalcues (such as establishingshotsor
onlya smallperiod of timeelapses seem to com- narrativetext)to make closuresuccessfulin such
pose roughly90 percentof cases.31I suspectthat circumstances.
thisis the basic strategyof manycomicsbecause We have seen that the diegetictime thatcan
ofour largelylinearand minimallygappypercep- elapse between panels varies a good deal, but I
tion of time in the real world.We naturallyex- do notwantto givetheimpressionthattimemust
pect images that followeach other immediately elapse. In fact,one of the mostintriguing tempo-
in nondiegeticspace to followeach otherimmedi- ralrelationsbetweenpanelsis whatMcCloud calls
atelyin diegetictime. an "aspect-to-aspect"transition, whereinconsec-
When a comic's artistwantsto tell a storythat utive panels show simultaneousaspects of the
spans a significant diegetictime,thereare several same scene fromdifferent perspectives.34
Aspect-
options. One is to producea vastnumberofpanels to-aspecttransitionsare relativelyuncommonin
that are closely related. This is the strategywe Westerncomics,but verycommonin Manga, the
see in continuitycomics in newspapers,such as Japanesestyleof comics.35Theirpredominantef-
Mark Trailand MaryWorth.Thoughparceledout fect is to give the reader a bettersense of the
in three-or four-panelincrements, these stories space in whichthenarrativetakesplace. Through
stretchon indefinitely, and thereis no limitto the the abilityto perceivewhatclosuretellsus is the
numberofpanels theycan consume.Comic books same scene frommultipleviewpoints,we gain a
are different; thestandardis thirty-two pages long richerunderstandingof setting,becomingmore
(eleven pages of whichare advertisements), and firmlyand profoundlyconnectedto the diegesis
the Supermanstoryin Action Comics No. 1 is a thanis otherwisepossible.
scantthirteen pages,withonlyninety-eight panels. A numberof additionaltechniqueshave been
If the artistswho make these comicswantto tell developed in Westerncomicsand Manga alike to
substantialstoriesthatare at least minimallyself- give the successionof panels anothercrucialnar-
contained,theyneed to allowmorethanan instant rativeability:to portrayspatialas well as tempo-
of diegetictimeto elapse betweenpanels. ral relationships. A singlepanel cannotrepresent
One mechanismforproducingthiseffectis pri- space from more than one perspective,unlessitis,
marilyverbal: narrativetext can indicatethat a atypically, a pictureof a numberof pictures.We
panel happens "later" or "the followingday."32 need a sequence in orderto have a narrativethat
But picturescan do the same workor make the spans different scenes in different
spaces. Simply
narrativetextredundant.In panel forty-six ofAc- getting characters fromone location to another
tion Comics No. 1, Superman,dressed as Clark has to be done throughmultiplepanels, which,
Kent, is conversingwith Lois Lane as she sits again,are woven togetherby the readerthrough
in frontof a typewriter at the Daily Planet; in the processof closure.Readers intuitively under-
panel forty-seven, thetwo ofthemdance at a ball, standthatwhena characteris foundin frontof a
dressed in formaleveningwear.33Even though different background,he or she has relocatedto a
thelatterpanel containsa narrativebox thatreads different space; a reader mentallyrearrangeshis
"That night,"it is obvious fromthe picturesthat or her conceptionof the narrativeto accommo-
a significantportionof timehas elapsed between date thisspatialtransition.
panels.Closure allows thereaderto constructthe Reader perceptionofdiegeticmotionoccursin
time that must have happened in the gutter- a similarfashion.The presenceofa movingobject
narrative
pictorial mediumare hardto comeby, cultivate a morehighbrow orliterary
experience. One other
anditis withgoodreasonthatwe valuetheiroc- quickcomment onnarrativetext:contrarytoGeorgeWilson
currenceincomics.50 ("Le GrandImagierSteps Out," PhilosophicalTopics25
[1997]:295-318,see pp. 299-300),themanycomicswhere
narrative textis useddo seemto be caseswherethereader
HENRY JOHNPRATT is supposedto imaginetheworkas theresultofa fictional
Departmentof Philosophyand ReligiousStudies showing(wheretheworkis boththemeansand theobject
ofrepresentation).
MaristCollege 12. McCloud givessome verygood examplesof how
Poughkeepsie,New York 12601 thisis done:see MakingComics(NewYork:HarperCollins,
internet: henry.pratt@marist.edu 2006),p. 147.
13. Carriergoeswellbeyondthisinsight withhisbaffling
1. David Kunzle,TheEarlyComicStrip(University of assertionthatthought balloonsallowus to solvetheprob-
California Press,1973),p. 2. lemof otherminds{The Aesthetics of Comics,pp. 32-33).
2. Robert C. Harvey,"The Aestheticsof the Comic Thoughtballoonsputatively giveus accessto themindsof
Strip,"Journalof PopularCulture12 (1979): 641-652,see thecharacters in comics,confirming thatthey(fictionally)
p. 641. haveminds.But thesearefictional characters:theproblem
3. David Carrier,TheAesthetics of Comics(Pennsylva- of othermindsis not whetherSuperman(fictionally) has
nia StateUniversity Press,2000),p. 4. a mind,butwhetheranything actualin theuniverseother
4. Greg Haymanand HenryJohnPratt,"What Are thanmehas a mind.
Comics?"in Aesthetics, ed. David Goldblattand Lee B. 14. See MichaelBarrierand MartinWilliams,eds.,A
Brown(Upper Saddle River,NJ: PearsonPrenticeHall, SmithsonianBook of Comic-BookComics (New York:
2005),pp.419-424,at p. 423. Smithsonian Institution
Press,1981),pp.270,284.
5. ScottMcCloud, Understanding Comics(Northamp- 15. McCloud,MakingComics,p. 164.
ton,MA: KitchenSinkPress,1993),p. 9. As we shallsee, 16. LawrenceL. Abbottgivesseveralexcellentillustra-
McCloudhas produceda largeportionof theseriousthe- tionsofthesepossibilities in"ComicArt:Characteristics and
oreticalworkon comics,largelyworking withinthecomics Potentialities of a NarrativeMedium,"Journalof Popular
mediumitself. Culture19 (1986): 155-176,see pp. 164-166.
6. See AaronMeskin,"DefiningComics?"TheJournal 17. Sometimesthis leads to unintentionally hilari-
ofAesthetics and ArtCriticism 65 (2007): 369-379.Meskin ous results:for a good example,see The Unh! Project
givesseveralexamplesofwhathe believesto be nonnarra- at http://members.shaw.ca/tom.t/unh/u43.html (October20,
tivecomicsbyRobertCrumb(see p.372).I amnotsurethat 2007). The website'sauthordescribesthe panel depicted
thecomicshe refersto are nonnarrative: even ifCrumb's thereas follows:"An airplaneflieslowenough,and slowly
storiesdo not make any sense or are about not making enoughso thata guycanjumptothegroundsafely?Andhe's
sense,theyare stillstories.However,one mightfindother kickedinthefaceevenbeforehe lands??Bya womandoing
examplesto supportMeskin'spoint,suchas comicsbythe an incredible bodilycontortion??? And theybothmanage
members oftheFrenchavant-garde collectiveL'OuBaPo. tospitouta fewlinesofdialoguewhileall theaboveisgoing
7. In answeringthese questions,I intendto remain on?"
largelyneutralamongdifferent accountsof the natureof 18. Abbott,"ComicArt,"p. 161.
narrative, withone exception.As we shallsee inthediscus- 19. Abbott,"ComicArt,"p. 156.
sion of closurein SectionIII, I am committed to theidea 20. See Haymanand Pratt,"WhatAre Comics?"
that,at least in comics,narratives are (at least partially) 21. McCloud makesa similarclaim:something is not
constructed bythereader. a comic"if the prose is independent of the pictures ... if
8. For examplesof wordlesscomicsand an argument thewritten storycouldexistwithoutanypicturesand still
againstDavid Carrier'sclaimthatwordballoonsare the be a continuouswhole"; "An Interview(Conversation?)
definitive featureofcomics{TheAesthetics ofComics,p.4), withScottMcCloud,"interview byRobertC. Harvey,The
see Haymanand Pratt,"WhatAre Comics?"p. 421. ComicsJournal 179(1995):53-81,see p.75.Thatthepictures
9. Strictly speaking,we oughtto admitthatbecauseof add to the narrativeis obviouslynot uniqueto comics-a
thepictorialdimension, comicsare notcomprised ofwords pointI shallrevisitlater.
alone,and cannotbe literally read.Though"reading"may 22. McCloud explainsthe role and use of establishing
notbe themostaptwordforthewayinwhichwe encounter shotsincomicsinMakingComics,pp.22-23.
narrative in comics,itdoes havehistory on itsside:comics 23. Forexamples, see McCloud,MakingComics,pp.45-
werefirst publishedin newspapers, a predominantly verbal 51.MikeMignolahasrecently madeextensive useofcolored
mediumthatitis uncontroversial to thinkofas "read."And wordballoons;see Hellboy:Strange Places(Milwaukie, OR:
thefactofthematteris thatwe do nothaveanybetterword Dark HorseBooks,2006).
forourmethodofunderstanding comics. 24. I wishto takeno standhereon whether itis possible
10. Justlike comics,filmsare not literallyread either, forone-panelworks(forexample,TheFamilyCircus,The
evenifthemediummaybe language-like (on thispoint,see FarSide) to be comics.
David Bordwell,Narrationin theFictionFilm[University 25. McCloud,Understanding Comics,p. 63.
ofWisconsin Press,1985],p. 30). 26. McCloud,Understanding Comics,pp.66-67.
11. I have noticedthatnarration of thistypeseemsto 27. The use of 'suture' for comics has some ad-
be increasingly prevalentin comics,witha correspondingly vocates: Bart Beaty,for example,in "The Search for
diminished roleforthought balloons.I suspectthisisdoneto ComicsExceptionalism," The ComicsJournal211 (1999):
67-72, see p. 68. For a paradigmatic accountof suture, typesofmotionlinesand effects in UnderstandingComics,
see Jean-PierreOudart,"Cinema and Suture,"Screen18 pp. 109-114.
(1977/78):35-47.Fora senseof thecontroversy associated 37. McCloud,MakingComics,p. 10.
withsuture,see Bordwell,Narrationin theFictionFilm, 38. See Noel Carroll,"The PowerofMovies,"Daedalus
pp. 110-113. 114(1985):79-103.
28. For a completereprintof this comic,see Bar- 39. Harvey,forone, explainsthe similarities of comics
rierand Williams,A Smithsonian Book of Comic-Book and filmin termsof theirorigins.Early filmmakers and
Comics, pp. 19-31. Alternatively, a full online repro- comicsartists, he relates,conceivedof themselves as being
ductionis available at http://xroads.virginia.edu/~UG02/ presented withthesametask:todepictmotionthrough a se-
yeung/actioncomics/cover.html (September10,2007). The quenceofpictures (see "TheAesthetics oftheComicStrip,"
workwas originally publishedas Jerry SiegelandJoeShus- p. 648).
ter,ActionComicsNo. 1 (DetectiveComics,June1938). 40. McCloud,Understanding Comics,p. 68.
Subsequentreferences willbe to theSmithsonian reprint. 41. McCloud,Understanding Comics,p. 92.
29. BarrierandWilliams, A Smithsonian BookofComic- 42. GregCwikhk,"Understanding theReal Problem,"
Book Comics,p. 27. TheComicsJournal211 (1999):62-66,see p. 62.
30. Ibid. 43. Beaty,"The Search for Comics Exceptionalism,"
31. McCloud,Understanding Comics,pp.75-76.Ninety p. 69.
percentis myestimate;McCloud'sdiagramsare less than 44. Ng Suat Tong,"An Open Debate about Closure,"
precise. TheComicsJournal 111 (1999):77-79.
32. Myfavorite exampleoftextindicating temporal gaps 45. Bordwell,Narration intheFictionFilm,p. 32.
in thediegesiscomesfromRubenBoiling'sTomtheDanc- 46. For moreon enthymemes, see ArthurDanto, The
ing Bug. The titleof one of his "Super-Fun-Pak Comix" Transfiguration of theCommonplace(HarvardUniversity
from2001 (I have been unableto findtheprecisedate) is Press,1981),pp. 169-171.
"40,000Years betweenPanels."Panels one and threeare 47. McCloud'ssomewhat claimisa con-
counterintuitive
depictionsof desolatelandscapes,whilein panel two,one sequenceofhisformal definitionofcomics;see Understand-
cartoonish characteraskstheother,"Butwhydidyoubring ingComics,pp.7-9.
an extrapairofpants?"Thisexampleservesto undermine 48. Art Spiegelman,author of the acclaimed Maus
Carrier'sassertionthatonlya certainamountof timecan comics,toldme in conversation thathe thinksthattheba-
elapse betweenpanels(see TheAesthetics of Comics,pp. sic unitof comicsis not the panel at all, but the page-
51-52). emphasizing theattention thatthecomicsartistmustpayto
33. BarrierandWilliams, A Smithsonian BookofComic- panelconstruction and layout.
Book Comics,p. 24. 49. I am exaggerating slightlyhere.Many comicsare
34. McCloud,Understanding Comics,p. 72. written by one personand drawnby somebodyelse (as I
35. McCloud,Understanding Comics,pp. 80-83. Here, mentionedearlier,Siegel wroteSuperman,whileShuster
McCloud speculatesthataspect-to-aspect transitionsare drewit), and,forpublication, inkedand coloredby addi-
commonin Manga notonlybecausethecomicsare much tionalartists.
longer(thousandsof pages) thancomicsin the Western 50. I owe manythanksto AndreiBuckareff, Joseph
tradition,butalso becauseJapaneseculturefocusesmore Campisi,Kevin Gray,and Ian Hummelfortheirhelpful
strongly on thepresentmomentthanon a linearprogres- comments on previousversionsofthisarticle.Some ofmy
siontowardthefuture. Thereis probablyinteresting work initialmaterialwas developedtogether withGregHayman
to be done to confirm or disconfirm McCloud'samateur inan independent studysupervised byLee B. Brownat The
socioculturalgeneralizations. Ohio StateUniversity in thefallof2000;mygratitude goes
36. McCloudoffersan excellentcatalogueof different to themas well.