Chapter
HEALTH AND DISEASE
9
INTRODUCTION
Anything that disturbs the proper functioning of cells,
tissues and organs will result in the lack of proper
activity of the body or unhealthy body. Thus, health
is considered to be the state of perfect functioning of
body and mind, unhindered by diseases.
A good health is a healthy body with a healthy mind
and healthy attitude.
Health is a state of complete physical, mental and
social well being, and not merely an absence of
disease or infirmity (W.H.O - 1948). Any change
from the normal state that causes discomfort or
disability or impairs the health is called as disease.

Disease

Congenital Aquired

Congenital Diseases are

anatomical or physiological Non-communicable
Communicable
abnormalities present from birth.
They may be caused by These diseases remain
The diseases which are caused confined to the person
A single gene mutation by pathogens (viruses and living who develops them and
(alkaptonuria, phenylketonuria, organisms) and readily spread do not spread to others.
albinism, sickle-cell anaemia, from the infected to the healthy
haemophilia, colour blindness). persons are called communicable
Chromosomal aberrations or infectious diseases. It can
(Downs syndrome, Klinefelters sefransmitted directly by contact
syndrome, Turners syndrome) with infected person, droplet
or Environmental factors (cleft infection, contact with soil, animal
palate, harelip). bites, through placento, etc and
indirectly by vectors, vehicle-
born method (AIDs) or Air-borne
method.
C-142 Biology

Handy Facts
Father of Medicine : Hippocrates. He gave scientific explanation of disease first time.
Father of Surgery: Susruta. He used non-poisonous leeches as an anticoagulant during surgery.
Father of Ayurveda : Charaka (Ayu Life, Veda Knowledge). He first gave concept of diges-
tive, metabolism and immunity.
Father of Modern Pathology : Rudolf Virchow.
Father of Immunity : Edward Jenner (Small pox vaccine).
Father of Blood grouping : C. Landsteiner.
Father of Modern Bacteriology : Robert Koch (Anthrax, T.B., Cholera)
Nobel Prize for odourent receptor (olfaction) is given to Richard Axel and Linda B.Buck.
World health day 7th April.
Laveran (1880) discovered malarial parasite in blood of malaria patient.
Pfeiffer (1892) proposed that malaria is spread by blood sucking insect.
Discovery of Plasmodium and its transmission by Anopheles (female) was confirmed by Ronald
Ross (1897).
Immunology is the science of development of immunity against particular pathogen.
The foundations of science of immunology were discovered by workers-Edward Jenner (1796),
Louis Pasteur (1879) and Von Behring (1841).
Edward Jenner (1796) He gave the term vaccination for this process.
Louis Pasteur: He discovered the process of inactivating the pathogen & prepared vaccines for an-
thrax, cholera, rabies.
Von Behring : Von Behring is known as Father of passive immunization.
Communicable Disease
Depending upon the type of causative agent communicable disease are the following types - bacterial,
viral, rickettsial, spirochaetal, protozoan, fungal and helminthes etc.
Table : Bacterial Diseases in Human
S. No. Disease Pathogen Main Symptoms
1. Cholera Comma shaped -Vibrio comma Severe diarrhoea and vomiting
(Haiza) (V.cholerae)
2. Pneumonia Diplococcus or Streptococcus Sudden chill, chest pain, difficulty in
pneumoniae breathing
3. Typhoid Rod like motile Salmonella typhi Constant fever
4. Tetanus (Lockjaw) Clostridium tetani Painful muscular spasms and paralysis
5. Diphtheria Corynebacterium diphtheriae Sore throat, difficulty in breathing
(gram + ve)
6. Whooping cough Bordetella pertussis or Severe coughing, characteristic gasping
(pertussis) Haemophilus pertussis whoop
7. Tubercuslosis Mycobacterium tuberculosis (rod Cough, bloody sputum, chest pain, loss
shaped).. of weight
8. Plague (Also called Pasteurella pestis Painful pubo of lymph nodes
black death)
9. Leprosy Mycobacterium leprae Hypopigmented skin patches, ulcers,
(Discovered by deformity of digits
Hansen)
10. Syphilis Treponema pallidium Lesions, ulcers on genitalia
11. Gonorrhoea Neisseria gonorrhoeae Burning sensation in micturition
12. Diarrhoeal diseases Shigella dysenteriae, Salmonella, Food poisoning abdominal cramps,
Escherichia coli, Campylobacter diarrhoea.
Health and Disease C-143

Viral Diseases
Viral diseases are transmitted by contact fomite and droplet method. Types of viral disease are-influen-
za, small pox, etc.
Table : Viral Diseases in Humans
S.No. Disease Pathogen Main Symptoms
1. Influenza Myxovirus Nasal discharge, sneezing, coughing, fever,
(Flu) Influenzae body ache
2. Smallpox (highly Variola virus Skin rash changing to pustules, then to scabs
contagious disease)
3. Chicken pox Varicella zoster Skin sores that open & emit fluid
(DNA virus)
4. Measles Rubella virus Fever, inflammation of nasal mucous membrane,
loss of appetite. Red watery eyes, skin rash
5. Rabies (Hydrophobia) Rabies virus Biting behaviour, fear of water, inability to
swallow. Severe headache.
6. Mumps (Infectious Paramyxo virus Painful enlargement of parotid glands, diffi-
parotitis) culty in opening mouth
7. Poliomyelitis (polio) Polio virus Inflammation of nervous system, muscle
(Highly infectious disease shrinkage, limb paralysis
of infants and childrens)
8. Trachoma Chlamydia Granules on inner surface of eyelids, watery
trachomatis eyes
9. Dengue Arbo virus (RNA) Mild conjunctivitis, high fever, backache,
nausea vomiting etc.
10. Yellow fever Arbo virus Headache, vomiting, fever, rupture of veins in
kidney, spleen, liver etc.
11. Hepatitis (Epidemic Infectious & serum Jaundice due to damaged liver cells
jaundice) hepatitis viruses
(A, B, C, D & E)
Hepatitis A (also called A virus Hepatic anorexia
catarrhal jaundice) resulting in liver damage
Hepatitis B B virus Swelling of liver cells

Hepatitis C C-virus

Hepatitis D Infection of Same as those of hepatitis B

D-virus
and B-virus
Hepatitis E Similar to those of hepatitis A
C-144 Biology

Protozoan disease
Disease Causative agent Symptom
1 Malaria Plasmodium (female It results in anaemia, toxaenia and splenomegaly.
anopheles as vector) Antimalarial drugs are quinine, chloroquine etc.
Dalaprim drug kills the parasitic stages present in
both liver cells and RBCs of blood.
2 Amoebiasis Entamoeba histolytica It is characterized by abdominal pain alternating
diarrhoea and constipation etc Entamoeba secretes
cytolysin that erodes the mucous membrane of intestine.
3 Giardiasis (Black Giardia intestinalis Infection is transmitted by contamination of cysts with
Peppers diseases) food and drinks. It is characterized by mild diarrhoea.
4 Kalazar (dum-dum Leishmania (Sand fly It is characterized by fever and enlargement of visceral
fever) as vector) donovani organs.
5 Ciliary dysentery Balantidum coli It causes ulcers in the colon and invades mucous
(Balantidlasis) membrane by secreting an enzyme hyalurodinase.
Thus generally results in diarrhoea. Tetracycline or
lodoquinol are effective treatment.
6 Tryanosomiasis Trypanoma It is characterized by high fever, swelling of neck and
armpit, weakness, anaemia, lethargy, unconsciousness
etc.
Gambian fever T. gambiense
East african sleeping T. Rhodesiense
sickness T.Cruzi (spread by
Chagas south american panstrongilus sp)
sleeping sickness.
Helminthus diseases
Filariasis or Wucheria bancrofti Symptoms include fever, proliferation of endothelial
Elephantiasis (Aedes mosquito or cells and deposition of metabolites in the wall of
culex as vector) lymph vessels.
Taeniasis Taenia solium It is characterized by abdominal pain, indigestion, loss
of appetite, nausea etc.
Cysticercosis larva of Taenia causes cysticercosis which
causes damage to different body parts, blindness etc.
Ascariasis Ascaris lumbricoides It is characterized by colic pain, indigestion, diarrhoea,
(flies and cockroaches vomiting, weakness etc.
as vector) Scratch test, dermal test and stool test can be done to
detect the round worm infection.
Enterobiasis or Enteriopius It causes anal itching, appendicitis, nervous problem.
Oxyuris vermicularis
Ancyclostomiasis Ancylostoma Symptoms include chronic blood loss, depletion of
duodenae bodys iron stores leading to anaemia, inflammation
of skin etc.
Schist osomiasis Schistosoma It is found in urinary bladder, blood vessels and causes
haematobium itching, rashes, aches, fever etc.
(Snail as Vector)
Health and Disease C-145

Table : Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STD) in Human

S. Disease Causative organism Symptoms-Treatment
No.
1. AIDS Retrovirus HIV Enlarged lymph nodes, long fever, weight loss Nil
2. Genital Herpes Herpes simplex virus Painful ulcer on genitals Nil
3. Genital warts Human papilloma virus Tumor of the vulva, vagina, anus and penis Nil
(HPVs)
4. Gonorrhoea Neisseria gonorrheae Infection of all genital organs or PID Penicillin
5. Chlamydiasis Chlamydia trachomatis White patches on vagina or PID Nystatin
6. Syphilis Treponema pallidum Cancer and skin eruption Benzene and Penicillin
7. Trichomoniasis Trichomonas vaginalis Greenish-yellow vaginal dischargeMetronidazole.
8. Chancroid Haemophilus ducreyi Foul discharge and ulcer, Drug : Sulphonamide
9. Lymphogranu- Lymphogranuloma Inguinal lymphadenopathy, Drug : Tetracycline
loma venerum psittacosis bacteria

Non-Communicable Diseases which is excessive concentration of glucose in the

blood. It primarily a result of relative or complete
The main non-communicable diseases are diabetes,
lack of insulin secretion by the cells of islets of
inflammatory diseases of joints such as arthritis,
Langerhans in pancreas.
gout, cardiovascular diseases and cancer.
Arthritis
Diabetes Mellitus
Arthritis is any inflammatory condition of the joints
Diabetes is characterized by chronic hyperglycemia
characterized by pain and swelling.

Arthritis

Rheumatoid arthritis Osteoarthritis Gout

It is characterized by inflamma-
tion of the synovial membrane.
It is kind of rheumatoid arthritis
that occurs in younger people
is Stills disease, and usually
starts in the small joints in the the bones at the joint stops. The that increases production or
hand and progress to other body
joints.
It is a common disease among Gout results from accumulation
the elderly persons resulting from of uric acid crystals in the
erosion of articular cartilage. In synovial joints. It is a disease
osteoarthritis, the secretion of associated with an inborn
lubricating synovial fluid between error of uric acid metabolism
joints become inflammed, its interferes with the excretion
movement becomes painful and of uric acid. It is very painful,
its function is diminished. It is particularly at night and make
common in old person, mainly movement difficult. Gout
affecting weight bearing joints. generally affects the great toe.
C-146
Cardiovascular Diseases
Cardiovascular diseases refer to a number of
diseases associated with the blood vascular
system.
Some major cardiovascular diseases are rheu-
matic heart disease, hypertensive heart dis-
ease and coronary heart disease.
CANCER
Cancer is an abnormal and uncontrolled division of
cells, known as cancer cells, that invade and destroy
the surrounding tissues.
Neoplasm (called tumor) is a new abnormal tissue ic transformation. These agents are called
which is capable of continued growth. Tumors may
be benign and malignant.
Tumor
Benign Melignant
Benign tumor is a Malignant tumor is
large localized mass not encapsulated and
of abnormal tissue is capable of invading
enclosed in connective adjacent tissues and
tissue which does not distant sites.
invade adjacent tissue.
Symptoms of Cancer
Thickening or lump in the breast or any other
part of the body.
Changes in bowel or bladder habits.
Indigestion of difficulty in swallowing.
Unexplained changes in weight.
Types of Cancer
Types of cancer are carcinoma, sarcoma, leukemia
and lymphoma.
(i) Carcinoma is a cancer of epithelial tissue and
their derivatives like mucous membrane, skin,
lungs, breast etc.
(ii) Sarcoma is a cancer of primitive mesodermal
tissue like connective tissue, bone, muscle,
lymph nodes etc.
(iii) Leukemia is a blood cancer. It involves in-
creased WBC count of blood due to increased
formation in the blood marrow resulting in de-
creased erythropoiesis and RBC count.
(iv) Bone marrow grafting is used for the treatment
of leukemia.
Biology
(iv) Lymphomas affect lymphatic system.
Causes of Cancer
Chemical or physical agents that can cause
cancer are known as carcinogen.
Depending on their mode action, carcinogens
fall into the following main categories:
(i) Agents that can cause alterations in the
genetic material (DNA), resulting in on-
cogenic transformation.
(ii) Agents that promote the proliferation of
cells, which have already undergone ge-
netic alterations responsible for oncogen-
tumour promoter, e.g. some growth fac-
tors and hormone.
(iii) Cancer causing DNA and RNA viruses
(tumour viruses) have been shown to be
associated with oncogenic transforma-
tion.
Transformation of a normal cell into cancer
cell if the regulation is upset.
Treatment
Surgery : By removing the entire cancerous tis-
sue and infected lymph nodes.
Radiation: Cobalt therapy (Co-60), X-rays ra-
diations are given. These radiations destroy the
rapidly dividing cells.
Chemotherapy: Anti-cancerous drugs (like:
Vincristine (weed - Cantharanthus roseus =
Vinca rosea); Vinblastin (weed - Cantharan-
thus roseus = Vinca rosea); (Cyclophospha-
mide) inhibit the DNA synthesis in cell cycle
of cancerous cell but this has side effects.
Most of cancer are treated by combination
therapy of surgery, radiation and anti cancer-
ous drug.
AIDS
AIDS (Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syn-
drome) is a chronic life threatening disorder
which damages the human bodys immune
system. It is caused by HIV (human immuno-
deficiency virus) which belong to retrovirus
(group of RNA virus) The HIV can only sur-
vive in body fluids like blood, semen, vaginal
secretion etc.
Health and Disease C-147

HIV is transmitted through body fluids by- Viral load test measures the amount of virus in
Sexual contact (most common mode of trans- the blood which will help in determining the
mission) (Probability < 1 %), blood contact probable progression of the disease.
(100%), and By mother to child by placenta
(33%), By mother milk Treatment
Drugs used are -
HIV is not transmitted through - ordinary con-
AZT (Azidothymidine) or Zidowdine
tact (hugging, dancing, talking, touching etc.)
with someone who has HIV or AIDS; sweat, DDI (Dideoxyinosine)
tears or saliva etc. The major cell affected by Foscarnet
HIV is the helper-T-lymphocyte. These drugs inhibit the enzyme of HIV.
Highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART)
The HIV virus multiplies and slowly begins to
is a combination of three or more antiretrovi-
destroy the CD4 lymphocyte (T cells or helper
T-cells) ral agents (called triple therapy or HAART),
which has been highly effective in reducing the
AIDS was first recognised in Hatai (USA) in
number of HIV particles in the blood stream
1981 among a group of young homosexuals
and as a result increase the CD4 count.
who were addicts of heroin and other narcotics.
AIDS includes 3 phases-
(i) Asymptomatic phase - Initially within
IMMUNE SYSTEM
2-12 weeks there is no antibody produc- System which protect the body from disease is
tion so infectivity of patients or active- called immune system.
ness of virus is maximum in this period. The immune system consisting several organs
This period is called window period (No as well as WBC in blood and lymph has the job
specific symptom appear in this phase so of fighting off invading pathogens and prevent-
ELISA test is negative in window peri- ing growth and spread of cancers.
od.) Lymphoid organs are those organs where ori-
Low grade fever, body aches, sore throat. gin and maturation and proliferation of lym-
(ii) AIDS related complex (A.R.C.) - 3 to 6 phocyte occur.
weeks The primary lymphoid organs are bone mar-
It is characterized by Diarrhoea, Weight
row and thymus.
loss (> 1 0%), Cough, Generalised
Bone marrow manufactures the billions of
lymphadenopathy and Fever.
WBC needed by the body every day. Some
(iii) Full blown AIDS In this patient become
newly produced WBC remain in the bone mar-
fully immune deficient and T-Iympho-
cytes or CD4 count is less than 200 106 row to mature and specialize and while others
/ litre. travel to the thymus to mature.
Secondary lymphoid organs includes lym-
Investigation phnodes adenoids tonsils, spleen, peyers
patches (within intestine) and the appendix.
Screening test is Enzyme Linked Immuno sor-
bent assay (E.L.I.S.A.) . Acquired Immunity
Confirmatory tests : Western blot test Detects
antibodies (proteins) in patients serum. It is the resistance that an individual acquires
ELISA is a technique which can detect and during life. This is generated in response to an
even quantitate extremely small amount of a exposure to the micro-oganism in question.
protein, antibodies or antigens with the help This type of immunity is founds only in ver-
of enzymes. The commonly used enzymes are tebrates. It is also called adaptive or specific
peroxidases and alkaline phosphatase. immunity. This immunity is aquired after birth
Western blot test is the culturing of blood and by experience and recognises and selectively
testing plasma for virus. eliminate the pathogen.
C-148 Biology

Features of acquired immunity are: Specificity Venom (poison): Toxic substances secreted by
and Diversity
Some terms related to immune system
are
Immunity: Resistance of the body against a
pathogen or disease.
Antigen or Agglutinogen : Proteinous sub-
stance which stimulates the production of
antibodies.
Antibody: It is a complex glycoprotein se-
creted by B-lymphocytes in response to an
antigen. It is also called agglutinin.
Antiserum: Serum of any animal which con-
tains the antibody for a specific antigen.
snake and some insect.
Interferons (discovered by Issacs and Linder-
mann) are produced against viral infection.
The complement system plays an important
role in host defence against infectious agents
and in the inflammatory response.
Body temperature rise causes fever, fever is
caused by the release of chemical called pyro-
gen from damaged tissues.
Interferons (discovered by Issacs and Linder-
mann) are produced against viral infection.
The complement system plays an important
role in host defence against infectious agents
and in the inflammatory response.

Antibiotics Microbial source Action Discoverer

Penicillin Penicillium notatum Inhibits growth of pnumeococus, Sir Alexander

and p. chrysogenum streptococcus, Gonococcus Flemking (1928)

Streptomycin Streptomyces griseus Active against acid-fast and gram-negative Waksman (1942)
bacilli, cuu pulmonary tuberculosis

Chloromycetin S. venezuelae Broad spectrum against bacterial and rick- Burkholder

ettsial infection, viral psittacosis (1947)

Tetracyclin S. taxes Resemble the spectrum of chlorotetracyclin

Enythrmycin S. crythraeus Bacteriastatic to Gram-positive and some Clerk (1953)

Gram-negative organisms that are resistant
to penicillin

Griseofulvin Penicillium Inhibits growth of most of the fungi but not

griseofulvum of bacteria, used in rignworm treatment

Actinomycin Acinomycetes Some saprophytic bacteria can kill anthrax Pasteur an

bacterium Jaubert

Discrimination between self and non- memory of this encounter remain in im-
self : It can recognise self (body or tissue) mune system.
and non self (foreign tissue) and respond When this pathogen enters second time inside the
according to them. body, body immune system rapidly recognise this
Memory: When a pathogen enter inside pathogen and respond quickly to it. This is called
the body, body takes longer times to rec- secondary immune response. This is based on
ognise and respond to it. This is called memory of immune system.
primary immune response but the
Health and Disease C-149

Aquired immunity

Active acquired immunity Passive aquired immunity

Resistance developed by an It is received passively by host without participation or contribution
individual as a result of an from hosts immune system. Immunological memory is absent here
antigenic stimulus. and the readymade antibodies are given in immuno suppressive
individual.

Natural Artificial Natural Artificial

Results from a Resistances induced
clinical or inapparents by vaccine. Vaccines
infection by a micro- are prepared by live
organism. or killed micro-
organism or their
products and is used
for immunisation.
Resistance passively Resistance passively transferred
transferred from mother to a recepient by administration
to baby. Mother milk of antibodies.
gives passive immunity Examples :
to the new born child by Human immunological
colostrum (first mother administration.
milk). Anti - Tetanus serum (ATS)Anti
- rabies serum (ARS)
Anti - diptheria serum (ADS)

Types of Active Immune System

Cell Mediated Immune System (CMIS) or Cellular Immunity
This immune system is based on T-cells (60-70%) with antigen specific receptors on their surfaces.
Table : Cells of Immune System
Cell Type Function
Helper T Cell Assists the immune process by helping other cells in the immune system to
achieve an efficient immune response.
Cytotoxic T Cell Detects and kills infected body cells recruited by helper T cells.
Suppressor T Cell Guards against the overproduction of antibodies and overactivity of cytotoxic T cells.
Memory cell Remembers the original stimulation by the immune system and remains in the
lymphoid tissue.
Natural killer cell The lymphocyte without receptor site and help to attack and neutralize virus-infected
(NK) and tumor cells.
B Cell Precursor of plasma cell, specialized to recognize a specific foreign antigen.
Plasma cell Biochemical factory devoted to the production of antibodies directed against a spe-
cific antigen.
Mast cell Initiator of the inflammatory response which aids the arrival of leucocytes at a site of
infection, secretes histamine and is important in allergic response.
Monocyte Precursor of macrophage.
Macrophage The bodys first cellular line of defence; also serves as antigen presenting cell to B
and T cells and engulfs antibody covered cells.
C-150 Biology

Antibody Mediated Immune System Antigen binding Antigen binding site

(A.M.I.S.) or humoral immunity : site N
Antibody or immunoglobulin are complex
glycoprotein molecule made up of 4 polypep-
tide chains-two light and two heavy chains.
These two chain held together by disulphide Light chain
bond in shape of Y molecule.
Two tips of this molecule bind with antigen (large
Heavy chain
and complex foreign molecules mainly proteins that
activate the specific immunity) like lock and key
fashion and make antigen-antibody complex. C C

Table : Type of antibodies

S. Group of Main Characters and occurrence Functions
No. Antibodies
1. IgA The primary antibodies present in colostrum, Protection of mucous membranes and
M.W 1,70,000: present in saliva, mucus and outer surface of body and protection
other secretions. from inhaled ingested pathogens.
2. IgD Present in trace amount on the surface of Activation of B-lymphocytes and
lymphocytes in blood. M.W 1,85,000. development and maturation of
immune reactions.
3. IgE Present in very small quantities, show specific Stimulation of mast cells. Related to
linkage with mast cells and basophils, M.W. allergic reactions and protection from
1,88,000 parasites.
4. IgG Most abundantly found antibodies, main Stimulate the complementary system,
immunoglobulin of blood and interstitial provide immune power to human
fluid which has capacity to pass through embryo and specific linkage with
placenta, M.W.1 ,46,000 (lightest) phagocytic cells for phagocytosis.
5. IgM Oldest and first antibody generated in First line of defence against bacteria,
response to antigens, present in blood plasma perfection of agglutination, related to
(80% ) and interstitial fluids and largest sized complement system.
immunoglobulin with pentameric form,
M.W. 9,60,000 (heaviest)
Allergy or hypersensitivit is the excessive im- orally or injected to provide immunity for that
mune response to common antigens. These pathogen.
antigens are present on / in certain substances Principle of vaccination is based on memory
called allergens (e.g. dust, pollen, moulds, cer- of immune system. When a antigenic material
tain foods, some medicines) is injected in a healthy person, it generate anti-
Allergy involves mainly Ig E antibodies and bodies and memory cell as a primary immune
histamine response. When this active pathogen enter sec-
Antihistamine is a medicine that gives relief ond time inside this body of vaccinated person,
from allergy. memory cells rapidly recognise and respond
with massive production of lymphocytes and
Vaccination and Immunisation antibodies. So it destroys pathogen rapidly and
disease does not appear. Person become resis-
Vaccine is suspension of inactivated pathogens tant for that disease after vaccination.
or antigenic protein of pathogen which is taken
Health and Disease C-151

Vaccines

First generation Second generation Third generation

These vaccines are Second generation vaccines: Antigenic polypeptides These are highly
prepared by inactivating of pathogens are produced with recombinant potent, synthetic in
the whole pathogen but DNA technology in transgenic organisms. These nature & prepared
they have side effects, are made by multiplication of surface antigen by by genes. They are
e.g. Oral polio vaccine genetic engineering. They have no side effects. also called DNA
(OPV), DPT. E.g. Hepatitis B vaccine produced from transgenic vaccine.
yeast.

Table : Some Important Vaccines

S. No. Name of Vaccine Used for treatment of
1. B.C.G. Tuberculosis
2. Cholera vaccine Cholera
3. Mumps vaccine (MMR) Mumps, Measles & Rubella
4. Oral Polio Vaccine (OPV) Polio, 1st dose given when child is 3 months old. Booster dose is
given after 1 year
5. Rubella vaccine German measles and small pox
6. Rubeolla vaccine Measles
7. Tetanus toxoid (TT) Tetanus
8. Toxoid serum Diphtheria
9. Typhoid vaccine (TAB) Typhoid (Typhoid & Paratyphoid)
10. Triple Antigen (DPT) Diphtheria, tetanus and whooping cough, Ist dose given when
(Diphtheria, Pertussis Tetanus) child is 3 months old. Booster dose at 2 years.

DRUGS AND ALCOHOL ABUSE that this behaviour interferes with the alcohol-
ics normal personal, family, social life.
Drug abuse is defined as self administration
Alcohol decreases the activity of CNS thereby
of a drug for nonmedical reasons. Abused drug
include anabolic steroids, analgesics and anti- reducing anxiety, tensions and inhibitions.
biotics. Alcohol decreases the secretion of ADH from
Drugs are classified on the basis of their mode posterior pituitary gland causing increased
of action on brain into two categories- urine output.
Psychoactive or psychotropic drugs In the liver, alcohol is converted into a more
Psychedelic or hallucinogenic drugs. toxic substance acetaldehyde which is used for
Psychoactive drugs are also called as mood energy by the cells.
altering or neurological drugs. Liver synthesizes fat from the alcohol, the ex-
Psychedelic drugs produce psychological ef- tra fat decreases the production of enzymes and
fects like illusious and hallucinations. structural proteins.
Four categories of psychoactive drugs are- The accumulation of fats results in fatty liver
sedative and tranquillizers, opiate narcotics; syndrome, leading to cirrhosis (replacement of
stimulants and hallucinogens. liver cells by fibrous tissue)
Alcoholism is the consumption of or preoccu- Alcohol addiction lowers blood sugar levels,
pation with alcoholic beverages to the extent adversely affecting the brain.
C-152 Biology

Tobacco is the dried leaves of the plant Nico- One of the common cancer attributed to ciga-
tiana tabacum and N. rustica. rette smoking is lung cancer.
Nicotine is the substance that causes addiction the withdrawal symptoms include irritability,
to tobacco. anxiety, craving, sleep problems, headache and
Nicotine is highly poisonous, nicotine present lethargy. It may continue for 4-6 weeks and
craving may continue for many months.
in a cigarette is sufficient to kill a person if in-
Some of the important measures for the pre-
fection intravenously. vention and control of alcohol and drug abuse
Nicotine - stimulates passage of nerve impulse, among adolescents are as follows-
causes muscles to relax and causes increased (i) drug education and counselling program.
heart rate. (ii) Looking for danger signs.
Tobacco smoke contains carbon monoxide, (iii) Avoid undue peer pressure.
polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and tar. (iv) Seeking help from parents and peers.
The main harmful effects of smoking are respi- (v) Seeking professional and medical help.
ratory diseases and cardiovascular disease. (vi) Enforcing stronger laws and penalities.
Table : Categories of Psychotropic Drugs, their Effects and Clinical uses.
Type of drug Examples Effects Clinical Uses
Sedatives and Barbiturates Benzodiazepines Depress brain activity and produce Hypnotic,
tranquilizers (e.g., Valium) feelings of calmness, relaxation, antianxiety
(depressent) drowsiness and deep sleep (high
doses)
Opiate Opium, morphine, heroin, Suppress brain function, relieve Analgesic
narcotics pethidine, methadone intense pain (physical and mental),
produce temporary euphoria
Stimulants Caffeine (very mild), Stimulate the nervous system; make Weight control
amphetamines (including a person more wakeful, increase Neurotic
dexamphetamine), cocaine and alertness and activity, produce (Depressive)
its derivative, Novacaine excitement. disorder
Hallucinogens LSD, mescaline, psilocybin, Alter thought, feelings and None
charas, hashish, marijuana perceptions; hallucinations.
(bhang)

EXERCISE
1. Passive immunity was discovered by 3. The malignant tertian malaria is caused by
(a) Robert Koch (a) Plasmodium vivax
(b) L. Pasteur (b) Plasmodium falciparum
(c) Edward Jenner (c) Plasmodium ovale
(d) Eemil Von Behring (d) Plasmodium malaria
2. The term antibiotic was coined by 4. Black death is related with
(a) Alexander fleming (a) plague
(b) Edward Jenner (b) cancer
(c) Louis Pasteur (c) tuberculosis
(d) Selman waksman (d) measles
Health and Disease C-153

5. Column-I Column-II (a) A-P; B-Q; C-R; D-S

(Drug/Cure) (Diseases) (b) A-P; B-R; C-Q; D-S
A. Streptomycin P. Viral Disease (c) A-S; B-Q; C-S; D-R
B. Chloroquine Q. Diabetes Mellitus (d) A-S; B-Q; C-R; D-P
C. Penicillin R. Disease caused by 11. Column I Column II
Bacteria A. Edward Jenner P. heredity
D. insulin S. Malaria B. Chromosomes Q. budding
(a) A-R; B-S; C-P; D-Q C. Penicillin R. protein biosynthesis
(b) A-R; B-S; C-Q; D-P S. smallpox vaccine
(c) A-R; B-Q; C-P; D-S T. cell membrane
(d) A-P; B-Q; C-R; D-S
U. binary fission
6. Column-I Column-II
V. antibiotics
(Microbes) (Disease)
Select the correct alternative.
A. Airborne P. Malaria
B. Water-borne Q. Cold (a) A-V; B-P; C-Q (b) A-S; B-P; C-V
C. Vector-borne R. Diarrhoea (c) A-V; B-T; C-S (d) A-S; B-Q; C-U
(a) A-P; B-Q; C-R (b) A-P; B-R; C-Q 12. Find out true statement.
(c) A-Q; B-R; C-P (d) A-Q; B-P; C-R (a) The immune system is related with the
7. Column-I Column-II protection of body.
A. Small pox P. Bacteria (b) Vaccines are small dose of alive virus
B. Cholera Q. Virus and bacteria.
C. Malaria R. Deficiency of (c) Low blood pressure is an infectious disease.
minerals (d) None of these
D. Anaemia S. Female mosquito 13. Find out true statement.
(a) A-S; B-Q; C-R; D-P (a) Chronic diseases last for short periods
(b) A-Q; B-P; C-S; D-R of time.
(c) A-S; B-R; C-Q; D-P (b) Hyper secretion of insulin results in
(d) A-R; B-S; C-P; D-Q diabetes mellitus.
8. Which one of the following statement is not a (c) Pulse polio immunisation programme was
property of cancerous cells? launched in 1995.
(a) They divide in an uncontrolled manner (d) None of these
(b) They show contact inhibition 14. Choose the wrong statement
(c) They compete with normal cells for vital (a) High blood pressure is caused by excessive
nutrients weight and lack of exercise,
(d) They do not remain confined in the area
(b) Cancers can be caused by genetic
of formation
abnormalities
9. Select the correct statement.
(c) Peptic ulcers are caused by eating acidic
(a) Cocaine is given to patients after surgery
as it stimulates recovery. food
(b) Barbiturates when given to criminals make (d) Acne in not caused by staphylococci
them tell the truth 15. Vaccination was first invented by
(c) Morphine is often given to persons who (a) Marshall (b) Warren
have undergone surgery as a pain killer (c) Jenner (d) None of these
(d) Chewing tobacco lowers blood pressure 16. Protozoans cause these diseases except
and heart rate (a) malaria (b) typhoid
10. Column-I Column-II (c) kala azar (d) leishmaniasis
(Diseases) (Causes) 17. DPT vaccine stands for
A. Hepatitis P. Worms (a) diphtheria, polio & tuberculosis
B. Leprosy Q. Bacteria (b) diphtheria, pertussis & tuberculosis
C. Food poisoning R. Fungi (c) diphtheria, polio & tetanus
D. Ascariasis S. Virus (d) diphtheria, pertussis and tetanus
C-154 Biology

18. Which Vector Spread the yellow fever disease? Select the correct answer by using the codes
(a) Musca sp (b) Anopheles sp given below:
(c) Culex sp (d) Aedes aegypti Codes:
19. Which of the following is an air-borne disease? (a) 2 and 4 (b) 1 and 2
(a) Tuberculosis (b) Cholera (c) 2 and 3 (d) 1 and 3
(c) Jaundice (d) Brain fever 27. Consider the following statements.
20. Which of the following is a communicable AIDS -is transmitted [CSAT 1996]
disease? 1. By sexual intercourse
(a) Phenylketoneuria (b) Cancer 2. By blood transfusion
(c) Rabies (d) Alkaptonuria 3. By mosquitoes and other blood sucking
21. Penicillin is a drug that can insects
4. Across the placenta
(a) interfere in the biological pathway of
(a) 1, 2 and 3 are correct
bacteria
(b) 1, 2 and 4 are correct
(b) an antibiotic that can kill bacteria
(c) 1, 3 and 4 are correct
(c) interfere in the biological pathways of (d) 1 and 3 are correct
virus 28. People drinking water from a shallow hand
(d) None of the above pump, are likely to suffer from all of the
22. Which of the following disease is confirmed by following diseases except [CSAT 1996]
widal test? (a) Cholera (b) Typhoid
(a) Tuberculosis (b) Typhoid (c) Jaundice (d) Fluorosis
(c) Plague (d) Tetanus 29. The major chemical compound found in kidney
23. Athletes Foot is a disease caused by stones is : [CSAT 1996]
[CSAT 2001] (a) urea (b) calcium carbonate
(a) Bacteria (b) Fungus (c) calcium oxalate (d) calcium sulphate
(c) Protozoan (d) Nematode 30. List- I List-II [CSAT 1997]
24. It begins as a single cell and grows into a A. Malaria 1. Bone marrow
merciless disease that claims millions of lives B. Filaria 2. Brain
year after year. But scientists are steadily C. Encephalitis 3. Muscle
unlocking its mysteries and the fight against it, D. Leukaemia 4. Lymph node
may now have reached a dramatic turning point. 5. Blood cells
New discoveries promise better therapies and (a) A 5; B 3; C 2; D 1
hope in the war against..... The disease referred (b) A 5; B 4; C 2; D 1
to in the above quotation is [CSAT 1995] (c) A 4; B 3; C 5; D 1
(a) Cancer (d) A 5; B 4; C 1; D 2
31. Antigen is a substance which [CSAT 1997]
(b) AIDS
(a) lowers body temperatures
(c) Tuberculosis
(b) destroys harmful bacteria
(d) Alzheimers disease
(c) triggers the immune system
25. According to the World Health Organisation (d) is used as an antidote to poison
(WHO), the disease which causes the death of 32. List- I List-II [CSAT 1998]
the largest number of people today is
(Disease) (Organism)
[CSAT 1996]
A. Malaria 1. Fungi
(a) AIDS (b) Tuberculosis
B. Poliomyelitis 2. Bacteria
(c) Malaria (d) Ebola
26. Which of the following are associated with C. Tuberculosis 3. Virus
Diabetes mellitus, a common disease in adults ? D. Ringworm 4. Protozoan
1. Higher sugar level in blood [CSAT 1996] (a) A-4; B-3; C-2; D-1
2. Lower sugar level in blood (b) A-4; B-3; C-1; D-2
3. Lower insulin level in blood (c) A-3; B-4; C-1; D-2
4. Higher insulin level in blood (d) A-3; B-4; C-2; D-1
Health and Disease C-155

33. Haemophilia is a genetic disorder which leads 2. Retro-orbital pain is not a symptom of
to [CSAT 1998] dengue.
(a) decrease in haemoglobin level 3. Skin rash and bleeding from nose and
(b) rheumatic heart disease gums are some of the symptoms of dengue.
(c) decrease in WBC Which of the statements given above is/are
(d) non-clotting of blood correct?
34. List- I List-II [CSAT 1999] (a) 1 and 2 (b) 3 only
A. Atropine 1. Local anaesthesia (c) 2 only (d) 1 and 3
B. Ether 2. Heart trouble 39. Pneumoconiosis affects the workers who work
C. Nitroglycerine 3. Dilation of pupil mainly in [CSAT 2005]
D. Pyrethrin 4. Mosquito control (a) Tanneries
Codes : (b) Coal mining industry
(a) A 1; B 3; C 2; D 4 (c) Distillerie
(b) A 1; B 3; C 4; D 2 (d) Glass industry
(c) A 3; B 1; C 4; D 2 40. Assertion (A) : The person with Diabetes
(d) A 3; B 1; C 2; D 4 insipidus feels thirsty.
35. List- I List-II [CSAT 2000] Reason (R) : A person with Diabetes insipidus
A. Haemophilia 1. Deficiency disease suffers from excess secretion of vasopressin.
B. Diabetes 2. Genetic disease [CSAT 2005]
C. Rickets 3. Hormonal disorder (a) Both A and R are individually true and
D. Ringworm 4. Fungal infection R is the correct explanation of A
(a) A 2; B 3; C 4; D 1 (b) Both A and Rare individually true but R
(b) A 2; B 3; C 1; D 4 is not the correct explanation of A
(c) A 3; B 2; C 1; D 4 (c) A is true but R is false
(d) A 3; B 2; C 4; D 1 (d) A is false but R is true
36. Assertion (A) : Drinking of whisky increases 41. Consider the following statements:
the frequency of urination. [CSAT 2006]
Reason (R) : Alcohol intake speeds up the 1. Meningococcal Meningitis is transmitted
secretion of vasopressin in the body. from person to person by mosquito bites.
[CSAT 2002] 2. Vomiting and neck pain are two of the
(a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct symptoms of Meningococcal Meningitis.
explanation of A Which of the statement(s) given above is/are
(b) Both A and R are true but R is not a correct?
correct explanation of A (a) 1 only (b) 2 only
(c) A is true both R is false (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
(d) A is false but R is true 42. Robert Webster is known for his work associated
37. Consider the following statements: with which one of the following? [CSAT 2007]
[CSAT 2004] (a) Cardiology (b) Influenza virus
1. Femur is the longest bone in the human (c) HIV/AIDS (d) Alzheimer
body. 43. The release of which one of the following
2. Cholera is a disease caused by bacteria. into ponds and wells helps in controlling the
3. Athletes foot is a disease caused by virus. mosquitoes? [CSAT 2008]
Which of the statements given above are correct? (a) Crab (b) Dogfish
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3 (c) Gambusia fish (d) Snail
(c) 1 and 3 (d) 1, 2 and 3 44. Widespread resistance of malarial parasite to
38. Consider the following statements: drugs like chloroquine has prompted attempts to
[CSAT 2005] develop a malarial vaccine to combat malaria.
1. Dengue is a protozoan disease transmitted Why is it difficult to develop an effective malaria
by mosquitoes. vaccine ? [CSAT 2010]
C-156 Biology

(a) Malaria is caused by several species of 1. interfering in the process of platelet

Plasmodium production in bone marrow
(b) Man does not develop immunity to malaria 2. infecting endothelial cells
during natural infection 3. binding with plateiets
(c) Vaccines can be developed only against 4. accumulating platelets in intestine
bacteria Select the correct answer using the code given
(d) Man is only an intermediate host and not below:
the definitive host. (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 1 and 3 only
45. Consider the following statements: (c) 3 and 4 (d) 1, 2 and 3
[CSAT 2010] 51. Which one of the following vitamins helps in
1. Hepatitis B is several times more infectious clotting of blood? [CDS 2007 - II]
than HIV / AIDS (a) Vitamin-A (b) Vitamin-B6
2. Hepatitis B can cause liver cancer (c) Vitamin-D (d) Vitamin
Which of the statements given above is/ are 52. List I List II [CDS 2007- II]
correct? (Scientist) (Work)
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only A. F G Banting 1. Vaccination for small box
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 B. J Lister 2. Germ theory
46. Which of the following diseases can be C. Louis Pasteur 3. Use of carbolic acid as
transmitted from one person to another through an antiseptic
tattooing? [CSAT 2013 - I] D. E Jenner 4. Discovery of insulin
1. Chikungunya 2. Hepatitis B Codes
3. HIV-AIDS A B C D
Select the correct answer using the codes given (a) 4 3 2 1
below. (b) 4 2 1 3
(a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 3 4 2 1
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 (d) 1 4 3 2
47. Which of the following statements is/are correct? 53. Which one of the following is not an insect borne
[CSAT 2013 - I] disease? [CDS 2008 - I]
1. Viruses lack enzymes necessary for the (a) Beri-beri (b) Kala-azar
generation of energy. (c) Malaria (d) Plague
2. Viruses can be cultured in any synthetic 54. Consider the following statements.
medium. [CDS 2008 - I]
3. Viruses are transmitted from one organism 1. Cigarette smoking exposes a person
to another by biological vectors only. to benzene.
Select the correct answer using the codes given 2. Benzene is a known carcinogen.
below. Which of the statements given above is/are
(a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only correct?
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 (a) Only 1 (b) Only 2
48. H1N1 virus is sometimes mentioned in the news (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
with reference to which one of the following 55. The persons working in textile factories such
diseases? [CSAT 2015-I] as carpet weavers are exposed to which of the
(a) AIDS (b) Bird flu following occupational diseases?
(c) Dengue (d) Swine flu (a) Asbestosis [CDS 2008 - II]
49. Which one of the following is considered as (b) Asthma and tuberculosis
good cholesterol with reference to individuals (c) Silicosis
facing the risk of cardio-vascular diseases and (d) Siderosis
hypertension? [CDS 2016] 56. Malaria in the human body is caused by which
(a) High Density Lipoprotein (HDL) one of the following organisms? [CDS 2008 - II]
(b) Low Density Lipoprotein(LDL) (a) Bacteria (b) Virus
(c) Triglyceride (c) Mosquito (d) Protozoan
(d) Fatty acids 57. Which one of the following diseases is caused
by virus? [CDS 2008 - II]
50. Dengue virus is known to cause low platelet
(a) Tuberculosis (b) Typhoid
count in blood of patient by : [CDS 2016]
(c) Influenza (d) Diphtheria
Health and Disease C-157

58. Which one of the following is considered as the Select the correct answer using the code given below
drug of last resort for human beings? (a) 2, 3 and 4 (b) 1, 3 and 4
[CDS 2009 - I] (c) 1 and 2 (d) All of these
(a) Penicillin (b) Tetracycline 65. Dog bite can cause rabies. Which among the
(c) Chloramphenicol (d) Streptomycin following other animals can also cause rabies?
59. List I List II [CDS 2011 - I]
Agent of Transmission DiseaseTransmitted (a) Donkey (b) Bat
A. Anopheles mosquito 1. Kala-azar (c) Horse (d) Crocodile
B. Culex mosquito 2. Dengue 66. To suspect HIV/AIDS in a young individual,
C. Aedes 3. Malaria which one among the following symptoms is
D. Sandfly 4. Filana mostly associated with? [CDS 2011 - II]
[CDS 2009 - II] (a) Long standing jaundice and chronic liver
Codes disease
A B C D (b) Severe anaemia
(a) 3 2 4 1 (c) Chronic diarrhoea
(b) 1 4 2 3 (d) Severe persistent headache
(c) 1 2 4 3 67. The anti-malarial drug quinine is made from a
(d) 3 4 2 1 plant. The plant is [CDS 2011 - II]
60. For which one among the following diseases (a) neem (b) eucalyptus
vaccine is yet available? [CDS 2009 - II] (c) cinnamon (d) cinchona
(a) Tetanus (b) Malaria 68. Cancer is more common in older people
(c) Measles (d) Mumps because [CDS 2013 - II]
61. Itching due to insect bite is caused by (a) their immune systems have degenerated
[CDS 2010 - I] (b) the supply of certain hormones declines
(a) formic acid (b) acetic acid with age
(c) lactic acid (d) maleic acid (c) their bodies are unable to adjust to the
62. Mosquito can be a vector for the following changing environment
disease except [CDS 2010- II] (d) they have accumulated more mutations
(a) yellow fever (b) dengue fever 69. Which one among the following is the generic
(c) filariasis (d) kala-azar name of the causal organism of Elephantiasis ?
63. Insects that can transmit diseases to human are (a) Filaria [CDS 2014-II]
referred to as [CDS 2011 - I] (b) Microfilaria
(a) carriers (b) reservoirs (c) Wuchereria bancrofti
(c) vectors (d) incubators (d) Culex pipiens
64. Which of the following diseases are transmitted 70. Which one of the following diseases in humans
from one person to another? [CDS 2011 - I] can spread through air ? [CDS 2015-I]
1. AIDS 2. Cirrhosis (a) Dengue (b) Tuberculosis
3. Hepatitis B 4. Syphilis (c) HIV-AIDS (d) Goitre

ANSWER KEY
1. (b) 2. (d) 3. (b) 4. (a) 5. (a) 6. (c) 7. (b) 8. (b)
9. (c) 10. (d) 11. (b) 12. (a) 13. (c) 14. (c) 15. (c) 16. (b)
17. (d) 18. (d) 19. (a) 20. (c) 21. (a) 22. (b) 23. (b) 24. (a)
25. (b) 26. (d) 27. (b) 28. (d) 29. (c) 30. (b) 31. (c) 32. (a)
33. (d) 34. (d) 35. (b) 36. (a) 37. (a) 38. (b) 39. (b) 40. (c)
41. (b) 42. (b) 43. (c) 44. (b) 45. (c) 46. (b) 47. (a) 48. (d)
49. (b) 50. (d) 51. (d) 52. (b) 53. (a) 54. (c) 55. (b) 56. (a)
57. (c) 58. (c) 59. (d) 60. (b) 61. (a) 62. (d) 63. (c) 64. (b)
65. (b) 66. (d) 67. (d) 68. (d) 69. (c) 70. (b)
 Chapter
11
INTRODUCTION
Heredity is the transmission of genetic characters
from parent to offsprings. Individuals of same species
have some differences, these are called variation.
MENDELS FINDINGS :
1. Mendels Law of Dominance and Recessive
Each of the f1 generation plant shows
inheritance of Y allele from one parent and
a G allele from the other. When the f1 plants
breed, each has equal chance of passing on
either Y or G allele to each offspring.
In all the seven traits that Mendel examined,
one form appeared dominant over the other
i.e., it marked the presence of the other
allele, e.g. when genotype of pea colour
is YG (heterozygous), the phenotype is
yellow. However, the dominant yellow
allele does not alter the recessive green in
any way and both alleles can be passed on
to the next generation unchanged.
gene makes gene makes
flower red (R) flower white (r)
Dominant Recessive
Mendels observations of his experiments led
to two principles or laws:
Mendels work ignored for over 30 years.
His work was redicovered by Hugo de
Vries, Karl Correns and Erish Tschermak.
GENETICS
William Bateson came close to redis-
covering Mendels laws through his own
experiments became one of the leading
advocates of Mendelian genetics.
BASIC TERMS USED IN INHERITANCE
STUDIES
Factors: Factor is the unit of heredity which
is responsible for inheritance and appearance
of characters.
A pure line is a plant or animal that is
genetically pure for particular character and
will give rise to same character after self
fertilization or inter breeding.
Allele: It is an alternative form of a gene which
are located on same position (loci) on the
homologous chromosome. Term allele was
coined by Bateson.
Homozygous: A zygote is formed by fusion
of two gametes having identical factors is
called homozygote and organism developed
from this zygote is called homozygous.
Ex. TT, RR, tt.
Heterozygous: A zygote is formed by fusion
of two different types of gamete carrying
different factors is called heterozygote (Tt,
Rr) and individual developed from such
zygote is called heterozygous.
Hemizygous: If individual contains only
one gene of a pair then individual is said to
be hemizygous. Male individual is always
hemizygous for sex linked gene.
Genetics C-173

Phenotype: It is the external and
morphological appearances of an organism
for a particular character.
Genotype: It is the genetic constitution
or genetic make-up of an organism for a
particular character.
Back cross: A back cross is a cross in which
F1 individuals are crossed with any of their
parents.
Test cross: When F1 progeny is crossed with
recessive parent then it is called test cross.
Monohybrid test cross: The progeny
obtained from the monohybrid test cross
are in equal proportion, means 50% is
dominant phenotypes and 50% is recessive
phenotypes.
It can be represented in symbolic forms as
follows.
F1 progeny (hybrid) Recessive parent
t result is that new combination of genes present
T Tt
t tt
Monohybrid test cross ratio = 1 : 1
Dihybrid test cross: The progeny is
obtained from dihybrid test cross are of four
types and each of them is 25%.
F1-dihybrid Recessive parent
TtRr ttrr
RT Tr Rt tr
tr TtRr Ttrr ttRr ttrr
The ratio of dihybrid test cross = 1: 1: 1: 1
Conclusion: In test cross phenotypes and
genotypes ratio are same.
Reciprocal cross: When two parents are
used in two experiments in such a way that
in one experiment A is used as the female
parent and B is used as the male parent, in
the other experiment A will be used as the
male parent and B as the female parent,
such type of a set of two experiments is
called reciprocal cross.
2. Law of Segregation: According to this law, for
any particular trait, the pair of alleles of each
parent separate and only one allele passes from
each parent to an offspring. Allele in a parents
pair of allele is inherited as a matter of chance
(we now know segregation of alleles occurs
during the process of meiosis).
3. Law of Independent Assortment: This is
also known as Inheritance law. According
to this law, different pairs of alleles are passed
to offspring independently of each other. The
in neither parents is possible e.g. a pea plants
inheritance of the ability to produce purple
flowers instead of white ones does not make it
more likely that it will also inherit the ability to
produce yellow pea seeds in contrast to green
ones. Today, we know this is due to the fact that
the genes for independently assorted traits are
located an different chromosomes.
Mendels experiment with crossing one
trait (monohybrid cross) always resulted in
a 3 : 1 ratio between dominant and recessive
phenotype. His experiment with mixing
two traits (dihybrid cross) showed 9 : 3 : 3 :
1 ratio. But the 9 : 3 : 3 : 1 table shows that
each of the two genes are independently
inherited with a 3 : 1 ratio i.e., different traits
are inherited independently of each other.

PARENTAL CROSS
Gametes from Hybrid 1

Round yellow Wrinkledgreen Parental Phenotype

seeds seeds
RRYY rryy Parental Genotype
RY RY ry ry Gametes

Rr Yy Rr Yy Rr Yy Rr Yy
f1 generation Genotype
Round Round Round Round
yellow yellow yellow yellow f1 generation Phenotype
C-174 Biology

There is no blending of characters, whereas

RY Ry rY ry
both the characters are expressed equally.
Examples : Co-dominance is seen in animals
RRYY RRYy RrYY RrYy for coat colour.
RY Round Round Round Round
yellow yellow yellow yellow When a black parent is crossed with white
RRYy Rryy RrYy Rryy parent, a roan colour in F1 progeny is produced.
Ry Round Round Round Round When we obtain F2 generation from the F1
yellow green yellow green
generation,
RrYY RrYy rrYY rrYy the ratio of black; black-white (Roan) ; white
rY Round Round wrinkled wrinkled of animals is 1 : 2 : 1
yellow yellow yellow yellow
Other examples of Co-dominance are :
RrYy Rryy rrYy rryy (i) AB blood group inheritance (IAIB)
ry Round Round wrinkled wrinkled
yellow green yellow green (ii) Carrier of sickle cell anaemia (HbA HbS)

Punnett Square LINKAGE

Exceptions of Conclusions of Mendel Linkage is the phenomenon of certain genes
staying together during inheritance through
Exception of Dominance
generations without any change or separation.
There are two exceptions of law of dominance
This is due to their location on the same
(i) Incomplete dominance
chromosomes.
(ii) Co-dominance
Linkage was first time seen by Bateson
Incomplete dominance and Punnett in Lathyrus odoratus and gave
According to Mendels law of dominance, coupling and repulsion phenomenon. But they
dominant character must be present in Fl did not explain the phenomenon of linkage.
generation. But in some organisms, Fl genera- Sex linkage was first discovered by Morgan
tion is different from the both parents. in Drosophila and coined the term linkage. He
Both factors such as dominant and recessive proposed the theory of linkage.
are present in incomplete dominance but
dominant factors are unable to express their Sex Linkage
character completely, resulting in different type When the genes of vegetative/somatic characters are
of generation which is different from the both present on sex-chromosome, it is termed as sex linked
parents. gene and such phenomenon is known as sex-linkage.
Incomplete dominance was first discovered
by Correns in Mirabilis jalapa. This plant is Sex linkage
called as 4 O clock plant or Gul-e-Bans.
Examples:
(i) Three different types of plant are found in X - linkage Y - linkage
Mirabilis on the basis of flower colour, such as Genes of somatic The genes of somatic
red, white and pink. When plants with red flowers characters are found characters are located
is crossed with white flower plants, pink flower on X-chromosome. on Y- chromosome. The
is obtained in Fl generation. The reason of this The inheritance of inheritance of such type
is that the genes of red colour is incompletely of character occur only
X-linked character through the males, such
dominant over the genes of white colour. may be through the type of character is called
(ii) Incomplete dominance is also seen in males and females, holandric character. These
Antirrhinum majus plant. This plant is also e.g. Haemophilia, characters are found only
known as Snapdragon or Dog flower. Colour blindness. in male.
E.g.: Hypertrichosis
Co-dominance: (excessive hair on ear
In co-dominance both the gene expressed for pinna.)
a particular character in F1 hybrid progeny.
Genetics C-175

Karyotype phenol, etc. Other chemicals, which are being

The chromosome complement of a cell. The entire
chromosome complement of an individual or cell.
A karyotype includes the detailed morphological
structure of each chromosome of the set. In man 46
(2n = 46) and in onion 16 (2n = 16) chromosomes are
found therefore in their karyotype 23 and 8 pairs of
homologous chromosomes are present, respectively.
A diagram depicting the arrangement of homologous
chromosomes in the decreasing order of their size is
called idiogram. Or a pictorial depiction of karyotype
is called idiogram.
used as mutagens nowadays are maleic hydrazide,
hydroxylamine, hydrazine, nitrous acid, methyl
methane sulphonate (MMS) and ethyl methane
sulphonate (EMS), etc. Different varieties of
crop plants have been produced by mutation like
Sharbati Sonora variety of wheat. It has been
developed by g-rays mutation on sonora-64 variety
(Mexican dwarf wheat variety).
Handy Facts
There are thought to be about 3 million base
pairs in the human genome. Only 3% of the DNA
actually coded for genes. The rest is often falled
non-coding DNA.

GENES
Genes are responsible for the characteristics
features (or traits) of organism-plant or animals. The
characteristics or traits of parents are transmitted to
their progeny (off springs) through genes present
on their chromosomes during the process of sexual
reproduction.
According to the latest finding there are nearly
30,000 genes in humans, collectively called the
genome.
Genes are the specific parts of a chromosomes
(DNA segment) which determine the heredity
characteristics.
Idiogram Genes are arranged linearly along long chains
of DNA sequence, called chromosomes. The
Handy Facts DNA of the chromosome is associated with
Mutagens are of 2 types: proteins that organise, compact and control
Physical mutagens or radiations, e.g., X-rays, the access to the DNA, forming a material
b-rays, g-rays, UV-rays, etc. called chromatin. In eukaryotes, chromatin is
Radiations are of 2 types: composed of nucleosomes segments of DNA
(i) Ionizing radiations, e.g., X-rays, wound around histone protein. The full set of
b-rays, g-rays. These have high hereditary material in an organism i.e., the
penetrating power. combined DNA sequences of all chromosomes
(ii) Non-ionizing radiations, e.g., UV-rays is called genome.
(first used by Altenburg, 1930). They Haploid organisms have only one copy of each
have low penetrating power. chromosome while diploid organisms (most
Chemical mutagens: Use of chemicals animals and many plants) contain two of each
for inducing mutations was first made by chromosome i.e., they have two copies of every
C. Auerbach during World war II. She used gene. The two alleles for a gene are located on
mustard gas (having delayed effect after 2, identical loci of sister chromatid, each allele
3 generation), ethyl urethane, formaldehyde, inherited from a different parent.
C-176 Biology

In Erythroblastosis Foetalis the first child is

born normal because the mother, though Rh
ve, does not have natural antibodies. The
antibodies are acquired only after the birth of
the first child (Rh + ve) when the blood of the
child is mixed with the blood of the mother to
induce antibodies production. Such antibodies
are IgG type and can cross placenta. In ABO
system the antibodies are IgM type and cannot
cross placenta to cause similar effects.

MULTIPLE ALLELE
More than 2 alternative forms of same gene
is called as multiple allele. Multiple allele is
formed due to mutation and located on same
Pleiotropic Gene locus of homologous chromosome.
Gene which controls more than one character A diploid individual contains two alleles and
is called pleiotropic gene. This gene shows gamete contains one allele for a character.
multiple phenotypic effect. Blood group - 3 alleles
Examples of pleiotropic gene in human. Coat colour in rabbit - 4 alleles
If n is the number of allele of a gene then
Sickle cell anaemia : Gene provide a
number of different possible genotype =
classical example of pleiotropy. The
sickle cell HbS allele also has pleiotropic n ( n + 1)
effect on the development of many tissues 2
and organs such as bone, lungs, kidney, Example of multiple allele
spleen, heart. ABO blood group : ABO blood groups are
determined by allele IA, allele IB, allele ID
Lethal Gene
IA = dominant
Gene which causes death of individual in early IB = dominant
stage when it comes in homozygous condition ID = recessive
is called lethal gene.
Possible phenotypes - A, B, AB, O
It may be dominant or recessive both, but
mostly recessive for lethality. Lethal gene was Blood Genotype Antigen or Antibody
discovered by L. Cuenot in coat colour of mice. group agglutino- or
gen agglutinin
Handy Facts A A
I I ,A A b
The position of a gene on the chromosome, is IAIO
called a locus.
Dr. Karl Landsteiner got Nobel Prize in 1930, IBIB,
B B a
for discovery of blood groups A, B and O. IBIO
Blood group AB was discovered by De
AB IAIB A&B None
Castelo and Sturli.
Blood groups M, N and MN were discovered O I O IO None a&b
by K. Landsteiner and A. S. Wiener.
Rh factor was discovered by K. Landsteiner Possible genotype number = 3 (3 + 1) = 6
and A. S. Wiener. genotype. 2
Genetics C-177

SEX DETERMINATION In humans, sex is predetermined in the sperm

gamete. The egg gamete mother cell is said to
Sex determination is a biological system
that determines the development of sexual be homogametic because all its cells possess
characters in an organism. the XX sex chromosomes, sperm gametes are
Most sexual organisms have two sexes: Males said to be heterogametic because around half
and females. Genetically, both the sexes have of them contain the X-chromosome and others
different alleles or even different genes that possess the Y-chromosome to compliment the
specify their sexual morphology. first X-chromosome.
In a human, the sexual chromosomes
complement is 46, 44 of which are autosomes Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid (DNA)
while 2 distinct chromosomes are the sex Deoxyribose nucleic acid (DNA) carries
chromosomes, which determine the sex of an the genetc information. It is a constitute of
organism and various sex-linked characteristics.
chromosome.
In most animals, those that have XX
chromosomes are females while males have an Structure of DNA was worked out by X-ray
X and Y chromosomes. diffraction studies. A double helix model by
DNA was proposed by Watson and Crick in
Handy Facts 1953. They suggested that :
The cell having XX chromosomes forms
(i) Each DNA molecule consists of two
female, and other with XO chromosomes
forms male regions of the body. polynucleotide chains.
According to Ferguson and Joanen (1982). (ii) The chains are helically coiled around a
The enzyme Aromatase, which converts common axis.
testosterone into estrogen, is critical in
temperature dependant sex determination in (iii) DNA molecule has a diameter of 20 are
reptiles. complete turn of helix is 3.4 . So there
The term mutation was first used in are 10 bases per turn of helix.
Oenothera lamarckiana by Hugo de Vries (iv) Each DNA chain is complementary chain
(1900) for sudden phenotypic changes which
to the second chain.
are heritable.
Darwin called these mutations as sports. The DNA molecule is a polymer consisting of
First scientific study of mutation was made by several thousand pairs of nucleotide monomers.
T. H. Morgan (1910) in Drosophila. Each nucleotide consists of the pentose
Most of the studies related to mutations sugar deoxyribose a phosphate group and a
have been made in micro-organisms, e.g., in nitrogenous base which may be either purine
Neurospora (Red mould), E.coli (Escherichia
coli) and bacteriophages (viruses, infecting or pyrimidine. The two purines are Adenine
bacteria). (A) and guanine (G). The two pyrimidines are
Use of X-rays as mutagenic agent was first thymine (T) and Cytosine (C).
shown by H. J Muller (1927) in Drosophila Deoxyribose and a nitrogeneous base together
and later on by L. J. Stadler (1928) in maize form a nucleoside. A nucleoside and a
and barley.
EMS is the most extensively used chemical phosphate together form a nucleotide.
Muller discovered the induced mutations. He Nucleoside = Deoxyribose + Nitrogenous base
induced mutations in Drosophila with the help Nucleotide = Deoxyribose + Nitrogenous base
of X-rays.
+ Phosphate
Mac Farlane Burnitt, Neil Jerne induced
mutations in B-lymphocytes of blood to Deoxyribose is pentose sugar with five carbon
obtain new antibodies. atoms, four of the given carbon atoms plus
Beadle and Tatum induced mutations in a single atom of oxygen for a five numbered
Neurospora to study nutritional mutation with ring.
the help of U. V. rays or X-rays.
 C-178

Sex Determination

Environmental or Non-genetic Non allosomic Genic Chromosomal

determination of Sex determination of Sex determination of Sex
Marine mollusc crepidula In bacteria, fertility factor Chromosomal or allosomic
become female if reared alone. present in a plasmid determination of sex is
In company of a female, it determines. based on heterogamesis or
develops into male. Maize possesses separate occurrence of two types of
In crocodiles and some lizards genes for development of gametes in one of the two
high temperature induces tassle (male inflorescence). sexes.
maleness and low temperature Chlamydomonas possesses
femaleness. sex determining genes.

XXXY Type XXXO Type ZWZZ Type ZOZZ Type Haplodiploidy

(= WZWW Type)
In most insects including In roundworms and This type of sex It is a type of sex
fruitfly Drosophila and some insects (true The birds and some determination occurs determinations in which
mammals including bugs, grasshoppers, reptiles both the in some butterflies the male is haploid
human beings the cockroaches), the sexes posses two sex and moths. Here the while the female is
females possess females have two sex chromosomes but unlike females have odd sex diploid. Haplodiploidy
two homomorphic chromosomes, XX, human beings the females chromosome (AA + Z) occurs in some insects
(= isomorphic) Sex while the males have contain heteromorphic while the males have like bees ants and
chromosomes, named only one X chromosome. sex chromosome (AA two homomorphic sex wasps.
XX. The males contain Therefore the males are + ZW) while the males chromosomes (AA +
two heteromorphic sex designated as XO. have homomorphic sex ZZ). The females are
chromosomes, i.e., XY. chromosomes (AA + ZZ). heterogametic.
Biology
Genetics C-179

CENTRAL DOGMA OF MOLECULAR Thalassemia is due to an autosomal mutant

BIOLOGY gene. It is a group of genetic disorder which
results from defective synthesis of subunits
Central dogma term was given by Crick. It of haemoglobin (a & b-globin chains of
proposes unidirectional or one way flow of haemoglobin).
information from DNA to RNA and then to Gauchers disease is a genetic disorder
protein. associated with abnormal fat metabolism.
The formation (production) of m-RNA from Huntingtons Chorea is a disease caused by a
DNA and then synthesis of protein from it, is dominant gene.
known as central dogma. The chromosomal disorders are caused due to
Process of replicaiton or duplication occur in absence or excess or abnormal arrangement of
which new DNA synthesizes with the help of one or more chromosomes. Failure of segre-
DNA polymerase. gation of chromatids during cell division cycle
Synthesis of RNA occur on the template of results in the gain or loss of a chromosome(s),
DNA by the enzyme RNA polymerase by the called aneuploidy.
process of transcription. Types of chromosomal disorders are - Downs
Protein are synthesized by the process of Syndrome,Klinefelters Syndrome and Turners
translation with the help of amino acids with Syndrome.
series of enzyme. Downs Syndrome is caused by the presence of
The fromation of DNA from RNA is known an additional copy of the chromosome number
as reverse transcription. It is found in some 21 (trisomy of 21). The affected individual is
viruses. It occur with the help of reverse short statured with small round head, furrowed
transcriptise enzyme. It was discovered by tongue and partially open mouth. Palm is broad
Temin and Baltimore in Rous-sarcoma Virus. with characteristic palm crease. Physical,
psychomotor and mental development is
GENETIC DISORDERS
retarded.
A genetic disorders is a disease that is caused Klinefelters Syndrome is caused due to
by an abnormality in an individuals DNA. the presence of an additional copy of
Genetic disorder may be grouped into two X-chromosome resulting into a karyotype
categories- Mendelian disorders and chromo- of 47, XXY. Such an individual has overall
somal disorders. masculine development , however, the
feminine development (development of breast,
Mendelian disorders are chiefly determined
i.e., Gynaecomastia) is also expressed. Such
by alteration or mutation in the single gene.
individuals are sterile.
Eg. haemophilia, cystic fibrosis, sickle cell
Turners Syndrome is caused due to the absence
anaemia, thalassemia, colour blindness, phenyl
of one of the X chromosome, i.e., 45 with
ketonuria, etc.
XO, Such females are sterile as ovaries are
Haemophilia is an inherited disorder of blood rudimentary besides other features including
in which essential clotting factor are either lack of other secondary sexual characters.
partly or completely missing.
In sickle-cell anaemia glutamic acid (glutamine) HUMAN GENOME PROJECT (HGP)
is replaced by valine at the sixth position in b It was an International Collaporative Research
chain of haemoglobin. It is a blood disease. Program whose goal was to complete the mapping
Where the red blood blood cells become sickle and understanding of all genes of human beings. All
shaped as compared to normal one. the gene present in an organism is known as gename.
C-180 Biology

HGP was closely associated with the rapid Identification of defective genes and hence the
development of new area in biology called as bio- opportunity to offer early treatment.
informatics. It is usually applied in the context of Predections of proteins that the genes produce
analyzing DNA sequencing date. giving an opportunity of design appropriate
drugs to enhance or inhibit the activities of
Salient Features of Human Genome these proteins.
The human genome contains 3164.7 million
Handy Facts
nuclestide bases.
First prokaryotes in which complete genome
Less than 2 percent of the genome codes for
was sequenced is Haemophilus influenzae.
proteins. First eukaryote in which complete genome
Chromosome 1 has most genes (2968) and Y was sequenced is saccharomyces cervisiae
has the fewest (231). (yeast).
First plant in which complete genome was
Application of HGP sequenced is Arabidopsis thaliana.
Identification of genes that confer a First animal in which complete genome
susceptibility to certain diseases and 80 enable was sequenced is caenorhabditis elegans
individual to take preventive measure. (nematode).

EXERCISE
1. Which one of the following is a hereditary 5. Assertion (A) : In human being, the females
disease ? [NDA 2006-II] play a major role in determining the sex of the
(a) Cataract offspring.
(b) Haemophilia Reason (R) : Women have two X chromosomes.
(c) Pellagra [CSAT 2000]
(d) Osteoporosis Codes :
2. Which one of the following statements is (a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct
correct ? explanation of A
Cretinism is a human disorder which is due to (b) Both A and R are true but R is not a correct
the under secretion of : [NDA 2006-II] explanation of A
(a) Adrenalin hormone (c) A is true but R is false
(b) Cortisone hormone (d) A is false but R is true
(c) Glucagon hormone 6. In the context of genetic disorders, consider the
(d) Thyroxin hormone following:
3. Which one of the following is not a genetic A woman suffers from colour blindness while
disorder? [NDA 2007-II] her husband does not suffer from it. They have
(a) Colour blindness a son and a daughter. In this context, which one
(b) Downs syndrome of the following statements is most probably
(c) Haemophilia correct? [CSAT 2009]
(d) Xerophthalmia (a) Both children suffer from colour blindness.
4. Which one of the following genetic diseases is (b) Daughter suffers from colour blindness
sex-linked? [CSAT 1999] while son does not suffer from it.
(a) Royal haemophilia (c) Both children do not suffer from colour
(b) Tay-Sachs disease blindness.
(c) Cystic fibrosis (d) Son suffers from colour blindness while
(d) Hypertension daughter does not suffer from it.
Genetics C-181

7. A married couple adopted a male child. A few 14. Which one of the following techniques can be
years later, twin boys were born to them. The used to establish the paternity of a child l?
blood group of the couple is AB positive and O [IAS (Pre) 1997]
negative. The blood group of the three sons is A (a) Protein analysis
positive, B positive , and O positive. The blood (b) Quantitative analysis of DNA
group of the adopted son is ? [CSAT 2011 - I] (c) Chromosome counting
(a) O positive (d) DNA fingerprinting
(b) A positive 15. Which of the following professionals are more
(c) B positive likely to run the risk of a permanent change in
(d) Cannot be determined on the basis of the their cells DNA? [IAS (Pre) 1995]
given data
1. Researchers using carbon 14 isotope
8. Which of the following cause(s) variation in the
2. X-ray technician
genetic material of progeny? [CDS 2015]
3. Coal miner
1. Sexual reproduction
4. Dyer and painter
2. Asexual reproduction
3. Mutations (a) Only 2 (b) 1, 2 and 3
4. Epigenetic changes (c) 1, 2 and 4 (d) 1, 3 and 4
Select the correct answer using the code given 16. Number of chromosome in a normal human body
below. cell is [SSC 2011]
(a) 2 only (b) 1, 2 and 3 (a) 43 (b) 44
(c) 1, 3 and 4 (d) 1 and 3 only (c) 45 (d) 46
9. A mother of blood group O has a group O child. 17. Which one of the following genetic disease is
What could be the blood group of father of the sex-linked? [IAS (Pre) 1999]
child? [CDS 2007 - II] (a) Royal haemophilia
(a) Only O (b) A or B or O (b) Tay-Sachs disease
(c) A or B (d) Only AB (c) Cystic fibrosis
10. Between which one of the following sets of (d) Hypertension
blood groups, is the blood transfusion possible? 18. Assertion (A) : In human beings, the female
[CDS 2008 - II] play a major role in determining the sex of the
(a) A and O (b) B and A offspring.
(c) A and AB (d) AB and O Reason (R) : Women have two X-chromosomes.
11. What is the most conspicuous salient feature of [IAS (Pre) 2000]
people with Progeria? [CDS 2010 - II] (a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct
(a) More hair on body explanation of A
(b) Less immunity to opportunistic infections (b) Both A and R are true, but R is not a correct
(c) Faster rate of ageing
explanation of A
(d) Surfer from infertility
(c) A is true, but R is false
12. Which one among the following is not correct
(d) A is false, but R is true
about Downs syndrome? [CDS 2011 - I]
19. Variation can be brought about by
(a) It is a genetic disorder
(b) Effected individual has early ageing (a) sexual reproduction
(c) Effected person has mental retardation (b) copying of DNA
(d) Effected person has furrowed tongue with (c) adjusting with environment
open mouth (d) All of the above
13. Haemophilia is a genetic disorder which lead to 20. The sex of the child in humans primarily depends
[IAS (Pre) 1998] on
(a) decrease in hamemoglobin level (a) X chromosome of female part
(b) rheumatic heart disease (b) X and Y chromosome of male part
(c) decrease in WBC (c) Both (a) & (b)
(d) non-clotting of blood (d) None of the two
C-182 Biology

21. By which law of mendel, the separation of genes E. Male chromosomes T. 9 : 3 : 3 : 1

is proved F. Female chromosomes U. Darwin
(a) 1st law of mendel (b) 2nd law of mendel G. Remnant of ancient V. Mendel
(c) 3rd law of mendel (d) All of these animals
22. State T for True option and F for False option H. Human beings W. DNA copying
and choose the correct option at the end (a) A-W; B-V; C-U; D-T; E-S; F-R; G-Q; H-P
A. We have a single pair of sex chromosomes (b) A-V; B-W; C-U; D-T; E-S; F-R; G-Q; H-P
in all cells. (c) A-V; B-W; C-T; D-U; E-S; F-R; G-Q; H-P
B. Autosomes are 22 pairs of chromosomes. (d) A-V; B-W; C-S; D-R; E-T; F-U; G-Q; H-P
C. The human karyotype represents the pair 31. Consider the following statements:
of chromosome in a cell A. Variations arising during the process of
D. There are 46 Chromosomes as autosomes. reproduction cannot be inherited.
(a) TFTF (b) TTTF B. Changes in the non-reproductive tissues
(c) TFFF (d) TTFF caused by environmental factors are
23. In human beings, a recessive gene can express inheritable.
it in homozygous condition as in Which of these statement(s) is/are correct ?
(a) Autosome (a) A only (b) B only
(b) X-chromosome of male (c) Both A and B (d) Neither A nor B
(c) X-Chromosome of females 32. Consider the following statements :
(d) An autosome or X-Chromosome A. Sex is determined by different factors in
24. The genetic concepts of segregation and recombi- various species.
nation are most likely to be associated with B. Exchange of genetic material takes place
(a) meiosis and mitosis in asexual reproduction.
(b) meiosis and cleavage Which of these statement(s) is/are correct ?
(c) meiosis and fertilization (a) A only (b) B only
(d) meiosis and gametes formation (c) Both A and B (d) Neither A nor B
25. Mendels work on peas was conducted in
33. The number of chromosomes in a male gamete
(a) 17th century (b) 18th century
(a) 46 (b) 23
(c) 19th century (d) 20th century
(c) 21 (d) 44
26. Genetics is the study of
34. There is less similarity and more difference in
(a) Inheritance (b) Cell structure
characteristics by
(c) Only plants (d) Only animals
(a) asexual reproduction
27. Mendel Laws of Heredity were rediscovered by
(b) sexual Reproduction
(a) Charles darwin
(c) budding
(b) Lamark
(d) spore Formation
(c) Devries correns and Tschermark
35. From heredity point of view which marriage is
(d) Morgan
28. Hereditary characteristics are passed on from not suitable
parents to offspring chiefly through (a) Man Rh () and Woman Rh (+)
(a) gametes (b) enzymes (b) Both Rh (+)
(c) genes (d) centrosomes (c) Both Rh ()
29. Gene is made of which chemical (d) Man Rh (+) and Woman Rh ()
(a) D.N.A. (b) R.N.A. 36. In animals sex determination is due to
(c) protein (d) enzyme (a) X-chromosome (b) Y-chromosome
30. Column-I Column-II (c) A-chromosome (d) B-chromosome
A. Genetic changes P. Homosapiens 37. A complete set of chromosomes inherited as a
B. Independent inheritance Q. Fossil unit from one parent, is known as
C. Natural selection R. XX (a) Karyotype (b) Gene pool
D. Dihybrid ratio S. XY (c) Genome (d) Genotype
Genetics C-183

38. Consider the following statements : 45. Column-I Column-II

A. Both the parents contribute DNA equally A. ABO blood groups I. Dihybrid cross
to the offspring. B. Law of segregation II. Monohybrid
B. Sex of the child is determined by the type cross
of ovum provided by the mother. C. Law of Independent III. Base pairs
Which of these statement(s) is/are correct ? assortment substitution
(a) A only (b) B only D. Gene mutation IV. Multiple allelism
(c) Both A and B (d) Neither A nor B (a) A II; B I; C IV; D III
39. Which of the following statements is not (b) A IV; B I; C II; D III
true with respect to variation? (c) A IV; B II; C I; D III
(a) All variations in a species have equal (d) A II; B III; C IV; D I
chance of survival 46. Column -I Column -II
(b) Change in genetic composition results in A. Incomplete dominance I. Drosophila
variation B. Mendelian disorder II. Antirrhinumsp.
(c) Selection of variants by environmental C. Transforming principle III. Griffith
factors forms the basis of evolutionary D. Dihybrid cross IV. Haemophilia
processes. (a) A I; B IV; C III; D II
(b) A IV; B II; C III; D I
(d) Variation is minimum in asexual
(c) A II; B III; C IV; D I
reproduction
(d) A II; B IV; C III; D I
40. The ratio of phenotypes in F2 of a monohybrid
47. Column -I Column -II
cross is
A. Alfred Sturtevant I. Mapped position of
(a) 3 : 1 (b) 1 : 2 : 1
genes
(c) 9 : 3 : 3 : 1 (d) 2 : 1
B. Henking II. X-body
41. HbA and HbS alleles of normal and sickle celled
C. Meischer III.Nuclein
RBC are D. Morgan IV. Dihybrid crosses in
(a) dominant-recessive alleles. Drosophila
(b) polygenic alleles. (a) A I, B III, C IV, D II
(c) codominant alleles. (b) A I, B II, C III, D IV
(d) multiple alleles. (c) A IV, B I, C II, D III
42. Punnett square is used to know the (d) A III, B II, C V, D I
(a) outcome of a cross 48. In case of codominance, the offsprings of F1
(b) probable result of a cross generation have the trait
(c) types of gametes (a) of either of two parents.
(d) result of meiosis (b) of both the parents.
43. Sickle cell anaemia is (c) of none of the parents.
(a) caused by substitution of valine by (d) in between the traits of two parents.
glutamic acid in the beta globin chain of 49. Multiple alleles are present
haemoglobin. (a) at different loci in the same chromosome.
(b) caused by a change in a single base pair (b) in different chromosomes.
of DNA. (c) at the same locus in one type of
(c ) characterized by elongated sickle like chromosomes.
RBCs with a nucleus. (d) none of the above
(d) an autosomal linked dominant trait. 50. The test cross is used to determine the
44. Mutations can be induced with (a) genotype of the plant
(a) infrared radiations (b) phenotype of the plant
(b) I AA (c) both (a) and (b)
(c) ethylene (d) none of the above
(d) gamma radiations
C-184 Biology

ANSWER KEY
1. (b) 2. (d) 3. (d) 4. (a) 5. (d) 6. (d) 7. (a) 8. (c)
9. (b) 10. (c) 11. (c) 12. (b) 13. (d) 14. (d) 15. (c) 16. (d)
17. (a) 18. (d) 19. (d) 20. (b) 21. (b) 22. (b) 23. (a) 24. (c)
25. (b) 26. (a) 27. (c) 28. (a) 29. (a) 30. (a) 31. (d) 32. (a)
33. (b) 34. (b) 35. (d) 36. (a) 37. (c) 38. (a) 39. (a) 40. (a)
41. (c) 42. (b) 43. (b) 44. (d) 45. (c) 46. (d) 47. (b) 48. (b)
49. (c) 50. (a)