PA R T

G EN ER A L
BA C K G R O U N D
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G e n e ra l C h a ra cte ristic s
o f M o d e rn P o w e r S Y ste nns

T he PurPOSe of this introductory chapter is to provide a general description of

electric pow er system s beginning w ith a historical sketch of their evolution .T he basic
characteristics and structure of m odern POW er system s are then identif ed. T he
perform ance requirem ents of a properly designed pow er system and the various levels
of controls used to m eet these requirem ents are also described.
T his chapter, together w ith the next, provides general background inform ation
and lays the groundw ork for the rem ainder of the book .

1 *1 EV O LU T IO N O F E LE C T R IC P O W E R S Y S T E M S

T he com m ercial use of electricity began in th e late 1870s w hen arc lam ps w ere .

used for lighthouse illlzlllilllttit)ll and street lijlltillj.

The frstcom plete electric POW er system (com prising a generator, cable, fuse,
m eter, and loads) W aS lltlilt by T hom as E dison the historic P earl Street Station 1
@11
N ew hrork C ity w hich began operation 1 @11 Septem ber 1882 . T his W aS a dc system
consisting of a steam -engine-driven dc generator supplying pow er to 59 custom ers
w ithin an a re a roughly 1.5 km in radius. T he load, w hich consisted entirely of
incandescent lam p s, W aS supplied at 110 V through an underground cable system .
h?itllill a few years sim ilar system s svere 1 *11 Operatl *on in m ost large cities throughout
the w orld.W ith the developm ent of m otors by Frank Sprague 1 4
'l1?
-1884,nAotor loads
w ere added to such system s. T his w @s the begilm ing of w hat F ould develop into One f

of the largest industries in the w orld.

4 G e n eral C h aracte ristics o f M o d e rn P o w er S y stem s C h ap . 1

111 spite of the illititl w idespread uSe of dc system s, they SVCCC alm ost
com pletely superseded by ac system s. B y 1886, the lim itations of dc system s w ere
becom ing l'ncreasingly apparent. T hey could deliver pow er only a short distance from
the generators To keep transm ission pow er losses (R I2) and voltage drop s to
.

acceptable levels, voltage levels had to be high for long-distance pow er transm ission .
Such high voltages w ere not acceptable for generation and consum ption of pow er;
therefore, a convenient m eans for voltage transform ation becam e a necessity.
The developm ent of the transform er and ac transm ission by L . G aulard and
J.D . G ibbs of P aris, France, 1ed to ac electric pow er system s. G eorge W estinghouse
secured rights to these developm ents in the U nited States. ln 1886, W illiam Stanley,
an associate of W estinghouse, developed and tested a com m ercially practical
transform er and ac distribution system for 150 lam p s at G reat B arrington,
M assachusetts. 111 1889, the s rst aC transm ission line in N orth A m erica w as put into
operation in O regon betw een W illam ette F alls and P ortland.lt w as a single-phase line
transm itting P OW er at 4,000 V OVer a distance of 2 1 km .
sritll the developm ent of polyphase system s by N ikola T esla, the aC system
becam e Cven nAore attractive. B y 1888, T esla held several patents On aC m otors,
generators, transform ers, and transm ission sy stem s. W estinghouse bought the patents
ttl these early inventions, and they form ed the basis of the present-day aC system s.
111 the 1890s, there W aS considerable controversy OVer w hether the electric
tltilit)r industry should be standardized on dc or aC. T here svere passionate argum ents
betw een E dison, w ho advocated dc, and W estinghouse, w ho favoured aC.B y the turn
of the century, the aC system had W On Out OVer the dc system for the follow ing
rC a SO n S :

@ V oltage levels Can be easily transform ed 1 @11 aC system s, thus providing the
* @

flellillilit)r for uSe of different voltages for generation, transm lsslon, and
@

con sum ptlon .

* A C generators are m uch sim pler than dc generators.

@ A C nlotors are m uch sim pler and cheaper than dc m otors.

T he rst three-phase line in N od h A m erica w ent illttl operation 1

@11 1893 a
2,300 V , 12 km line in southern C alifornia. A round this tim e, aC W aS chosen at
N iagara F alls because dc W aS n0t practical for transm itting POW Cr to B uffalo, about
30 aW ay.T his decision ended the ac versus dc controversy and established victory
for the aC system .
In the early period of ac pow er transm ission, frequency W aS not standardized.
4any different frequencies w ere in use: 25, 50, 60, 125, and 133 llz. T his posed a
problem for interconnection. E ventually 60 H z W aS adopted aS standard 1 @11 N od h
A m erica, although m any other countries use 50 llz.
T he increasing need for transm itting larger am ounts of pow er over longer
distances created an incentive to use progressively higher voltage levels. T he early ac Z k
 Sec. 1.2 Structure of the Pow er System 5

system s used 12,44,and 60 k V (RM S line-to-line). This rose to 165 kv 1@11 1922, 220
kv in 1923, 287 kv in 1935, 330 kv in 1953, and 500 kv 1 *11 1965. H ydro Q uebec
@

energized its f rst 735 kv 111 1966, and 765 kv W aS introduced 1

@11 the U nited States
*

111 1969.
T o avoid the proliferation of an unlim ited num ber of voltages, the industry has
standardized voltage levels.T he standards are 115, 138, 16 15 and 230 kv for the high
voltage (H V ) class,and 345,500 and 765 kv for the extra-high voltage (EH V ) class
f1,2J.
W ith the developm ent of m ercury arc valves in the early 1950s, high voltage
dc (H V D C)transm ission system s becam e econom icalin specialsituations.The H V D C
transm ission is attractive for transm ission of large blocks of pow er over long
distances. T he cross-over point beyond w hich dc transm ission m ay becom e a
com petitive alternative to ac transm ission is around 500 km for overhead lines and 50
km for underground or subm arine cables. H V D C transm ission also provides an
asynchronous link betw een system s w here ac interconnection w ould be im practical
because of system stability considerations or because nom inal frequencies of the
system s are different. T he rst m odern com m ercial application of H V D C transm ission
occurred in 1954 w hen the Sw edish m ainland and the island of G otland w ere
intercoM ected by a 96 subm arine cable.
shritlz the advent of thyristor valve converters, H V D C transm ission becam e
Cven nXore attractive. T he s rst application of an H V D C system using thyristor valves
W aS at E el R iver 1
@11 1972 -
a back-to-back schem e providing an asynchronous tie
betw een the POW er system s of Q uebec and N ew Brunsw ick. W ith the cost and size
of conversion equipm ent decreasing and its reliability increasing, there has been a
steady increase in the use of H V D C transm ission .
lnterconnection of neighbouring lltllities usually leads ttl im proved system
* *

security and econor;y of operatlon . Im proved securlty results from the m utual
Cm ergency assistance that the utilities can provide. Im proved econom y results from
the need for less generating reserve capacity On each system . ln addition, the
intercoM ection perm its the utilities to naake Cconom y transfers and thus take
advantage of the m ost econom ical SOurCeS of POW er. T hese benes ts have been
*

recognized from the beginning and interconnections contlnue to grosv.A lm ost a11 the
k
N

tltilities in the U nited States and C anada are nOw part of one interconnected system .
T he result is a Very large system of enorm ous com plexity . T he design of such a
system and its Secure operation are indeed challenging PrOblem s.

1 .2 S T R U C T U R E O F T H E P O W E R S Y S T E M

E lectric p ow er sy stem s vary in size and structural com ponents. H ow ever, they
a11 have the sam e basic characteristics' .

@ A re com prised of three-phase aC system s operating essentially at co n stan t

voltage. G eneration and transm ission facilities uSe three-phase equipm ent.
 6 G e n eral C h aracte ristics o f M o d ern P o w e r S y stem s C h aP . 1

Industrial loads are invariably three-phase; single-phase residential and

com m ercial loads are distributed equally am ong the phases so as to effectively
form a balanced three-phase system .

@ U se synchronous nAachines for generation of electricity . P rim e m overs conved

@

the Prlm ary SOUrCCS of energy (fossil,nuclear, and hydraulic) to m echanical

en ergy that 1
*S, 1
@11 turn, convel ed to electrical energy by synchronous
gen erators.

@ T ransm it pow er over signis cant distances to Consum ers spread OVer a w ide
area. T his requires a transm ission system com prising subsystem s operating at
different voltage levels.

F igure 1.1 illustrates the basic elem ents of a m odern POW CF system . E lectric
PoW er is produced at generating stations (G S) and transm itted to Consum ers through
a com plex netw ork of individual com ponents, including transm ission lines,
transform ers, and sw itching devices.
@

It is com m on practlce to classify the transm ission netw ork illttl the follow ing
subsy stem s:

1. T ransm ission system

2. Subtransm ission system

3. D istribution system

T he transm ission system intercoM ects a11 m alor

* generating stations and m ain
load centres in the system . It form s the backbone of the integrated pow er system and
Op erates at the highest voltage levels (typically, 230 kv and above).The generator
@

voltages are usually 111 the range of 11 to 35 kV . T hese arC stepped up to the
transm ission voltage level,and PoW er is transm itted to transm ission substations w here
the voltages are stepped dow n to the subtransm ission level (typically,69 kv to 138
kV ).The generation and transm ission subsystem s are often referred to aS the bulk
# OW er sy stem .
*

T he subtransm ission system transm its p ow er 111 sm aller quantities from the
@

transm ission substations to the distribution substations. L arge industrlal custom ers are
com m only supplied directly from the subtransm ission system . ln son:e system s, there
is no clear dem arcation betw een subtransm ission and transm ission circuits. A s the
sy stem expands and higher voltage levels beconae nCCCSSarY for transm ission, the
older transm ission lines are often relegated to subtransm ission function.
T he distribution system represents the s nal stage 1 *11 the transfer of PoW er to
the individual custom ers. T he prim ary distribution voltage is typically betw een 4 .0 kV
and 34.5 kV . Sm all industrial custom ers are supplied by prim ary feeders at this
Gvoltage level. T he secondary distribution feeders supply residential and conlnlercial
custom ers at 120/240 V .
S ec . 1 .2 S tructu re of the P o w er S y stem 7

GS

22 W

500 W 500 kv a?p kv

GS GS
20 kv 24 kv

T ie line to
neighbouring
system i
I T ransm jssjon
Transm ission system (230 kV )
system T ie line
(500 kV ) 230 kv l
.
! 345 kv
500 kv
T ransm ission T o subtransm ission and dl
kstribution
Su bsttion Y ulk
115 kv PoW er System

Subtransm ission Subtransm ission

and
distribution
lndustrial system
cu stom er lndustrial
115 kv custom er

D istribution
substation
12 .47 kv 3-phase prim al
feder
D istribution
S transform er
m all ja;/a4; v
GS Si
ngle-phase
C om m ercial secondry feeder
R esidential

F igu te 1.1 B asic ele> ents of a P oW er system

 8 G e n e ral C h aracte ristics o f M o d e rn P o w er S y stem s C h aP . 1

Sm all generating plants located near the load are often coM ected to the
subtransm ission Or distribution sy stem directly .
lnterconnections to neighbouring PoW er system s are usually form ed at the
transm ission system level.
T he overall system thus consists of m ultiple generating SOUCCCS and several
layers of transm ission netw orks. T his provides a high degree of structural redundancy
that enables the system to w ithstand unusual contingencies w ithout service disruption
to the Consum ers.

1 .3 P O W E R S Y S T E M C O N T R O L

T he function of an electric p ow er system is to convel energy from one of the

naturally available fornls to the electrical form and to transport it to the points of
@

consum ption . E nergy I *S seldom consunaed 1 @11 the electrical form but IS rather
convel ed to other fornls such as heat, light, and m echanical energy. T he advantage
of the electrical form of energy is that it can be transported and controlled w ith
relative ease and w ith a high degree of eff ciency and reliability . A properly designed
and operated PoW er system should, therefore, m eet the follow ing fundam ental
requirem ents..

1. T he system m ust be able to m eet the continually changing load dem and for
active and reactive POW er. U nlike other types of energy, electricity cannot be
conveniently stored 1@11 sufs cient quantities. T herefore, adequate Etspinning''
reserve of active and reactive PoW er should be m aintained and appropriately
controlled at a11 tl
*m es.

2. T he system should supply energy at m inim um cost and Ahritll m inim um

ecological lm pact.

3. T he <quajjty'' of pow er supply m ust m eet certain m inim um standards w ith

regard to the follow ing factors-
.

(a) constancy of frequency;

(b) copstancy of voltage;and

(c) levelof reliability.

Several levels of controls involving a com plex array of devices are used to m eet the
above requirem ents. T hese are depicted in F igure 1.2 w hich identis es the various
subsystem s of a pow er system and the associated controls. ln this overall structure,
there are controllers operating directly on individual system elem ents. ln a generatipg
V

unit these consist of prim e m over controls and excitation controlst T he prim e m over
controls are concerned w ith speed regulation and control of energy supply system
variables such aS boiler Pressures, tem peratures, and i ow s. T he function of the
>eC . 1.3 Po w er S y stem C o ntro l

F G enerator
requency T ie G ow s pow er

System G en eration C on trol

Schedule L oad frequency control w ith
econom ic allocation

Supplem entary
control
j--G enerating j
l p rjm e j
I U n it C on trols =
I m Ov er l X
Q
I and l
contro j I .T
I I a
l I > a
1
! shaft j x a
I pow er l .: :
I l % o
l E : o
xcitation l x =
l F ield l x 2
O
:
I system o eserator l Q .

l and cua en I
l t o
l control l l
o 4
l I ,
l V oltagoe Speed l
I

I speedmower I
E lectrical
p ow er
T ransm ission C on trols
R eactiv pow er and voltage control,
H V D C transm ission and associated controls

F requency T ie G enerator
G ow s pow er

F igure 1.2 Subsystem s of a POW er system and associated ontrols

 10 G e n eral C h aracteristics o f M o d ern P o w e r S y stem s C h ap . 1

excitation control is to regulate generator voltage and reactive pow er output. T he

desired M W outputs of the individual generating units are determ ined by the system -
generation control.
T he prim ary PurPOSe of the system -generation control I @S to balance the total
system generation against system load and losses so that the desired frequency and
pow er interchange w ith neighbouring system s (tie fow s) is m aintaind.
T he transm ission controls include pow er and voltage control devices, such as
static var com pen sators, synchronous condensers, sw itched capacitors and reactors,
tap-changing transform ers, phase-shifting transform ers, and H V D C transm ission
controls.
T he controls described above contribute to the satisfactory operation of the
P oW er system by m aintaining system voltages and frequency and other system
variables Nhritllirl their acceptable ll @ts. T hey also hve a profound effect on the
@m l
dynam ic perform ance of the PoW er system and on its ability to cope w ith
disturbances.
T he control objectives are dependent On the Operating State Of the pow er
sy stem . U nder norm al condition s, the control Objective is to Operate as effciently as
possible Nh?itll voltages and frequency close to nom inal values. W hen an abnorm al
condition develop s, neW objectives m ust be m et to restore the system to norm al
operation .
M ajor system failures are rarely the resultof a single catastrophic disturbance
causing collapse of an apparently Secure system . Such failures are usually brought
about by a com bination of circum stances that stress the netw ork beyond its capability.
Severe natural disturbances (such aS a tornado, Severe storm , Or freezing rain),
equipm ent m alfunction, hum an error, and inadequate design com bine to w eaken the '
x

pow er system and eventually lead to its breakdow n . T his m ay result 1 @11 cascading
outages that m ust be contained w ithin a sm all Pa= of the system if a m alof
* blackout
is to be prevented.

Operating states of a powtr system and controlstrategies JZ V

F or PUCPOSCS of analyzing PoW er system security and designing appropriate

control system s, it is helpful to conceptually classify the system -operating conditions
illttl l ve states: norm al, alert, em ergency, i'l extrem is, and restorative. F igure 1.3
depicts these operating states and the W ays 1 *11 w hich transition Can take place from
One state ttl another.
ln the norm al state, all system variables are Al?itllill the norm al range and no
equipm ent is being overloaded. T he system operates 1 @1l a Secure m alm er and is.able
to w ithstand a contingency w ithout violating any of the constraints.
T he system enters the alert state if the security level falls below a certain lim it
of adequacy, Or if the possibility of a disturbance increases because of adverse
w eather conditions such aS the approach of SCVCCC storm s. l11 this state, a11 system
variables are still An?itllill the acceptable range and a1l con straints are satisf ed.
H ow ever, the system has been yveakened to a level w here a contingency m ay Cause
 S ec . 1.3 Po w er S ystem C o ntro l 11
j

N orm al

R estorative A lert

In extrem is E m ergency

F igu re 1.3 P ow er system operating states

an overloading of equipm ent that places the system 111 an enAergency state. If the
disturbance I
*S Very Severe,the i'3extrem is (or ex trem e em ergency) state m ay result
directly from the alert state.
Preventive action, such aS generation sllifting (security dispatch) Or increased
re se rv e y can be taken to restore the system to the norm al state. lf the restorative steps

do n0t succeed, the system rem ains 1 @11 the alert state.
T he system en ters the em ergency state if a sufs ciently Severe disturbance
OCCUFS w hen the system I @S 1
*11 the alert state. In this state, voltages at m any buses are
*

1()AA? and/or equipm ent loadings exceed short-term Cm ergency ratlngs. T he system I *S
still intact and m ay be restored to the alert state by the initiating of em ergency control
* @ @

actions: fault clearing, excitation control, fast-valving, generatlon trlpplng, generation

run-back, H V D C m odulation, and load curtailm ent.
lf the above DACaSUrCS are not applied Or are ineffective, the system I @S
extrem is; the result is cascading outages and possibly a shut-dow n of a m ajor portion
of the system . C ontrol actions, such as load shedding and controlled system
separation, are aim ed at saving as m uch of the system as pojsible from a w idespread
blackout.
T he restorative state represents a condition 1 @11 w hich control action I
*S being
taken to recoM ect a11 the facilities and to restore system load. T he system tran sits
from this state to either the alert state Or the norm al state, depending on the system
conditions.
C haracterization of the system conditions irlttl the f ve states aS described
above provides a fram ew ork in w hich control strategies can be developed and operator
actions identif ed to deal effectively w ith each state.
12 G e ne ral C h a racte ristics o f M o d ern P o w e r S y stem s C h ap . 1

F or a system that has been disturbed and that has entered a degraded operating
state, P OW CC sy stem controls assist the Operator 1
*11 returning the system to a norm al
*

state . lf the disturbance IS sm all, pow er system controls by them selves m ay be able
@

to achieve this task . H ow ever, if the disturbance IS large, it is possible that Op erator
actions such aS generation rescheduling Or elem ent sw itching m ay be required for a
return ttl the norm al state.
T he philosophy that has evolved to COPe AAritll the diverse requirem ents of
@

system control COm Pr1SeS a hierarchial structure aS shou 1

@11 F igure 1.4. ln this
stru ctu re, there are controllers operating directly on individual system elem ents such 7

as excitation system s, prim e m overs, boilers, transform er tap changers, and dc

converters. T here is usually som e form of overall plant controller that coordinates the
controls of closely linked elem ents. T he plant controllers are in turn supervised by
system controllers at the operating centre. T he system -controller actions are
coordinated by pool-level m aster controllers. T he overall control system is thus highly
distributed, and relies on m any different types of telem etering and control signals.
Supervisory Control and D ata A cquisition (SCA D A ) system s provide inform ation to
indicate the system status. State estim ation program s s lter m onitored data and provide
an accurate picture of the system 's condition. T he hum an operator is an im portant link
at various levels 1@11 this control hierarchy and at key locations On the system . T he
prim ary function of the operator is to m onitor sy stem perform ance and DAanage
resources SO aS to ensure econom ic operation w hile m aintaining the required quality

P ool control centre

T o other system s system control centre Y 0 Other system s

T ransm ission plant P ow er plant

D istribution centres G enerating units

F igu re 1.4 P ow er system control hierarchy

h
.
S ec . 1 .4 D esig n and O eratin 9 C rite ria fo r S tab ility 13

and reliability of POW er supply . D uring systel em ergencies, the operator plays a key
role by coordinating related inform ation from diverse sources and developing
* *

correctlve strategles ttl restore the system to a m ore secure state of operation .

1 .4 D ES IG N A N D O P E R A T IN G C R IT E R IA FO R S T A B ILIT Y

F or reliable service, a bulk electricity system m ust rem ain intact and be
capable of w ithstanding a w ide variety of disturbances T herefore, it is essential that
.

the system be designed and operated so that the m ore probable contingencies can be
sustained w ith no loss of load (except that connected to the faulted elem ent) and so
that the m ost adverse possible contingencies do not result in uncontrolled , w idespread
and cascading pow er interruptions.
T he N ovem ber 1965 blackout in the northeastern part of the U nited States and
O ntario had a profound im pact on the electric utility industry , particularly in N orth
A m erica. M any questions w ere raised relating to design concepts and planning
criteria. T hese 1ed to the form ation of the N ational E lectric R eliability C ouncil in
1968. T he nam e w as later changed to the N orth A m erican E lectric R eliability C ouncil
(N ERC).1ts purpose is to augm ent the reliability and adequacy of bulk pow er supply
in the electricity system s of N orth A m erica. N E R C is com posed of nine regional
reliability councils and encom passes virtually a11 the pow er system s in the U nited
States and C anada. R eliability criteria for system design and operation have been
established by each regional council. Since differences exist in geography , load
pattern, and pow er sources, criteria for the various regions differ to som e extent g5).
D esign and operating criteria play an essentialrole in prevenying m ajor system
dijturbances follow ing severe contingencies. T he use of criteria ensures that, for all
frequently occurring contingencies, the system w ill, at w orst, transit from the norm al
state to the alert state, tather than to a nAore Severe state such aS the em ergency state
Or the extrem is state. W hen the alert state I *S entered follow ing a contingency ,
Operators Can take actions to return the system to the norm al state .

T he follow ing exam ple of design and operating criteria related to system
stallilit)r is based on those of the N ortheast P ow er Coordinating Council (N PCC) g6).
lt does not attem pt to provide an exact reproduction of the N P C C criteria but gives
an indication of the types of contingencies considered for stability assessm ent .

N orm al desig n con ting en cies

'>

T he criteria require that the stability of the bulk p ow er system be m aintained

during and after the m ost Severe of the contingencies specif ed below , w ith due regard
to reclosing facilities. T hese contingencies are selected on the basis that they have a
*

signis cant probability of occurrence glven the large num ber of elem ents com prising
the P oW er sy stem .
T he norm al design contingencies include the follow ing ' .
 14 G e n eral C h aracte ristics o f M o d ern P o w e r S y stem s C hap . 1

(a) A perm anent three-phase fault On any generator, transm ission circuit,
transform er or bus section, w ith norm al fault clearing and w ith due regard to
reclosing facilities.

(b) Sim ultaneous perm anent phase-to-ground faults on different phases of each of @

tw o adjacent transm ission circuits on a m ultiple-circuit tow er, cleared 111

norm al tim e.

(c) A perm anent phase-to-ground fault on any transm ission circuit, transform er,
or bus section w ith delayed clearing because of m alfunction of circuit breakers,
relay, Or signal channel.

(d) Loss of any elem ent w ithout a fault.

(e) A perm anent phase-to-ground fault On a circuit breaker, cleared 1

*11 norm al
tim e.

(f) Sim ultaneous perm anent loss of both poles of a dc bipolar facility.

T he criteria rzquire that, follow ing any of the above contingencies, the stability of the
sy stem be m aintained, and voltages and line and equipm ent loadings be Ahritllirl
applicable lim its.
T hese requirem ents apply to the follow ing tAA?tl basic conditions'
.

(1) A 11facilities 1
@11service.

(2) A critical generator, transm ission circuit, Or transform er Out of service,

assum ing that the area generation and POW er Pow s are adjusted betw een
outages by uSe of ten m inute CCSCrVC.

E x trem e con ting en cy assessnlen t

T he extrem e contingency assessm ent recognizes that the interconnected bulk

P oW er sy stem Can be subjected to events that exceed in severity the norm al design
contingencies. T he objective is to determ ine the effects of extrem e contingencies O n
sy stem perform ance in order to obtain an indication of system strength and to
determ ine the extent of a yvidespread sy stem disturbance Cven though extrem e
contingencies do have Very 1()A4? probabilities of OCCurrCnCe. A ftir an analylis and
assessnAen t of extrem e contingencies, nxeasures are to be utilized, w here appropriatrc
to reduce the frequency of OCCurrenCC of such contingencies Or to m itigate the
Consequences that are indicated aS a result of sim ulating for such contingencies.
T he extrem e contingencies include the follow ing :

(a) Loss of the entire capability of a generating station.

 S ec. 1.4 D esign and O Peratin9 C riteria for Stability 15

(b) Loss of a1l lines em anating from a generating station, sw itching station Or
substation .

(c) Loss of a11transm ission circuits On a COnUnOn right-of-w ay.

(d) A perm anent three-phase fault On any generator, transm ission circuit,
transform er, or bus section, w ith delayed fault clearing and w ith due regard ttl
reclosing facilities.

(e) The sudden dropping of a large-load 0r m ajor-load centre.

(f) The effectof severe POW ersw ings arising from disturbances outside the N PCC
interconnected system s.

(g) Fai l
ur e or m isoperation of a
rejection, load rejecton, or special protection system , such as a generation
transm ission cross-tripping schem e.

System design for stabilip

T he design of a large interconnected system to ensure stable operation at

*

m inim um cost ls a very com plex prbblem . T he econom ic gains to be realized through
the solution to this problem are enorm ous. F rona a control theory point Of vi' ew , the
* @

pow er sy stem is a Very hlgh-order m ultivariable P rOCCSS, operating ln a constantl y

@

changing envlronm ent. B ecause of the high dim ensionality and com plexity of the
system , it is essential to naake sim plifying assum ptions and to analyze specis c
PrO blenAs using the right degree of detai l of system representation . T his requires a
good grasp of the characteristics of the overall system aS w ell aS of those of its
individual elem ents.
@

T he PoW er sy stem IS a highly nonlinear sy stem w hose dynam ic perform ance

@

IS ini uenced by a w ide array of devices w ith different reSPOnSe rates and
characteristics. System stability m ust be view ed not as a single problem , but rather in
term s of its different aspects. T he next chapter describes the different form s of pow er
system stability PrOblem s.
C haracteristics of virtually every m ajor elem ent of the pow er system have an
effect On system stability . A know ledge of thege characteristics is essential for the
understanding and study of p ow er system stability . T herefore, equipm ent
characteristics and m odelling w ill be discussed in Part II. Intricacies of the physical
asp ects of varlous categoris of the system stability, m ethods of their analysis, and
special nAeasu rs for enhancing stability perform ance of the pow er system w ill be
presented in P art 111.
16 G e n e ral C h aracte ristics o f M o d ern P o w e r S y stem s C h aP . 1

R E FE R E N C ES

(1) H .M .Rustebakke (editor),Electric Utility System s and Practices,Jolm W iley

& Sons, 1983.

(21 C .A . G ross, Power System A nalysis, Second Edition, John W iley & Sons,
1986.

(31 L.H . Fink and K . Carlsen, (to perating under Stress and Strain '' IE E E
Sp ectrum , PP . 48-53, M arch 1978.

g41 EPRI R eport EL 6360-L, ttD ynam ics of lnterconnected Pow er Sy stem s: A
T utorial for System D isp atchers and P lant O perators,55 F inal Report of Project
2473-15, prepared by P ow er T echnologies ln c., M ay 1989.

(51 IEEE Special Publication 77 CH 1221-1-PW R , Symposium On Reliability

Criteria for System Dynam ic Perform ance, 1977.

(61 N ortheast Pow er Coordinating Council, (tgasjc Criteria for D esign and
O peration of lntercoM ected P ow er System s,55 O ctober 26, 1990 revision .