Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
3 July-September 2005
Contract hatchery systems for shrimp health Rainbow trout culture in Iran
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In this issue
Sustainable aquaculture
Contract hatchery systems: A practical approach to procure quality seeds 30 Page 24.
for aquaclubs of small-scale shrimp farmers in India
Arun Padiyar
Cage cum pond fish production using mixed sex nile tilapia in Nepal 44
A.K. Rai, M.K. Shrestha and S. Rai
Page 38.
July-September 2005 3
For a stable footing: The For the fish health program, sup-
first 5-year Work Program port came from the ADB for a regional Updates
study on fish disease control and fish
The NACA Project, having demon- health management. This regional study We are pleased to announce
strated the effectiveness of the network consisted of expert visits to countries, that the Asian Development
of regional collaborative efforts in consultations and a regional work- Bank has awarded NACA a
developing aquaculture, was recom- shop, recommended a regional action 2-year contract to manage a
mended to be elevated to the status program on fish health management project aimed at rehabilitating
of an intergovernmental organization including a networking mechanism for the aquaculture and fisheries
and to be further strengthened, while research and information exchange; a sector of Aceh. The project
continuing to establish collaborative ar- region-wide fish disease monitoring will manage a US$30,000,000
rangements with UNDP/FAO and other and reporting system; and a capacity grant to Indonesia under
international and donor agencies. With building in prevention, diagnostics, the Banks Earthquake and
further support, NACA continued to treatment and regulation. Emergency Support Project
offer an opportunity for donor govern- The interrelationships between the (Fisheries Component). Our
ments and agencies to work together on impact of environmental changes on associates in this project are
activities of mutual interest. the development of aquaculture and the Sloane Cook & King Pty
The obligatory contribution of mem- the impact of aquaculture itself on the Ltd, Australia and PT Trans
ber governments, based on a formula environment became emphasized in the Intra Asia, Indonesia.
developed by agreement, was seen as regional program; its objective was to We have also expanded our
sufficient only to maintain a core staff ensure the development of the aquacul- tsunami rehabilitation and
of nationals seconded by the govern- ture sector in harmony with the rest of development activities in
ments or recruited directly. Therefore, the economy. Southern Thailand to three
donors had to be found for most of the Emphasis was made on the impor- communities - in Phangnga,
field programs. In this connection, the tance of research in the improvement Krabi and Trang - and are
Five-Year Work Program approved by of important aquaculture systems at collaborating now with the
the Third Provisional Governing Coun- the regional lead centres. Proposals Rotary International, the Thai
cil Meeting held in Bangkok in January were made to obtain funding support Department of Fisheries,
1989 proposed a number of ways for from donors to carry out farm perform- CHARM (Coastal Habitat and
obtaining external funding support. ance surveys of selected systems and Resource Management, an
One of these was for NACA to under- technologies in different countries to EU supported project of the
take the responsibility of implementing provide the basis for development plan- Department of Fisheries), and
projects of international agencies like ning, investment and successful farm a Japanese civic group, the
UNDP and FAO, as well as the World management. A study of integrated Chiba Conference on Environ-
Bank and Asian Development Bank, fish farming systems was conducted mental Protection and Educa-
that fall within the field of interest and in China and data were collected from tion.
competence of the organization. other countries in the region. Further Indias Marine Products
The diversity of problems in the experimental studies were implemented Export Development Author-
region called for cooperative regional to delineate pond dynamics and waste ity has approved the exten-
action for solutions. The network recycling. Appropriate bio-economic sion of the MPEDA/NACA
mechanism has shown the effectiveness models of integrated fish farming sys- shrimp management and the
of pooling of resources and sharing of tems and models of modified systems environment project. The new
responsibilities, as well as results of re- were constructed for the different phase will expand the project
search and development in approaching sub-regions for field trials. The results from Andhra Pradesh to other
common problems. Increasing aquacul- obtained were disseminated in training states and entails organizing
ture production was done by increasing and workshops, and used to formulate and training more aquafarmer
the area or intensifying the production appropriate rural development pro- clusters. ACIAR has joined
systems. In either case, either approach grams. the project in India with a
spawned associated and linked socio- Socio-economic aspects of aquacul- component that will standard-
economic and environmental con- ture development were addressed with ize and calibrate PCR labs and
straints. The regions countries needed the aim of developing the capability train personnel, as well as con-
to adopt a collective approach in deal- of national administrators and plan- duct a rigorous study on the
ing with common problems through ners to ensure sustainable aquaculture transmission of viruses that
planning and adoption of realistic poli- for growth and social development. infect shrimp (more details in
cies for orderly development. NACA provided assistance to a number the NACA Newsletter). It is
NACAs work program for 199094 of governments in preparing national strong in scientific and techni-
was planned with the above issues in aquaculture development plans as well cal capacity building.
consideration. Proposals for the support as in undertaking studies for aquacul-
of research and training activities in ture investments.
this direction were formulated.
July-September 2005 5
Sustainable aquaculture
and medium-scale (1-2 ha) landowners (financial capital). However, the ability the countrys rural economy in 2002,
but 34 and 25% were below the poverty of poor people to farm fish for the first including post harvest handling and
line, respectively; however, the rest time for those involved was demon- marketing. Current employment figures
were only precariously above the pov- strated by the groups of mainly women for freshwater aquaculture and its as-
erty line and an unexpected crisis could from marginal and landless households sociated activities have been grossly
slide them into poverty. Just below in Chandpur. An innovative organi- underestimated. Survey respondents
half (43%) of the surveyed small-scale zational arrangement involved the overwhelmingly believed that aqua-
households farming tilapia in ponds in Department of Fisheries, which mainly culture had improved their welfare
Central Luzon were below the poverty provided technology and training, and through fish consumption and increased
line. While most of the cage operators an NGO, which mainly provided mi- incomes. The latter enabled poor
in Lake Taal were not poor, farming crocredit and assistance in input supply farming households to improve their
tilapia provided indirect benefits for and marketing, and training in financial housing and sanitation, and to pay for
the poor through direct employment management. The latter included a clothes, health services and their chil-
as cage and associated nursery pond savings scheme to build up the financial drens education.
caretakers, through cage and net mak- capital of the poor households so that The main recommendation of the
ing, supplying feed, and harvesting and they would eventually be able to farm study is to obtain a contextual under-
marketing fish. fish without project support. standing of the major ways in which
The poor are unlikely to farm fish However, freshwater aquaculture various types of small-scale freshwater
directly without access to land and makes a significant contribution to rural rural aquaculture can benefit the poor
water or natural capital. They also economics in terms of employment and to determine the conditions for
require access to other livelihood assets and income. For example, it generated making aquaculture work for them.
such as skills (human capital); infor- an output at farm gate of about $700 There is a need to:
mation, training and advisory services million in 2002 in Bangladesh. It is Analyze channels of effects for
(social capital), and household finance estimated that freshwater aquaculture poverty reduction
/ savings and formal / informal credit contributed more than $1 billion to
July-September 2005 7
Sustainable aquaculture
1. Australian Institute of Marine Science, PMB No. 3, Townsville MC, Queensland 4810, Australia,
email: d.mckinnon@aims.gov.au; 2. Jes Sammut, School of Biological, Earth and Environmental Sciences, The University of
New South Wales, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia, email: j.sammut@unsw.edu.au
Two new projects will commence this farming systems are often developed in coastal planners involved in the devel-
year in Indonesia, both funded by the areas that are more suited to less inten- opment of aquaculture industries.
Australian Centre for International sive or alternative aquaculture systems. The new ACIAR project will de-
Agricultural Research (ACIAR). These Consequently, the development of land velop more effective and informative
projects have a common theme of capability classification schemes is now site selection criteria and land capabil-
providing tools for the management of a high priority in Indonesia to ensure ity assessment techniques to produce
coastal aquaculture, and will be prima- that new aquaculture enterprises are land classification schemes and maps
rily based at the Research Institute for sustainable. for a variety of land-based aquaculture
Coastal Aquaculture (RICA) in South Aquaculture stakeholders in systems in Indonesia. Land capability
Sulawesi. The projects, Land capabil- Indonesia have identified a number assessment protocols will be devel-
ity assessment and classification for of research needs to more properly oped using geospatial data and satellite
sustainable pond-based, aquaculture manage brackish water aquaculture in imagery for regional-scale environ-
systems (Dr. Jes Sammut, University of Indonesia. These included: (i) identi- mental assessment. The project outputs
New South Wales) and Planning tools fication of environmental constraints will also include accompanying land
for environmentally sustainable tropical on pond production, particularly in capability maps for sustainable pond-
finfish cage culture in Indonesia and reference to soil and water limitations; based aquaculture and where required,
northern Australia (Dr. David McKin- (ii) low cost techniques to characterise combined land and water classification
non, Australian Institute of Marine soil and water properties and to assess schemes. The classification scheme will
Science) share the following common site suitability; (iii) protocols to classify use mapping units that identify envi-
themes: and rank land capability for a range of ronmental suitability for a range of land
Multivariate analysis of environ- aquaculture systems to maintain diver- and sea-based aquaculture systems and
mental & production factors; sity and to reduce resource competi- prescribe important farm management
Identification of optimal environ- tion; and (iv) coastal resource and land practices to address common envi-
mental conditions for aquaculture suitability/capability mapping to guide ronmental limitations. Farm-level site
systems; environmental decision makers and selection criteria, utilizing low cost and
Development of coastal capability simple technology, will be developed to
assessment techniques; and
Development of a coastal classifica-
tion scheme, mapping protocols and
models.
July-September 2005 9
Sustainable aquaculture
1. Organic Food Development Center of State Environmental Protection Administration, and Nanjing Institute of
Environmental Sciences, State Environmental Protection Administration, 8 Jiangwangmiao Street, Nanjing 210042, China,
email xxaabb@yahoo.com; 2. State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment,
Nanjing University, Nanjing 210093, China.
July-September 2005 11
Sustainable aquaculture
The farm systems (Table 1). The two systems had by sampling 20 individuals every 10
the same total water, nitrogen and phos- days. Aeration was applied twice per
The study area is located in Xuwei salt phorus inputs. Disease and physical day from 07000800 and 14001500
field, Yellow Seaside, Lianyungang disorders were monitored throughout h on sunny days before June, three
city of Jiangsu Province, China and whole growing season by the farmers times a day in July and August 0500
was part of a 10-ha commercial shrimp and by professional consultants who 0600,14001500 and 21002200 h,
farm. We studied four ponds, two un- recommended organic and conventional and on cloudy or rainy days over the
dergoing conventional production and treatments for their control. whole course of the study. The water
two undergoing organic production. One month before the beginning of in the systems was exchanged and
The ponds were about 0.33 ha (110 the experiment, the two systems were added as required to make up for losses
m length 30 m width) and 2.8 m in fertilized with fully composted chicken due to evaporation and seepage and to
depth. A 1500-W aerator was fixed manure to cultivate natural food. After improve the water quality in the ponds.
in the center of each pond to prevent stocking, composted chicken manure Water exchange normally happened at
water stratification and to increase the was applied in both the conventional monthly intervals and varied according
concentration of dissolved oxygen to a and organic ponds, according to water to the stage of the production cycle and
small extent. color and secchi disc visibility, to keep different management systems.
the optimum water color and transpar-
The farming system ency of 30-40 cm during the experi- Analysis
ment. Shrimp in conventional ponds
The Naturland Standards for Organic were fed with a commercial pellet Standard water quality parameters were
Aquaculture8 and IFOAM Draft Stand- manufactured by the local Sulanlin monitored (Table 2). Measurements of
ard for Aquaculture Production12 were Fishery Feed Co. Ltd., Jiangsu, China. temperature, salinity, dissolved oxygen
adopted in the organic farming system. Shrimp in organic ponds were fed and pH of pond water were performed
The ponds were stocked with native with a formulation containing wild on site during the sampling process, at
juvenile Penaeus chinensis (Chinese artemia from local salt pans, organic a depth of 30 cm in each pond. Am-
shrimp) bought from the shrimp farm soybean from OFDC certified farms (an monium, nitrite, nitrate and phosphate
of Sea Institute of Shandong Province. IFOAM accredited organic certifier in were quantified in the laboratory ap-
Shrimp were stocked in two systems China) and natural clam, in accordance plying standard methods41. Discharged
on at a density of 16 individuals/m2 with organic requirements. Feeding water quantity was recorded and water
with the body length of 0.840.16 cm. was conducted twice per day in the samples were monitored also. When
Before stocking, the juveniles were beginning (April), gradually increas- harvesting, samples of fresh shrimp (20
acclimatized to seawater with a salinity ing in frequency to five times per day individuals) were collected randomly
of 30 parts per thousand. In cooperation (August-September) as shrimp grew. from organic and conventional shrimp
with the farmers, we chose appropri- Feeding behavior was monitored with farming systems. Body length, body
ate management practices for the two check trays, and growth was monitored
weight and amino acid levels were Table 2. Variables studied and corresponding methodology.
analyzed.
We also calculated gross receipts Variable Monitoring Method
using farm gate prices for shrimp sold pH Twice daily pH / mV meter / electrode
at harvest or after storage. Prices for the Dissolved oxygen 10 days Oxygen meter
specific size and grade and for con- Salinity 10 days Refaractometry
ventional vs organic shrimps from our Temperature Twice daily Thermometer
study were based on practical prices. Ammonium Nesselerization/
Monthly
Total costs included non-harvested Spectrophotometry
variable costs (fertilizers, pesticides, Nitrite Diazotization/
Monthly
feed, fuel, labour, electricity and hous- Spectrophotometry
ing), harvest variable costs (harvesting, Nitrate Monthly Cadmium reduction/ diazotization
grading, packing and storage) and fixed Ammonium molybdate/
Phosphate Monthly
costs (machinery, interest and taxes). Spectrophotometry
Amino acid When harvesting Amino acid analyzer
Water quality
Table 3. Temperature, pH, salinity and DO for organic system and
The quality of two pond systems was conventional nutrients.
evaluated by analyzing the parameters
mentioned above. The results were Parameter Organic system Conventional system
shown as follows: pH 8.4-8.8 8.6-8.9
Salinity () 13.5-19.6 13.5-19.6
pH, temperature, salinity and Temperature(C) 19.5-29.8 19.5-29.8
dissolved oxygen DO (mg/l) 5.0-6.0 5.0-5.8
The quality data are listed in Table 3. Harvest and shrimp quality and 100% indicated that it had a firmer
During the field experiment, salinity texture.
fluctuated between 13.5 and 19.6, Due to early signs suggesting viral
temperature fluctuated from 19.5 to disease, shrimp in the conventional Benefits of the two treatment
29.8C, pH from 8.4 to 8.9, and dis- production system were harvested from systems
solved oxygen from 5.0 mg/l to 6.0 10-12 August. Shrimp from the organic
mg/l. There were no significant differ- system were harvested on September Net economic income in organic and
ences in above-mentioned parameters 15. The final culture duration was 127 conventional systems were 6182 and
between conventional and organic days for conventionally farmed shrimp 103 RMB yuan/mu (here, RMB is the
treatments throughout the experiment. and 153 days for organic. abbreviation of the currency used in
The concentration of ammonium, The harvested organic shrimp had P.R. China, and Yuan is its monetary
nitrite, nitrate and phosphate are given a significantly higher average body unit whose exchange rate to US dollar
in Figures 1-4, respectively. The pattern length of 14.1 cm, and fresh body is 1 : 8.3 or so; mu is Chinese unit of
of all four nutrients shows considerable weight of 22.4g (dry body weight area whose exchange rate to ha is 1:15),
differences between the two production 6.1g), higher than conventionally with the ratio of total costs to gross
systems. Both systems displayed in- farmed shrimp, which had an average receipts of 1 : 1.76 and 1 : 1.08 re-
creases in the concentration of nutrients body length of 10.6 cm and fresh body spectively. The organic shrimp system
over time. However, levels of nitrite, weight of 13.1g, (dry body weight exhibited significantly better economic
nitrate and phosphate were significantly 3.9g). The net organic shrimp yield was efficiency (Table 6).
higher in the conventional system, 3,060 kg/ha compared to 1,545kg/ha We assessed the environmental
while ammonium concentration higher for conventionally farmed shrimp benefits of the two production systems
in the organic system. (Table 4). Survival in ponds was 85.4% by comparing the total discharged
for organically farmed shrimp and 73.7 nitrogen and phosphorus quantity. The
Disease % for conventional respectively. Feed total discharged water quantity during
conversion ratio was 1.18 for or- the culture period was lower for the or-
A potential incidence of viral disease ganic and 1.26 for conventional ponds. ganic system than for the conventional
was found in the conventional system Analysis of amino acid content, an system (Table 7). The conventional
in mid August, however, no disease indication of shrimp quality, found that system discharged 34.27 kg of nitrogen
was observed in the organically farmed content in organic shrimp was higher and 0.3747 kg phosphorus; some 14.89
shrimp throughout the whole growing for most, though not all, amino acids kg and 0.3418 kg more than that for the
season. (Table 5). We conducted a taste panel organic system respectively. This indi-
of 15 consumers to evaluate percep- cates that the organic system performed
tions of shrimp quality. 80% found that better in terms of nutrient load on the
organically farmed shrimp tasted better, environment.
July-September 2005 13
Sustainable aquaculture
Environmentally friendly Table 4. Mean final sizes and yield of cultured shrimp in the organic
production and conventional systems. The parameters were presented as mean
standards deviation except for net yield.
Adverse environmental impacts re-
lated to shrimp aquaculture have been Body length Fresh body Dry body Net yield
widely reported in the literature3,25,26,27. (cm) weight (g) weight (g) (kg/ha)
There is a large amount of nutrients Organic 14.10.4 22.43.6 6.10.4 3060
in shrimp ponds derived directly from Conventional 10.60.3 13.10.8 3.90.3 1545
feeding and fertilization or indirectly
from primary productivity, some of
which is dissolved or suspended in Table 5. Amino acid content for harvested organic and conventional
water, some of which is deposited at shrimp.
the bottom of the pond. Much of these
nutrients are wasted in the middle and Amino acid Organic (g/g DW) Conventional (g/g DW)
later culture stages of the monoculture Asp 0.091 0.064
system because it cannot be fed upon Glu 0.116 0.055
directly by shrimp28. During the course Ser 0.031 0.032
of conventional aquaculture, untreated His 0.013 0.009
waste water laden with uneaten feed Gly 0.074 0.060
and fish faeces may contribute to nutri- Thr* 0.028 0.025
ent pollution near surrounding water Arg 0.073 0.062
bodies29. Moreover, nitrogen wastes Ala 0.048 0.046
(for example, ammonia and nitrite) that Tyr 0.024 0.021
exceed the assimilative capacity of re- Cys-cys 0.090 0.070
ceiving waters can lead to deterioration Val* 0.038 0.037
in water quality that is toxic to fish and Met* 0.023 0.022
shrimp. Leaching from both uneaten Phe* 0.028 0.026
feed and shrimp faeces results in sig- Ile* 0.034 0.033
nificant amounts of dissolved organic Leu* 0.058 0.055
nitrogen being released in the water30. Lys* 0.051 0.050
Our findings show that organic Pro 0.125 0.159
shrimp production can make more effi- Trp* 0.012 0.009
cient use of input materials, effectively * Essential amino acid for humans.
reducing the loading of organic matter
both within the pond and in discharged lower phosphorus leaching if used as Disease
waters. This difference is probably due feed of aquatic animals.
in part to differences in the nutrient However, we also found that the Disease is recognized as one of the big-
quality and composition of feed, which organic system has its own problems. gest obstacles for the future of shrimp
are likely to have a significant impact The ammonium level is higher in the aquaculture and they indirectly have
on nitrogen and phosphorus leach- organic pond than in the conventional bearing on the environment3. Viral and
ates. Artemia, fed to the organically system. This may be attributed to the bacterial diseases, together with poor
farmed shrimp, is one of the best live high NH3 excretion rate from the gills soil and water quality, are the main
foods for and can be digested fully by of organically farmed shrimp. Previ- causes of shrimp mortality34,35, although
shrimp, with a protein conversion rate ous studies have shown that the main deficient environmental management of
of around 80%, significantly more than source of ammonium is ammonia shrimp farms is another determinant36.
fishmeal31,32 upon which the artificial excreted from shrimp gills30. Management of the pond environ-
diet given to conventionally farmed ment is probably the most important
shrimp was based. Soybean has a low factor for disease prevention in shrimp
phosphorus level33, which results in mariculture36. Conventional shrimp
farming systems are reliant on nutrient-
Table 6. Economic benefits for organic and conventional shrimp systems (unit: RMB yuan).
Table 7. Discharged water for the two production systems and correspondent nitrogen and phosphorus
quantity (Nitrogen=NH4++NO3-+NO2-; Phosphorus = Phosphate).
rich feed inputs. If not properly man- August. During this period, first signs higher profits while producing a better
aged, this can cause deterioration of the of disease appeared in the conventional quality product. Although shrimp yield
pond environment leading to disease37. system. In order to reduce disease risk, and quality are important products of
Although based on a very limited the grow-out period in shrimp farming a farming system, the benefit of the
trial, our study suggests that organic is often shortened, resulting in harvest- environment quality provided by the
management practices may be able to ing of smaller shrimp. Sometimes, organic production system is equally
reduce disease risks. This may be at- cultivation continues until first signs valuable and usually overlooked in the
tributed to superior water quality in the of disease appear when the crop is marketplace. Such external benefits
organic shrimp pond. As for the other immediately harvested and can still be come at a financial cost to farmers.
mechanisms, the authors are of the fol- marketed, but at lower quality38. That It would be very interesting to com-
lowing opinions. In contrast to conven- was the case happened in our study too. pare organic and conventional shrimp
tional production, the basic standards of approaches in a costbenefit analysis
organic aquaculture production include Product quality including environmental costs and
regulations concerning cultivating sustainability issues (environmental
conditions, which serve as preventive The harvested organic shrimp was and economic) to see how we should
measures. For example, we created generally superior with regards to im- optimize shrimp production. Due to
physical buffer zones around organic portant variables such as taste, firmness high cost, organic farmers may be un-
pond to prevent the entry and spread of and amino acid levels. In the consum- able to maintain profitable enterprises
disease from off-farm. Adequate poli- ers mind, organic produce must be without economic incentives, such
cies and regulations had been taken to better and healthier than that produced as price premiums or subsidies for
control the entry and escape of species under conventional farming system. organic products. The challenge fac-
cultivated in the organic pond as well This image is also the main motive ing policymakers is to incorporate the
as movement of water and people. for consumers who are willing to pay value of ecosystem processes into the
premium prices for purchasing organic traditional marketplace, thereby sup-
Economic benefit food39. Therefore, quality differences porting organic food producers in their
have been the subject of many recent attempts to employ both economically
It appears that disease was the main comparisons between conventional and environmentally superior organic
proximate factor for the final economic and organic food17,40. However, a clear management practices.
benefit. We assessed the economic comparison between organic and con-
benefit of the two production system by ventional produced products is difficult Acknowledgments
calculating the net profit in this study. to establish due to the great variation
The organic system was significantly within the production methods, con- Financial support for this study was
more profitable than the conventional cerning among other things, intensifica- provided by the Technical Center for
system. Higher production costs for tion, feeding rate or breeds used6. Nanjing University and Jiangsu Salt
the organic system were largely due Industrial Group Company. The authors
to differences in feed applications, Conclusion thank Ding Zhuhong, Wang Guichun
labour, housing, electricity, operation and Qian Guangliang for their assist-
etc. The cumulative gross receipt can Our results show that the organic ance in the field and in the laboratory.
vary depending on several factors, shrimp production system trialled in Sincere thanks are also due to shrimp
such as shrimp body length, prices, Lianyungang city of Jiangsu Province farmers of Xuwei Salt Field who al-
yields, shrimp taste and shrimp quality. is not only better for the environment lowed us access to their farm for the
Regarding shrimp body length, the than its conventional counterpart, but duration of the study.
breakeven point happened from July to has significantly comparable yields and
July-September 2005 15
Sustainable aquaculture
Fig. 1 Monthly patterns of NH4+ in the organic and Fig. 2 Monthly patterns of nitrite in the organic and
conventional systems, April to September. conventional systems, April to September.
0 6 0 035
C C
O 0 03 O
0 5
0 025
0 4
0 02
0 3
Nitrate
+
NH4
0 015
0 2
0 01
0 1
0 05
A M J J A S A M J J A S
Time
Fig. 3 Monthly patterns of nitrate in the organic and Fig. 4 Monthly patterns of phosphate in the organic
conventional systems, April to September. and conventional systems, April to September.
0 04
3 5
C
C 0 035 O
O
0 03
2 5
0 025
Phosphate
0 02
Nitrite
1 5
0 015
0 01
0 5 0 05
A M J J A S A M J J A S
Time Time
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21. Feber, R. E., L. G. Firbank, P. J. Johnson et al., Ecology, Stockholm University, 13, 151. that these serve as a model for other
1997. The effects of organic farming 38. Thongrak, S., Prato, T., Chiayvareesajja, S., Kurtz, locations in Indonesia and elsewhere in
on pest and non-pest butterfly abundance. Agric. Eco- W., 1997. Economic and water quality evaluation Southeast Asia. In Indonesia, a Na-
syst. Envir., 64 , 133-139 of intensive shrimp production systems in Thailand. tional Steering Committee under the
22. Cobb, D. et al., 1999. Integrating the environmental Agricultural Systems 53, 121-141 chairmanship of the Director General
and economic consequences of converting to or- 39. Lockie, S. et al., 2000. Constructing green foods: of Aquaculture (DGA) will integrate
ganic agriculture: evidence from a case study. Land Corporate capital, risk, and organic farming in project results and outputs into plan-
Use Policy, 16, 207-221. Australia and New Zealand. Agriculture and Human ning and decision making processes.
23. Cederberg, C. and B. Mattsson. 2000. Life cycle Values 17, 315-322 Liaison and coordination with a Local
assessment of milk production a comparison 40. Worthington. V. 1998. Effect of agricultural methods Advisory Group in South Sulawesi
of conventional and organic farming. Journal of on nutritional quality: A comparison of organic with will be mediated through the office of
Cleaner Production, 8, 49-60. conventional crops. Alternative Therapies 4, 58-69 the DGA. A model and decision sup-
24. Dalgaard, T. et al., 2001. A model for fossil energy 41. National Oceanographic Bureau. 1991. Water moni- port system will extend the results to
use in Danish agriculture used to compare organic toring and analysis. Specification of Oceanographic a broader range of environments, and
and conventional farming. Agriculture, Ecosystems Survey (HY003-1-91). Ocean Press, Beijing. will have application not only to the
& Environment, 87, 51-65. Indonesian and Australian situation, but
25. Primavera, J.H. 1997. Socio-economic impacts of to the tropical Asia-Pacific.
shrimp culture. Aquaculture Research, 28, 815-827 New ACIAR projects in Indonesia
26. Primavera, J.H. 1998. Tropical shrimp farming and ...continued from page 10. Whos involved?
its sustainability. In: De Silva, S. (Ed.). Tropical
Mariculture. Academic Press, London, 257-289 The sea-cage project will: These projects involve multi-discipli-
27. Phillips, M.J., 1998. Tropical mariculture and Generate a model to estimate carry- nary studies by a number of collaborat-
coastal environmental integrity. In: De Silva, S. ing capacity for fish cage culture in ing agencies. Most of the research will
(Ed.). Tropical Mariculture. Academic Press, Lon- a broad range of habitat types across be based at the Research Institute for
don, 17-69 the tropics. Coastal Aquaculture in Maros, South
28. Ding, T., Li, M., Liu, Z., 1995. The pattern and prin- Develop best practice guidelines for Sulawesi. Other agencies include the
ciples of synthetical culture of the prawn cultivating the aquaculture industry to minimise Gondol Research Institute for Maricul-
ponds. J. Zhejiang Fish. College, 15(2), 134-19 the environmental impact of waste ture in Bali, Gadjah Mada University in
29. Ervik, A. et al,1997. Regulating the Local Environ- products. Yogyakarta, and Hasanuddin Univer-
mental Impact of Intensive Marine Fish Farming, Place emphasis on deliverables to sity in Makassar. For the land-based
Aquaculture 158, 85-94 management authorities that will be project, the project leaders are Dr.
30. Burford, M.A. and K.C. Williams. 2001. The fate of easily implemented. Akhmad Mustafa and Dr. Jes Sammut
nitrogenous waste from shrimp feeding. Aquacul- at the University of New South Wales,
ture, 198, 79-93 Putting it all together: Minimising Sydney, Australia. The sea cage project
31. Li, R. 1983. Assessing the artemia as feed of conflicts between land- and sea- is lead by Dr. Rachmansyah rsyah@
aquatic animal. Marine Sciences, 5, 61-69 based aquaculture indosat.net.id and Dr. David McKin-
32. Zeng, G.Y., Li, R. and Guo, L., 1998. The prelimi- non d.mckinnon@aims.gov.au at the
nary analysis of protein, fatty acid, amino acid, min- The land- and sea-based projects will Australian Institute of Marine Science,
eral contents of Huangqihai Artemia Flakes. Acta jointly develop site selection criteria Townsville, Australia.
Scientiarum Naturalium Universitatis NeiMongol, for coastal aquaculture to develop an
29(2), 199-201 overall coastal classification scheme. References
33. Che, Z.L., 1998. Aquaculture feed and environ- Many environmental problems can be
mental impact. Journal of Oceanography in Taiwan conveniently avoided by appropriate Eng, C.T., Paw, J.N., Guarin, F.Y. (1989) The envi-
Strait, 17, 201-204 farm siting (Phillips 1998). ronmental impacts of aquaculture and the effects
34. Liao, I. C., 1989. Penaeus monodon culture in Tai- The community benefits in both of pollution on coastal aquaculture development
wan: through two decades of growth. Int. J. Aquat. countries include more accurate site in Southeast Asia. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 20,
Fish.Technol. 1, 1624. assessment, improved yields, more ef- 335-343.
35. Chamberlain, G.W., 1997. Sustainability of world fective environmental decision-making, Kawahara, S., Ismi, S. (2003) Grouper seed production
shrimp farming. In: Pikitch, E.K., Huppert, D.D., reduced social conflicts between land statistics in Indonesia. Departemen Kelautan dan
Sis-senwine, M.P (Eds.), Global Trends: Fisheries and sea-based aquaculture industries, Perikanan and JICA.
Management. American Fisheries Society Sympo- minimised socio-economic inequalities, Phillips, M.J. (1998). Chapter 2 - Tropical Mariculture
sium 20, Bethesda, MD. and improved resource management. and Coastal Environmental Integrity In Tropical
ACIAR will coordinate and run the Mariculture (De Silva, S.S. ed.), pp. 17-69. Aca-
land- and sea-based projects in parallel demic Press, London.
July-September 2005 17
Sustainable aquaculture Recycling water and making money
By Hassanai Kongkeo and Simon Wilkinson, NACA
Harvesting the Artemia pond: The slowly turning paddlewheel and bamboo guides direct Artemia into the shallow-set net
fixed in position behind, where it can be easily removed.
Serious about recycling most of the Thai industry has moved Before use in the hatchery, surface
away from P. monodon and the price water from earthen treatment ponds
If you think that you cant keep reusing of postlarvae has fallen, he points out is pumped into 30 ton concrete tanks
seawater, think again: Recently we that the price of P. monodon broodstock where it settles for a few days before
visited a shrimp hatchery that has been has also fallen to about 1,000 baht salinity adjustment. On average, water
recycling a single batch of seawater for (US$25) per animal from former levels salinity in treatment ponds should be
eleven years. Only freshwater has been of 10,000 baht (US$250). around 38 ppt. In the wet season, salin-
added to the system to control salinity, Although it is far from the sea ity may drop to 20 ppt, which requires
and no water has been discharged to the (30km), he selected this site for his addition of hypersaline water from
environment in the history of the farm. hatchery with an aim to use recycled the farms Artemia ponds to adjust it
At the same time the water quality in water to keep water quality stable, up to normal seawater salinity (30-35
production facilities is amongst the best reduce the risk of viral pathogens enter- ppt). In the dry season when salinity in
we have ever seen, and the hatchery is ing the hatchery system and to avoid treatment ponds may rise to more than
generating a tidy profit from its water ongoing costs such as transportation 40 ppt, it is necessary to dilute with
treatment ponds by making use of the of brine, commonly practiced by many freshwater. Then chlorine (30-50 UPN)
hypersaline waters to farm Artemia inland hatcheries in Thailand Khun is applied for elimination of phyto-
biomass and reclaim nutrients at the Banchong estimates that recycling plankton and disinfection, followed by
same time. water reduces his operational costs by heavy aeration to eliminate residues.
The hatchery is owned and operated 200,000 300,000 baht (US$5,000- The treated water is pumped through
by Khun Banchong Nissagavanich, 7,500) per month. He believes that the an efficient filter system and ozonated
Vice-President of the Thai Shrimp stable water quality is a key factor in before use in hatchery.
Producers Association, and located at the sustainability of a shrimp hatchery After hatchery use, water is drained
Banpho District, Chachoengsao Prov- and broodstock culture. Water drawn to treatment ponds (0.2-0.4 ha) for sedi-
ince, nearly 60 km east of Bangkok. from the sea or from estuaries may mentation and breakdown of organic
Khun Banchong specialises in Penaeus fluctuate in parameters such as pH, loads. Algae and seaweeds seeded
monodon, his hatchery has never pro- alkalinity, salinity, temperature and in the ponds and mangroves planted
duced P. vannamei and he has no inten- plankton content, creating stress and around the edges assimilate some of
tion to start now particularly since the variation in shrimp survival rates. the nutrients and dissolved organic
price of P. vannamei has crashed. While compounds that are released. At night,
Water treatment canals and ponds are aerated and lined with mangroves to assist in improving water quality. The dykes are
lined with pigface, a hardy and salt-tolerant plant, to reduce erosion.
July-September 2005 19
Sustainable aquaculture
Harvesting Artemia
Magazine
Advances in the seed production
of Cobia Rachycentron canadum in
Vietnam
By Le Xan
July-September 2005
Research Institute for Aquaculture No 1.
July-September 2005 21
Marine Finfish Aquaculture Network
Contact
Asia-Pacific Marine Finfish
Aquaculture Network
PO Box 1040 Hatchery-reared juvenile cobia.
Kasetsart Post Office
Bangkok 10903, Thailand with males receiving half of this dose. rearing tank where they can be trained
Tel +66-2 561 1728 (ext 120) There isnt a need to inject all females to accept the new food and receive
Fax +66-2 561 1727 but only one or two pairs. Spawning proper care.
Email grouper@enaca.org of cobia usually takes place at night, A suitable size for larval rearing
Website http://www.enaca.org/ although it occasionally also hap- tanks is 310m3 in volume. The optimal
marinefish pens during the day. After spawning, temperature for rearing the larvae is in
fertilized eggs are separated out and the range 2430OC, with a salinity of
Editors collected using seawater at 3536. 2832,pH 7.58.5 and light inten-
Sih Yang Sim Sinking eggs should be discarded. sity about 500 lux. Larvae of cobia
Asia-Pacific Marine Finfish Eggs are stocked in the incubation that must be weaned can be reared in
Aquaculture Network tank at a density of 20003000 eggs/ salinity of 20 22. The microalgae
c/o NACA litre. The incubation tank is 500m3 in N. ocullata, Chlorella or I. galabana
sim@enaca.org volume maintained with light aera- should be supplied and maintained at
tion. Water exchange is carried out at a density of around 40,00060,000
Dr Michael J. Phillips 200-300% per day, using an input and cells/ml in the rearing tanks. We have
Environmental Specialist & overflow pipe system. found that dark coloured larval rearing
Manager of R&D, NACA tanks (green or black) tend to give bet-
Michael.Phillips@enaca.org Larval rearing ter larval survival.
Water exchange
Australian success with barramundi
Daily water exchange rates are:
Between days 010, 010% of tank cod
water is exchanged.
Between days 1120, 3050% of Dr Shannon McBride
tank water is exchanged using natu-
ral flow. Technical Manager Good Fortune Bay Fisheries Ltd.
After day 20, 100200% of tank
water is exchanged daily. We use a Good Fortune Bay Fisheries Ltd hatch- Research and development
simple biofilter, but the electricity ery at Bowen, Queensland, Australia,
cost can be quite high. has successfully produced 100,000 GFB Fisheries Ltd is collaborating with
juvenile barramundi cod (Cromileptes the Northern Fisheries Centre in Cairns
Grading altivelis) since January 2005. to assess the feasibility of industrial
The GFB Fisheries Ltd facility is a scale production of copepods as live
Grading is very important to reduce saltwater aquaculture site incorporating feed for larval rearing in reef fish
cannibalism. By day 25, larvae harvest- substantial broodstock, hatchery, nurs- aquaculture. The use of copepods will
ed from rearing tanks should be graded ery and grow-out facilities. The com- be assessed by improved survival of
into small and large size groups, and pany produces saltwater barramundi barramundi cod in the hatchery and by
maintained separately with their own (Lates calcarifer) and intends to further expanding production to include coral
rearing regimes. expand its production into reef fish spe- trout (Plectropomus spp.).
cies. High quality seawater is pumped As the number of juvenile barra-
Feeding directly from the ocean and is utilized mundi cod produced at the site contin-
in land-based raceways for grow-out ues to increase, the company is looking
First larval feeding is with rotifer B. operations. The site is adjacent to the towards the development of appropriate
plicatilis at a density of 15 individu- Great Barrier Reef Marine Park and all nursery and grow-out diets in conjunc-
als per ml until 12 days after hatching. operations are performed under strict tion with Ridley Aqua-Feed (Australia).
Artemia nauplii can be given from 720 environmental guidelines. These specific diets would minimize
day old larvae. Artificial feeds can be The broodstock are held in 50 wastes, particularly nitrogen, and also
introduced from day 1718, but it typi- m3 temperature controlled tanks and optimize growth.
cally takes around 3-4 days to train the husbandry conditions ensure a regular
larvae to accept them. supply of high quality fertilized eggs. Future
In feeding experiments using en- The hatchery has continued to build on
riched rotifers and Artemia nauplii we the success of previous years and plans GFB Fisheries Ltd. continues to
found that the enriched live feeds give to double the production of barramundi develop its expertise in the production
better results than unenriched feeds. cod this season. of barramundi cod, a reef fish highly
The composition of artificial diets The success in barramundi cod valued by international markets. This
we use are as follow: production has been assisted by infor- is an exciting and challenging period
Fresh tunny meat minced: 47% mation and technology made available for GFB Fisheries Ltd. as a leading
Mixed fish meal (45% protein): 25% through ACIAR and the Asia-Pacific Australian company in the development
Soybean meal, rice bran meal: 15% Marine Finfish Aquaculture Network. of reef fish aquaculture.
Vitamins, mineral meal: 3%
All compositions are mixed; crushed
and sieved to a size suitable for the
mouth of larvae. Artificial diets should
be made daily.
Metamorphosis in cobia requires
around 25 days to complete at a tem-
perature of 2628OC with adequate
feed. After day 25, larvae can be
weaned completely onto artificial diets.
In Vietnam, some hatcheries in-
volved in rearing cobia larvae with the
regime above achieve a survival rate
of 1520% (from day 0day 25), and
4050% from day 25 to 50, after which
fry are around 7.5-8.5 cm in length.
July-September 2005 23
Brief overview of recent grouper breeding developments
Marine Finfish Aquaculture Network
in Thailand
Sih-Yang Sim1, Hassanai Kongkeo1, and Mike Rimmer2
Juvenile coral trout (P. leopardus) produced at Trad Coastal Aquaculture Station.
Thailands success in breeding grouper culture, while other coastal research first batch of coral trout Plectropomus
species dates back to 1984-85 when the stations in Thailand have continued to leopardus fingerlings7, which it has
Phuket Coastal Fisheries Research and develop marine finfish aquaculture. been consistently producing in small
Development Center (Phuket CFRDC) In 2002 the Krabi Coastal Fisher- numbers ever since. As of 16 June 2005
and Satul Coastal Fisheries Research ies Research and Development Centre there were some 12,000 coral trout
and Development Center succeeded in (Krabi CFRDC), reported its first larvae at 31 days of age. Trad CAS also
breeding Epinephelus tauvina (pos- success in breeding and larviculture of holds broodstock of P. maculatus
sibly misidentified E. coioides)1,2. The tiger grouper (Epinephelus fuscogut- (island or bar-cheek trout) but these
Phuket CFRDC also achieved the first tatus) with a survival rate of 2% to 70 have not yet spawned.
successful grouper larval rearing dur- day-old juveniles5. The Krabi centre Mr. Thawat Sriveerachai, Chief
ing September 1984 to February 1985, has also succeeded in producing E. of Trad CAS, said the key factor for
when some 130,000 fry aged 45 days coioides fingerlings for some years success of coral trout breeding in Trad
were produced3. and now provides 100,000 200,000 is water quality management. As Trad
In October 1998, the National fingerlings per year to Thai farmers. is subject to heavy rainfall throughout
Institute of Coastal Aquaculture With the recent worldwide interest the year, it is important to protect the
(NICA) based in Songkhla successfully in ornamental fish, thanks to the film water quality in broodstock tanks from
produced giant grouper Epinephelus Finding Nemo, it is notable that Krabi heavy variation, particularly in salin-
lanceolatus by artificial propagation, centre has been able to produce seven ity. Trad station utilises recirculation
but the survival rate was very low. In varieties of clownfish (anemone fish) systems and biological water treatment
September 1999, NICA had another native to Thailand6. for coral trout broodstock, as well as
success in giant grouper breeding us- After several trials in October 2003 other species. The recirculation system
ing preserved milt to fertilise freshly the Trad Coastal Aquaculture Sta- is a combination of traditional biologi-
stripped eggs4. Since that time, work at tion (Trad CAS) in eastern Thailand cal filtration plus bioremediation using
NICA has focused on shrimp aqua- successfully managed to produce its shrimp, molluscs, sea urchins, swim-
Mouse grouper fingerlings produced at Rayong Coastal Fisheries Research & Development Center.
July-September 2005 25
Marine Finfish Aquaculture Network
Acknowledgments References
We thank the following experts for their 1. Ratanchote, A. and Puckdee Kiti, 1987. Study on
hospitality and provision of information propagation and nursing grouper, Epinephelus
for this article. tauvina larvae. Review of the research on grouper
Dr. Renu Yashiro, Director of culture conference, 23-25 February 1987 at NICA,
Rayong Coastal Fisheries Research 93-109.
and Development Center, Depart- 2. Julavitayanukul, P., Putinowarat, Ch. And
ment of Fisheries Thailand. Suteemechaikul, N. 1987. Study on breeding
Mr. Paiboon Bunliptanon, Director of grouper, Epinephelus tauvina. Review of the
of Krabi Coastal Fisheries Research research on grouper culture conference, 23-25
and Development Centre, Depart- February 1987 at NICA, 74-81.
ment of Fisheries Thailand. 3. Ruangpanit, N. 1998. A Review of Grouper Culture
Mr. Thawat Sriveerachai, Chief of (Epinephelus spp.) in Thailand. In: Rimmer, M.A.,
Trad Coastal Aquaculture Station, Williams, K.C. and Phillips, M.J. (2000). Proceed-
Department of Fisheries Thailand. ings of the ACIAR/NACA Grouper Aquaculture
Mr. Ekapol Wanagosoom, Partner Research Workshop, Bangkok, Thailand, 7-8 April
and Manager of Aqua-Larval Farm, 1998. pp 95.
Thailand 4. Grouper News Issue No. 4: http://library.enaca.
org/Grouper/E-Newsletter/Issue4.htm.
5. Asia-Pacific Marine Finfish Aquaculture Network
E. coioides broodstock in the floating Magazine No 3 http://library.enaca.org/Grouper/
cage facilities, Krabi CFRDC. E-Newsletter/MFAN_3.htm.
6. Saving Thailands Ornamental Fish. http://www.
enaca.org/modules/news/article.php?storyid=152.
7. Thailand Success in Culture of Coral Trout. at
http://library.enaca.org/Grouper/Publications/eMaga-
zine1.pdf for details)
Kuwait Institute for Scientific Research, Aquaculture Fisheries and Oceanography Dept.,
P.O. Box 1638, Salmiya 22017, Kuwait
July-September 2005 27
Marine Finfish Aquaculture Network
Production dynamics of
rotifers with and without
probiotics
Among the different treatments used
during the first set of experiments,
a significantly higher (P<0.01) roti-
fer density and culture duration was
observed when rotifers were fed with a
combination of Chlorella, bakers yeast
and ACF-1006 compared to that of
other treatments in the culture system.
Maximum densities of 309.79.1 and
304.327.1 rotifers/ml were observed
in this feed combination on days 8 Rotifer chemostat production facility.
was also significantly higher (P<0.001) 261 rotifers/ml/day with a feed combi-
while using the probiotic in the culture nation of Nannochloropsis and bakers Collaborators
system compared to that without it. The yeast. Such systems are desirable in
rotifer instantaneous growth rate (K commercial ventures due to their ability The following organizations and
value) averaged 1.960.45 when using to produce a large rotifer biomass per contacts are focal points for com-
ACF-1006 and averaged 0.780.17 unit space and time, compared to that munication in the network:
without the probiotic. The rotifer of batch cultures. However, although
doubling time averaged 0.370.09 the rotifer productivity is considerably Hong Kong
days with probiotic and 0.920.20 days higher in the chemostat culture system Dr Jim Chu, jim_cw_chu@afcd.
without, showing the efficiency of us- than conventional culture methods, gov.hk
ing the probiotic in the culture system. we no longer use the chemostats due
A significant increase (P<0.001) of the to the undesirable bacterial build up India
ciliate Euplotes vannus was also ob- under long-term culture conditions. The Dr Mohan Joseph Modayil, mdc-
served in cultures containing probiotic results of our investigation suggests mfri@md2.vsnl.net.in
compared to those without. that application of commercial probiot-
ics in the rotifer cultures can help to Indonesia
Future prospects eliminate this problem and ensure the Dr Ketut Sugama, crifidir@
health of the marine fish larvae due to indonet.id
The results of these investigations show the encapsulation of probiotics in rotif- Dr Muhammad Murdjani, lbap-
that using of the ACF-1006 probiotic in ers. However, further investigations stbd@radnet.id
the rotifer culture system can enhance are required to evaluate the beneficial
rotifer growth rate and productivity, effect of using probiotic fed rotifers Iran
as well as extend the culture dura- to marine fish larvae. Further research Dr Shapour Kakoolaki, bsh443@
tion. In general, rotifer productivity is also required to assess the efficacy yahoo.com
under semi-continuous or batch culture and use of other commercial probiotics
systems at AFOD yields about 52 and local isolates of beneficial bacteria Malaysia
to 60 rotifers/ml/day. The intensive towards bio-encapsulating rotifers as Coastal marine fish culture
chemostat rotifer production system feed for marine fish larvae, as well as Mr Ali bin Awang, ppbuk@
developed at AFOD using 1m3 capacity to enhance the rotifer productivity and po.jaring.my
tanks yields an average of about 255 to culture tank conditions.
Fish quality
Mr Ismail Ishak & Mr Hamdan
Jaafar
anasofiah@hotmail.com / ham-
danj@yahoo.com
Philippines
Ms Prescilla B. Regaspi, pre-
gaspi@bfar.da.gov.ph
Ms Marygrace C. Quintero, mg-
quintero@bfar.da.gov.ph
Collaborating organisations
July-September 2005 29
Research & farming techniques
July-September 2005 31
Research & farming techniques
With an expected production this year System design and general initial 50,000 cells/ml, to 115,000
of 200,000 ton, Vietnam is well on rearing techniques cells/ml at the zoea 2 stage and ap-
its way to become one of the big- proximately 200,000cell/ml at zoea 3.
gest shrimp producers in the world. One rearing unit consists of four tanks During the batch culture period, every
Production is largely concentrated in of 4 m each, connected with a central other day, 1g/m of a commercial pro-
the Mekong Delta in South Vietnam. filter system via a protein skimmer biont mixture (BZT Aquaculture, USA)
Owing to the optimal climate condi- operated with ozone. The main filter is added. According to the manufac-
tions and availability of land suitable unit consists of one concrete tank turer, the probiont mixture is composed
for pond construction, this region ac- subdivided into three compartments. of Streptococcus faecium, Bacillus
counts for as much as 75 % of the total Water flows into the first compartment subtilis, B. licheniformis, bakers yeast,
400,000 ha of cultivated shrimp ponds through a submerged bin filled with Aspergillus spp., amylase, protease and
in the country. The significant increase activated carbon (neutralization of re- lipase.
of shrimp farming (for comparison, in sidual ozone in the water coming from At the time of molting from zoea to
1998, production was only 50,000 tons) the protein skimmer); the first, second mysis stage the compound feeds Frip-
has lead to an increasing demand for and third compartments are filled with pak and Lansy (INVE NV/SA, Bel-
shrimp seed. Although there has been a sand, coral and gravel respectively. gium) are added as daily rations vary-
proliferation of hatcheries in the delta, Several air-water lifts operate these ing from 1 to 4 g/m3 per day, spread
local production is far from sufficient three compartments as submerged bio- over three feedings depending on the
to fulfill the need for shrimp seed in filters; water flows from one compart- larval stage and survival. From mysis
the area (Hai et al. 2000). About 80% ment to the other via bottom overflows; 2 onwards umbrella-stage Artemia are
of the post-larvae supplied to shrimp water finally returns to the central introduced.
farms are still imported from the prov- reservoir through a mounted 500-l Through daily addition of fresh
inces in the center of the country, where plastic bin, filled with gravel, acting as seawater, water volume in the tanks
high-quality seawater is plentiful. As a dry trickle filter. The total volume of reaches 4 m by the time larvae reach
post-larvae are in short supply, farmers the filter system is 4 m. the post-larvae stage, approximately
often settle for lower quality. Lack of Seawater is made up with 120-g/l eight days from the start of the batch
technical knowledge and poor hygienic brine hauled in from the coastal salt culture. At that time the tanks are con-
conditions in the hatcheries, aggravated works of Vin Chau about 60 km away nected to the filter system and recircu-
by the long transport by road, further from Can Tho. Brine is diluted with lation culture starts. The bio-filtration
result in weak and infected post-larvae freshwater to 30 g/l. The water is then unit has been pre-conditioned during
being stocked into the ponds, which in treated overnight in 20-m concrete the batch culture phase: the filter is
its turn leads to serious disease out- tanks with hypochlorite, neutralized filled with disinfected/ozone-treated
breaks during grow out. with thiosulphate and aerated for water and inoculated with a commer-
To overcome this weakness, the another 48 hours to eliminate possible cial nitrifying bacteria culture (NMX
College of Aquaculture and Fisheries chorine residues. Before use, the water bio-filter starter, INVE NV/SA, Bel-
(CAF) of Can Tho University (Viet- is allowed to sediment for an extra 24 gium). For consecutive runs, substrate
nam), inspired by technologies for hours. from other operational biofilter systems
rotifer culture (Suantika et al. 2000 Initially, a batch culture system is might also be used as inoculum. During
and 2001) established by the Artemia applied. Water is pumped via a pro- start-up, every other day, NH4Cl (5
Reference Center of the Ghent Univer- tein skimmer, operated with ozone, mg/l) is added as substrate for the nitri-
sity (Belgium), developed a simple, but to half-fill the culture tanks (approxi- fying bacteria; after seven days, when
reliable shrimp larval rearing protocol, mately 2 m). In the tanks, the water is all ammonia is converted (checked
using a recirculation system, to pro- thoroughly aerated for another 24 hours daily using test kits), the NH4Cl dose
duce high-quality post-larvae without before stocking with nauplii. Around is doubled and ammonia and nitrite
the need for prophylactic antibiotic 800,000 to 1,000,000 nauplii from one levels checked again after three days,
treatment and with very low seawater spawn are stocked in each culture tank, followed by a new addition of NH4Cl;
requirements. corresponding to 400-500 nauplii/l at 24hrs later ammonia levels are normal-
half tank volume or 200-250/l at final ly close to zero and the culture tanks
volume. can be connected to the bio-filter.
Larvae are fed Chaetoceros algae From PL1 to PL5 newly-hatched
three times per day, at concentrations Artemia nauplii are fed. From PL5
that are gradually increased from an onwards 12-hour enriched (DHA
July-September 2005 33
Research & farming techniques
Fisheries of Iran, Aquaculture Department, No. 250, Fatemi Ave., Tehran, Iran. E-mail Abdolhay@yahoo.com or Seiedi_
Ghomi@yahoo.com.
Production of fry fish in Table 1: Provincial rainbow trout production in Iran, 2002.
public hatcheries
Province No. farms Total area(m2) Production (t)
Total production of rainbow trout fry Ardabil 21 26949.6 301.6
in Yassouj and Kelardasht in 1985 was Azarbaijan East 13 34129 482.6
1,804,560 pieces. In 2003 this amount Azarbaijan West 17 32882 776
rose to 3,293,470 pieces and around Chaharmahal 55 126665 3064.8
23.9 million eyed eggs were produced. Esfahan 16 42339 505.2
Table 4 compares these amounts among Fars 40 111722.5 1970
affiliated centers of Shilat-Aquaculture Gilan 22 42752 334.2
Dept. Golestan 11 9610 92.3
Hamadan 6 41870 1256.5
Production of fry fish in Ilam 17 134355 233.4
private sector hatcheries Kerman 6 23520 95.9
Kermanshah 8 13738.5 251.3
At present there are 60 private sector Khozestan 0 0 0
hatcheries including both licensed and Khorasan 41 82912 475.9
unlicensed facilities, working in 13 Kohgilooyeh 36 63909 935.3
provinces. In order of relative impor- Kordestan 7 11261 194.9
tance, they are in Mazandaran, Tehran, Lorestan 47 133796 2120.2
Lorestan, Charmahal and Bakhtiari, Markazi 0 125485.2 295.9
Eastern and Western Azarbaijan, Kurd- Mazandaran 53 125690 1712.9
estan, Fars, Kouhkilouieh and Boyer- Qazvin 16 17944 212.9
ahmad, Hamedan, Qazwin, khorasan Qom 0 43090 63
and Guilan Provinces. Table 5 shows Semnan 8 7025 139.9
fry fish production in private sector Sistan 0 38280 59.3
hatcheries in 2002. Tehran 19 94940.83 699.9
One can see from Table 6 that: Yazd 1 49650 95.3
The contribution of public hatcher- Zanjan 1 13458.2 159.3
ies to fry production has fallen from Total 440 1421024 16016.7
22.6 percent in 1993 to 1.7 percent
in 2002 and while the contribution years some factories have been produc- With respect to special norms of
of private sector hatcheries increased ing feed with formulations proposed by fish consumption in Iran, until recently,
to 98.3 percent. Fisheries of Iran (Shilat). farmed fish was only used in some
Regarding eyed eggs of rainbow special areas at certain limited times of
trout, public sector production Consumption status and year, and then only in some particular
from 1995 to 2002 was primarily to marketing of rainbow trout kinds of cooking styles. Although in
compensate for the lack of fry and to recent years consumption of rainbow
adjust the price. There is a good market for rainbow trout has been successfully promoted,
trout in the larger cities and produc- the annual per capita fish consumption
Status of rainbow trout feed ers are still making a good margin in Iran is still 5 kg, well below the aver-
despite an increase in production costs. age of global average of 13 kg.
Rainbow trout feed in Iran is usually Most rainbow trout farms in Iran de- Due to the flesh color of rainbow
made in dedicated fish feed factories liver product as fresh fish and this has trout, its quality is not well accepted
from imported ingredients includ- constrained market development and and although the market demand for
ing Kilka fish powder (anchovy) and delivery time to some extent. Regard- trout weighing more than 500 grams is
soybeans mixed with some other local ing processed products, in recent years good, the average market weight of fish
ingredients. In 1995, a small amount fish have also been delivered frozen is around 250 grams, and fish need at
of early diet for rainbow trout was im- and gutted, which has played a major least 15 months to reach this size.
ported from Italy (40 tons) and in 2003 role in increasing fish consumption by
some 300 tons of early and broodstock the public.
diets were also imported. In recent
Table 2: Number of farms, pond area and annual production of rainbow tout in Iran, 1993-2003.
1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003
No. of farms 31 39 69 80 116 165 258 306 380 461 562
Pond area (ha) 8.96 11.94 12.6 16.5 23.5 32.8 46.1 51.92 68.4 73.9 89.8
Production (MT) 835 1200 1500 1900 2510 4994 7000 9000 12170 16026 23137
Source: Yearbook of Iran Fisheries Statistics 2001.
July-September 2005 35
Research & farming techniques
Developmental goals of
rainbow trout production in
Iran
In line with finding and developing po-
tentially suitable sites for rainbow trout
culture in Iran, by 2002 more than 21
fish culture complexes in 11 provinces
were established with a total production
capacity of 7,512 tons.
In addition to identified complexes,
after feasibility studies construction
has commenced on some 25 other fish
culture complexes with total production
capacity of 8,644 tons in 11 provinces.
Five complexes of these projects
with a 7.5 Hectare of land use and
production capacity of 1,570 MT
are located in Lorestan, Kordestan, Eyed eggs.
Hamedan and Western Azarbaijan
Provinces. These complexes are in use
and produce rainbow trout at the time
being.
In 2002, some 488 government
licenses were issued for rainbow trout
culture. The combined capacity of
these projects is 6,131 tons and they
are located in 26 different provinces of
the country. If this trend continues, it is
likely that production will reach 25,000
tons this year and continue to sky-
rocket. Most of the development will
be in provinces such as Mazandaran,
Lorestan, Kordestan, Charmahal and
Bakhtiari, Fars, Western Azarbaijan and
Hamedan.
Other rainbow trout breeding and cul- Table 3: Import of eyed eggs according to country of origin and
ture complexes in the country (with or different species of rainbow trout.
without official licenses) need more fry
to continue expanding their production. Country of origin Delivered to Imported
Due to lack of broodstock manage- Denmark Tehran, Korasan, Fars 1990
ment programs, genetic problems are Australia Tehran 1991
emerging among hatchery-produced UK Kohkiloieh 1994
fry, which is likely to result in a decline Italy Kohkiloieh 1994
in production rate and productivity. To Denmark Kohkiloieh 1994
date, different lines of broodstock that Fish Farm Services (UK) Tehran 1995
were imported as eyed eggs have been Cofradex (Denmark) Fars 1996
cross-bred, resulting in a loss of genetic Leonardi (Italy) Fars, Charmahal, Khorasan, 1997
diversity, reduced production rate and Mazandaran, Lorestan,
increased food conversion ratio. Tehran, Azarbeyeja v.
Fish Farm Services (UK) Tehran 2003
Aqualand (France) Charmaha, Tehran, 2003
Kohdilioieh
Fish Farm Services (UK) Mazandaran, Kohkiloieh, 2004
Tehran
Aqua Forsk (Norway) Kohdilioieh, Mazandaran 2004
Feed problems
Table 4: Hatchery production among breeding and aquaculture centers affiliated to Aquaculture Dept. of
Shilat, 1998-2002.
July-September 2005 37
Research & farming techniques
feed with quality raw materials, at a Table 5: Fry production in private sector hatcheries, 2003.
reasonable cost.
To address the marketing problem Province No. centers Fingerlings
for rainbow trout products, it may be Azarbayjan E. 6 4,000,000
desirable to: Azarbayjan W. 3 11,000,000
Open new rainbow trout processing Ardabil 4 2,700,000
factories to supply a more diversi- Esfahan 3 12,000,000
fied range of products to markets. Tehran 7 10,500,000
Increase the quality of products so Charmahal 3 22,000,000
as to open trade with international Khorasan 5 8,000,000
markets. Zanjan 1 1,000,000
Further publicize fish consumption Fars 4 14,000,000
within Iran. Qazvin 8 3,800,000
Kordestan 4 5,000,000
For more information visit the website Gillan 1 3,000,000
of the Iranian Fisheries Organization Kohkeiloei 7 12,000,000
(Shilat) at http://www.iranfisheries. Lorestan 6 35,000,000
net/english. Markazi 1 5,000,000
Mazandaran 15 20,000,000
Semnan 1 1,200,000
Hamadan 1 2,000,000
Total 80 172,200,000
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001
2,679 2,026.5 2,325 2,505 17,820.5 21,000 26,600 30,864 57,431 77,000 99,000 121,700
1. Faculty of Technology and Management, Prince of Songkla University, Suratani, Thailand; 2. Aquatic Resources Research
institute, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand 10330; 3. Faculty of Fisheries, Nagasaki University, 1-14 Bunkyo-
Machi, Nagasaki, 852 Japan.
July-September 2005 39
Research & farming techniques
The average total yield of spotted are based on the actual data from the operating cost items were purchase of
Babylon was 10,525 kg/ha. Average pilot farm. Total investment require- juvenile spotted Babylon, feed, hired
growth rates over seven months were ment for construction was estimated to labor, interest on investment, electric-
0.67 g/month in body weight and 0.30 be $4,837. Construction of grow-out ity and fuel (Table 4). Total cost per
cm/month in shell length, respec- ponds and seawater reservoirs was the production cycle for monoculture of
tively. At the end of the experiment, largest cost component of the farm spotted Babylon in a total farm area
mean final body weight of snails was (around 35% of the total investment of 0.8 ha was $19,184. Ownership
5.220.63g with a mean shell length cost), followed by building of canvass cost and operating cost accounted
of 3.20.35cm, respectively. FCR over nursery ponds, land, seawater pumps for 11.68% and 88.32% of total cost,
the course of the trials was 2.69 with and blowers. These five components of respectively. The cost of producing
89.94% survival. the farm represented 79.08% of total spotted Babylon marketable sizes in
Salinity (ranging from 14-38ppt) investment (Table 2). Ownership cost this grow-out farm design was $5.69/kg
and alkalinity (ranging from 30-88mg/ per production cycle was estimated to (Table 5). The enterprise budgets of
L) were the water quality parameters be $2,241. The major ownership cost a total farm area of 0.8 ha for mono-
that showed the greatest changes during items were depreciation, land and inter- culture of spotted Babylon in earthen
the culture period. The range of other est on investment (Table 3). Operating ponds are presented in Table 6. The
parameters was: Water temperature, 25- costs per production cycle was esti- enterprise budgets based on the price of
35C; pH, 7.9 9.2; dissolved oxygen, mated to be $16,943. The four major spotted Babylon at farm gate in 2003
3.5 5.6 mg/L; nitrite 0 .0004 0.0125
mg/L; total ammonia 0.0329, nitrate,
6
0.2120 mg/L. Overall, the water quality
within ponds showed a more gradual
change than the local seawater, and we 5
regard the parameters as suitable condi-
tions for grow out of spotted Babylon. 4
Body weight (g)
Economic analysis
3
The parameters used for economic
analysis of spotted Babylon monocul- 2
ture are summarized in Table 1, based
on a total farm area of 0.8ha. The farm
1
data (total farm area, pond sizes, and
total pond area), stocking data (aver-
age initial weight, stocking density) 0
and harvest data (duration of grow-out, 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
average weight at harvest, final sur-
Culture period (month)
vival, feed conversion ratio and yield)
of $9.00/kg resulted in a gross return of feeding strategies, and competition for Fuller, M.J. R.A. Kelly and A.P. Smith. 1992. Economic
$30,312, net return of $11,124, return food and habitat due from other organ- analysis of commercial production of freshwater
to capital and management of $13,369 isms naturally occurring in the ponds. prawn Macrobrachium rosenbergii postlarvae using
and return on investment of 2.76, a recirculating clearwater culture system. Journal of
respectively. The breakeven price and References and further reading Shellfish Research. 11: 75-80.
breakeven yield at this assumption was Head, W.D. A. Zerbi and W.O. Watanabe. 1996. Eco-
$5.69/kg and 2,131 kg per production APHA, AWWA, and WPCF. 1985. Standard methods for nomic evaluation of commercial- scale, saltwater
cycle, respectively. Cash-flow budgets the examination of water and wastewater, 16th Edi- pond production of Florida tilapia in Puerto Rico.
were developed to examine profitability tion. American Public health Association, American Journal of the World Aquaculture Society. 27:
in relation to the timing of expendi- Water Works Association and Water Pollution 275-289.
tures and earning. Under the farm data, Control Federation, Washington, DC, 1268 pp. Hunt, J.W., M.S. Foster, J.W. Nybakken, R.J. Larson and
stocking data and harvest data used in Chaitanawisuti, N. and Kritsanapuntu, A. 1999. Growth E.F. Ebert. 1995. Interactive effects of polyculture,
this study, a farm gate price of $9.00/kg and production of hatchery-reared juvenile spotted feeding rate, and stocking density on growth of
resulted in a positive cash flow by year Babylon Babylonia areolata Link, 1807 cultured juvenile shellfish. Journal of Shellfish Research. 14:
two (Table 7). to marketable sizes in intensive flow-through and 191-197.
The results of our study show that semi-closed recirculating water system. Aquaculture Rubino, M.C. 1992. Economics of red claw Cherex
juvenile spotted Babylon can be suc- Research. 31: 415-419 quadricarinatus aquaculture. Journal of Shellfish
cessfully grown to marketable size in Chaitanawisuti, N. Kritsanapuntu, A. and Natsukari, Y. Research. 11: 157-162.
earthen ponds. The economic feasibility 2001. Growth trials for polyculture of hatchery-
of this system bears further investiga- reared juvenile spotted Babylon, Babylonia areolata
tion. Although returns are small, pro- Link 1807, in flow-through seawater system. Aquac-
duction with 80% survival and a sale ulture Research 32: 247-250.
price of $9.00/kg is economically fea- Chaitanawisuti, N., Kritsanapuntu, S. and Natsukari,
sible under the assumptions employed. Y. 2002a. Economic analysis of a pilot commercial
Profitability could be improved by production for spotted Babylon Babylonia areolata
targeting production for periods of peak Link, 1807 marketable sizes using a flow-through
market price and premium locations. culture system in Thailand. Aquaculture Research. Next issue:
With regard to production, profitability 33: 1-8.
is most sensitive to changes in average Chaitanawisuti, N., Kritsanapuntu, A. and Natsukari,
final weights and survival. In general, Y. 2002b. Effects of different types of substrate on Polyculture
snails are rendered unmarketable by the growth and survival of juvenile spotted Babylon of Babylon snails...
stunting and deformities, characteristics Babylonia areolata Link, 1807 reared in a flow-
that are presumably related to lower through culture system. Asian Fisheries Science. 14:
growth rates (i.e. final average weights) 279-284.
and survival. An economic analysis Chaitanawisuti, N. Kritsanapuntu, S. and Saentaweesuki, ...with Asian seabass!
based on previous pilot production W. 2004. Growout of hatchery-reared juvenile spot-
data of a 0.3 ha grow-out earthen pond ted Babylon (Babylonia areolata) to marketable size
production system for spotted Babylon at four stocking densities in flow-through and recir-
suggested that the enterprise would culating seawater systems. Aquaculture International
be commercially feasible (at current 4(1): 781 785.
market prices) with a final body weight
of 6.6 g (150 snails/kg), and margin-
ally feasible at 5.0 g (250 snails/kg).
Decreasing the culture period to five
months and reducing the cost of juve-
niles to $0.01 each would considerably
improve the economic feasibility, prof-
itability and allow production cycles
per year.
This economic analysis is intended
as a rough guide and must be modified
to reflect individual situations. Applica-
tion of these results to commercial lev-
els of production should be preceded by
careful examination of other parameters
that might be important such as deterio-
ration of water quality at high stocking
densities. Further study should address
improved pond design, management
of seawater and pond bottom quality, Sampling of spotted Babylon in earthen ponds using baited traps.
July-September 2005 41
Research & farming techniques
Table 1. Parameters used for the economic analysis for monoculture of spotted Babylon
in a total farm area of 0.8 ha of earthen ponds in Thailand.
Parameter Value
A. Farm data
Total farm area (ha) 0.8
Pond size (ha) 0.04
Total pond area (ha) 0.32
Total area of seawater reservoirs (ha) 0.4
B. Stocking data
Average initial weight of spotted Babylon (g) 0.5
Stocking density of spotted Babylon (no./ m2) 200
C. Harvest data
Duration of grow-out (months) 7
Average number of crops per pond per year 1.4
Average final weight (g) 6.9
Average final survival (%) 84.94
Feed conversion ratio (FCR) 2.69
Yield per production cycle (kg/ha) 10,520
Sale price at farm gate ($/kg) 8.75 9.25
Parameter Value
Production
Spotted Babylon* (kg) 3,368
Costs per production cycle
Initial investment requirements 4,837
Ownership costs ($) 2,241
Operating costs ($) 16,943
Total cost ($) 19,184
Returns
Gross return ($) 30,312
Net returns ($) 11,124
Return to capital and management ($) 13,369
Return on investment 2.76
*
Total yield of spotted Babylon and sea bass per production cycle at 0.4 ha.
Price at farm gate for spotted Babylon $9.00.
Table 7. Seven-year cash flow for monoculture of spotted Babylon using a total area of 0.4ha of earthen
grow out ponds in Thailand, stocking density of 200 snails/m2 and price at farm gate of $9.00/kg.
Year 1 ($) Year 2 ($) Year 3 ($) Year 4 ($) Year 5 ($) Year 6 ($) Year 7 ($)
Investment 4,837 - - - - - -
Ownership cost 2,241 2,241 2,241 2,241 2,241 2,241 2,241
Operating cost 16,943 16,943 16,943 16,943 16,943 16,943 16,943
Total cost 24,021 19,184 19,184 19,184 19,184 19,184 19,184
Gross return 30,312 30,312 30,312 30,312 30,312 30,312 30,312
Net return 11,124 11,124 11,124 11,124 11,124 11,124 11,124
Cumulative -12,897 -1,773 9,351 20,475 31,599 42,723 53,847
July-September 2005 43
Research & farming techniques
Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) profitability, increasing the economic ether extract (EE), 11.1 0.7% crude
was first introduced to Nepal from viability of an otherwise limited opera- fiber (CF), 10.8 0.6% ash, and 41.9
Thailand in 19851,2,3 and kept in Gov- tion. However, growth and produc- 0.9% nitrogen free extract (NEF) on a
ernment fish farms for study3, although tion of Nile tilapia varies with season, dry matter basis. Ponds were fertilized
no efforts were made to evaluate its especially between winter and summer with fresh pig manure (66.9 0.5%
performance or to make it available to in Nepal. Nile tilapia neither feed nor moisture) at the rate of 2 kg/pond daily
farmers at that time4. Eventually, farm- grow during mid December to mid for the first week. Pond water level was
ers introduced tilapia from neighboring February due to low water tempera- maintained at 1m in depth and topped
countries by themselves and began tures, which fall below 20C in Nepals up weekly with tap water to compen-
growing it without technical guidance, subtropical climate11. sate for evaporative losses.
particularly in the southeastern part of IAAS-NARC developed a model Water quality in ponds was moni-
the country. production system cage cum pond tored weekly for temperature, spe-
A preliminary study on tilapia cul- fish culture for mixed sex Nile tilapia, cific conductivity (YSI Model 33),
ture carried out by the Nepal Agricul- based on two-production cycles a year. pH (Quick check model 106-ATC),
tural Research Council (NARC) and The model was trialed and developed at dissolved oxygen (Winkler method13) at
Institute of Agriculture and Animal the IAAS station, and later field-tested 0700-0800 hr, and Secchi disk visibil-
Science (IAAS) at Chitwan found posi- by farmers in commercial operations. ity at 1000-1100 hrs. Caged fish were
tive results5. Nile tilapia grew 40 to 150 sampled fortnightly to record growth
g in 108 days using fresh duckweed as Developing the model and feed adjustments made accord-
feed4. Complete feeding or supplemen- ingly. Feed conversion ratio (FCR) was
tal feeding with fertilization is neces- Trials were conducted at Institute calculated based on feed consumed and
sary for large size tilapia production6. of Agriculture and Animal Science net output yield from the system.
From a pond management prospective, (IAAS), Rampur Campus, Chitwan, Based on the results obtained at
a strategy for efficient production may Nepal from 16 July to 16 December IAAS, a verification trial was con-
be to apply fertilization early in the and from 12 February to 16 July. In the ducted at Kathar Village Development
grow-out period to supply feed through first culture cycle, larger sized mixed Committee (VDC)1, Kusahana, Chit-
natural pond productivity, with supple- sex tilapia of mean weight 153.1 3.2g wan from 21 August to 21 December
mental feed added once fish reach were stocked at 30 fish/m3 in cages in cycle 1 and from 12 February to 19
100-150 g7. and smaller fish of mean weight 30.8 July in cycle 2. Large size mixed sex
Tilapia cage culture has a relatively 2.8 g stocked at 2 fish/m2 in open tilapia of mean weight 81.3 7.4 g
short history. In many cases caged fish, ponds. Similarly, in cycle 2, larger fish sizes were stocked in cages and smaller
fed with protein-rich diets, directly or of mean weight of 114.8 2.5 g were fish of 14.6 0.3 g in open ponds in cy-
indirectly contribute to eutrophication stocked in cages and smaller fish of cle 1. In cycle 2, large fish with a mean
of the surrounding waters, through 60.5 0.3 g in open ponds with the weight of 108.8 5.7 g sizes were
release of nutrients to the environment. same stocking densities. The experi- stocked in cages and small fish of 6.3
Lin et al.8,15 developed methods to ment was conducted in four cemented 1.2 g sizes in open ponds. The stock-
integrate intensive and semi-intensive ponds, each of 72m2 water area with ing densities in cages and ponds were
aquaculture in ponds through prac- cages of 2.5m3 (1.5 x 1.5 x 1.1 m) used the same as used previously at IAAS.
tices for catfish-tilapia culture, and in each pond. Each cage bottom was Three farmers, Gulabiya Chaudhary,
tilapia-tilapia culture is similarly well 10 cm above the pond bottom and held Phul Kumari Chaudhary and Jhauri
studied9,10. Intensive Nile tilapia cage approximately 2m3 water volume. Mahato each had a 110m2 size pond in-
culture within ponds can efficiently Locally prepared pellet feed was volved in cycle 1 and an additional four
produce large fish from 100-150 g to prepared containing: Rice bran (59%), farmers including Hari Maya Chaud-
250-300 g, while smaller ones can mustard oil cake (35%), tilapia fish hary (owning 100m2 pond) participated
be grown from 20-40 g to 125-150 meal (5%) and wheat flour (1%), and in cycle 2. A bamboo framed net cage
g in a semi-intensive fashion in the fed to caged fish at 2% body weight/ of 3.7m3 (2.0 x 1.7 x 1.1 m) was placed
open pond11,12. Such systems could day. The nutritional composition of in each pond. Each cage bottom was
allow small-scale farmers owning one feed was: 10.3 0.4% moisture, 21.0 10 cm above the pond bottom and held
pond to maximize fish production and 0.2% crude protein (CP), 15.2 0.2% approximately 3m3 water volume (ie.
filled to 90cm). Caged fish were fed Figure 1. Model for cage cum pond fish culture of mixed sex Nile
with locally prepared pellet feed as tilapia in subtropical Nepal.
described above (FRD 2001). Ponds
were also fertilized with fresh buffalo
manure at the rate of 3 kg/pond daily Market size Rice bran 59%
250 300 g Oil cake 35%
for the first week. Pond water level was
Wheat flour 1%
maintained at 1m depth with occasional
topping of canal water to compensate Feed
for losses. 2% BW
Fishmeal 5%
Water quality was monitored as in
the station mentioned above. Column
water samples were brought to IAAS Excess
laboratory and analysed for total alka- 100 150 g CAGE
Recruits
linity (methyl orange end point titration Size
3
method13), total ammonium nitrogen POND New
(TAN) with an ammonia meter (Hanna 2/m2 Recruits
Ammonia high range HI 97315),
soluble reactive phosphorus (SRP)
Market
(ascorbic acid reduction method13) and
chlorophyll-a (90% acetone extrac- 10 - 20 g
Fertilizer Size
tion method13). Fish were sampled for
growth records similar to the previous
Cage to pond ratio 3%
trials and feed adjustment was made
Culture cycle 5 months
accordingly. Two cycles a year (February 16 to July 15 and July 16 to December 15)
Outcomes
July-September 2005 45
Research & farming techniques
At IAAS, mean harvest yield from 1.2 to 97.6 11.9 g during produc- constraint for the development of fish
cages was 16.2 0.7 kg and 16.9 0.4 tion cycle 1 and 2, respectively. Mean culture. However, uncontrolled repro-
kg in production cycle 1 and cycle 2, growth rate calculated was 0.53 0.06 duction has been well recognized as a
respectively, with a total annual yield g/day and 0.60 0.09 g/day, with a problem in tilapia culture. Uncontrolled
of 33.1 1.1 kg. Similarly, mean har- survival of 88 3% and 94 3% in reproduction resulting over population
vest yield from pond stocking was 16.2 production cycle 1 and 2, respectively has led to the development of mono-sex
0.5 kg and 22.6 2.6 kg in cycle 1 (Table 1). In cycle 1, a total of 1,696 culture systems for this species. Since
and 2, respectively, with a total of 38.8 893 tilapia recruits were produced per there is no possibility of producing
2.3 kg. Some of the fish harvested pond with a mean weight 4.1 2.2 g. mono-sex fry in Nepal at present, we
from ponds were restocked in cages for In cycle 2, a total of 984 409 recruits developed a model for mixed-sex cul-
further on growing in the next culture per pond were produced with a mean ture in Nepals subtropical regions.
cycle. Thus, the net output from the weight of 26.6 15.1 g. Fish growth in The proposed model of cage cum
system was 25.5 0.9 kg and 31.4 open ponds obtained in cycle 1 (0.53 pond integrated system produced 250
2.5 kg of fish from cycle 1 and cycle 2, 0.06 g/day) and cycle 2 (0.60 0.09 300 g size fish from cages and 110
respectively, a total annual net yield of g/day) was lower than that at IAAS 150 g size fish from ponds in five
56.9 2.7 kg per 72m2 ponds, equiva- (0.60 0.03 g/day in cycle 1 and 0.65 month culture cycles. The systems
lent to 7.9 0.4 t/ha/yr (Table 1). 0.11 g/day in cycle 2). Lower growth produced a net output of 3.5 0.1 t/ha
In farmers ponds, mean harvest in open ponds might have been due to and 4.4 0.4 t/ha during culture cycle 1
yield from cages was 12.4 0.3 kg and less fertile and turbid conditions in the and cycle 2 respectively, equivalent to
14.2 0.5 kg in production cycle 1 and earthen ponds of farmers compared to a total annual net yield of 7.9 t/ha. Our
cycle 2, respectively with a total annual highly green cement ponds in the farm model assumes a two-month over-win-
yield of 26.6 kg (Table 1). Similarly, of IAAS. tering period (December 16 to February
mean harvest yield from pond stocking 15) without production. This system
was 14.8 2.0 kg and 19.2 2.0 kg in Conclusion produces fish for stocking in ponds
cycle 1 and cycle 2, respectively, with a and cages along with enough fishmeal
total of 34 kg. Parts of the pond harvest When tested under field conditions (from excess recruits) to supply feed
fish for next culture cycle for respective this cage cum pond integration sys- manufacturing requirements for the
ponds were restocked in cages. The net tem achieved double or more than the next culture cycle. The feed conversion
out put yield from the system resulted national average yield. However, the ratio calculated based on net output
17.7 2.2 kg and 24.7 1.3 kg of fish field trials did not achieve the same was 1.3, which is acceptable with this
from cycle 1 and cycle 2, respectively, yield as that of trials at IAAS. Some local feed. The yield of the system is
with a total annual net yield of 42.4 kg of the problems in this trial were that more than two times higher than the
per 105m2 ponds. The yield of cycle 1 the culture period and timing could not national average. This model allows
was from four months of culture and be followed as per the model system. water quality to sustain fish production
is equivalent to 4.41 t/ha/yr (Table Farmers were not trained in this culture in a natural balance system. Moreover,
1), somewhat less than the 7.9 t/ha/yr system, feed adjustment was done on system allows small-scale farmers to
obtained at IAAS5,14. a monthly basis and there was a lack produce better fish yield for their nutri-
At IAAS, the system produced new of proper handling of live fish during tion and to supplement their incomes
recruits of 24.0 2.6 kg and 13.8 sampling of caged fish, causing stress and livelihoods.
1.2 kg during production cycle 1 and and mortality. In future, it would be
cycle 2, respectively, with a total of useful to develop a manual for farmers Acknowledgements
37.7 1.7 kg and new recruits sup- that intend to use this system, provid-
plied fingerlings to restock in open ing a daily or weekly feeding rate and The authors are grateful to IAAS,
pond. After restocking the ponds, an schedule (without intermediate sam- Rampur Campus and women farm-
excess of recruits remained (24.7 1.7 pling), and guidelines on suitable stock- ers of Kathar-1, Kusahana, Chitwan
kg/pond/yr). Conversion of these fresh ing size, time of stocking and harvest, namely, Gulabiya Chaudhary, Phul
recruits yielded 3.7 kg dry fishmeal. fertilization rates and schedule. Ideally, Kumari Chaudhary, Jhauri Mahato and
Feed consumed during production farmers wishing to practice this system Hari Maya Chaudhary for providing
cycle 1 and cycle 2 were 39.2 kg and should be provided with a short period facilities and participating in field trials.
37.1 kg/pond, respectively, with a total of training. We suggest that a further Authors acknowledge Mr. Chudamani
annual consumption of 76.3 kg/pond. trial should be conducted to develop Pandey M. Sc. (Aquaculture) student
Feed used in this experiment contained and test the efficacy of the system with for field and laboratory work. We
5% fishmeal, which required a total of such a training/documentation package are also thankful to the lab and field
3.8 kg fishmeal. Based on the total net in place. staff of the Fisheries and Aquaculture
output yield from the system and feed Tilapias are considered to be unique Department, Rampur campus, for their
consumed in ponds, FCR was calcu- in their capacity to breed naturally assistance.
lated as 1.3 (Table 1). in the cultured system without any
In farmers open ponds, fish grew artificial inducement. The free breed-
from 14.6 0.3 to 78.8 6.8 g and 6.3 ing capacity allows this species to be
popular where supply of fish seed is a
Table 1. Mean stocking wt., harvest yield, net yield, fishmeal yield, feed conversion ratio (FCR) data of
mixed sex Nile tilapia in cage cum pond fish culture on farm and on station during cycle 1 and 2.
Table 2. Weekly pond water quality parameters measured during experimental period in cycle 1 and 2.
Cycle 1 Cycle 2
Parameters
IAAS Farm IAAS Farm
Range Range Range Range
Water temperature (C) 17.5 30.2 16.8-31.2 19.4 31.8 19.4-30.9
Dissolved oxygen (mg/L) 1.3 6.4 1.6-7.6 1.4 10.5 0.6-13.1
pH 6.7 8.4 7.4-8.4 7.4 9.3 7.1-8.5
Secchi disk visibility (cm) 29 - 53 19-50 23 51 15-50
Total alkalinity (mg/L CaCO3) 80 132 66-177 84-140
TAN* (mg/L) 0.01-0.69 -2.86
SRP* (mg/L) -0.12 -0.34
Specific conductivity (mhos/cm) 184 274 - 223 349 -
July-September 2005 47
Research & farming techniques
References of water and waste water, 16th ed. American Public day of the conference schedule, cover-
Health Association, Washington, DC. ing the following topics:
1. Pullin, R.S.V. 1986. Aquaculture Dev. in Nepal- 14. Shrestha, M.K., S.S. Shrestha and D.K. Jha. 2000c. Taxonomy
pointers for success. Naga, The ICLARM Quarterly, Cage cum pond integration system for large size Ecology & Applications
January. 9-10. Nile tilapia production; a model evaluation. In: Genomics
2. Pantha, M.B. 1993. Aquafeeds and feeding strate- S.M. Shrestha and N.R. Devkota (Eds.), IAAS Res. Disease & Epidemiology
gies in Nepal. In: M.B. New, A.G.J. Tacon and I. Rep. (1995-2000). Inst. Agric. Anim. Sci., Rampur For more information email Peter.
Csavas (eds.), Farm-Made Aquafeeds. Proceedings Chitwan, Nepal. 69-77. Dawyndt@UGent.be or visit http://lmg.
of the FAO/AADCP Regional Expert Consultaion 15. Lin, C.K., Jaiyen, K. and V. Muthuwan. 1990. Inte- ugent.be/vibrio2005.
on Farm-Made aquafeeds, 14-18 December 1992, gration of intensive and semi-intensive aquaculture:
Bangkok, Thailand, FAO-RAPA/AADCP, Bangkok, concept and example. Thai Fish. Gaz., 43: 425-430. 7th Indian Fisheries Forum,
Thailand. 297-316. 7-12 November 2005
3. Singh, D.M. 1995. Country papers: Nepal. In:
Aquaculture in Asia and the Pacific- Report of an VIBRIO 2005, 6-8 November, Indian fisheries and aquaculture have
APO Seminar, 25 Aug. to 4 Sep. 1992, Asian Prod. Het Pand, Ghent, Belgium become an important economic activity
Org. Tokyo, Jap. 341-356. in the country as also a potential sector
4. Shrestha, M.K. and R.C. Bhujel. 1999. A prelimi- There have been tremendous devel- for diversification and value addition
nary study on Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) opments in the study of the biology in farming. With the blend of tradi-
polyculture with common carp (Cyprinus carpio) of vibrios over the last two decades. tional know how and new sciences,
fed with duckweed (Spirodela) in Nepal. Asian Nearly 80 species are now officially efficiencies have been enhanced, fish
Fisheries Science, 12: 83-89. recognized today, some of which have yields have been increased and the
5. FRD, 2001. Cage cum pond integrated system for well known ecological roles in nature. blue revolution is becoming a reality.
mixed sex Nile tilapia production. Annual Tech. V. cholerae remains one of the main New paradigms however are emerging
Rep. Nepal Agr. Res. Council, Fisheries Res. Div., scourges of mankind, killing thousands in the context of the WTO regime that
Godawari, Lalitpur. 5-15. of people yearly worldwide. Other would operate from beginning 2005,
6. Diana, J.S., C.K. Lin and K. Jaiyen. 1994. Sup- vibrios e.g. V. anguillarum, V. harveyi pertaining to trade and profitability,
plemental feeding of tilapia in fertilized ponds. J. and V. salmonicida are threats to reared environmental sustainability, water
World Aquaculture Soc., 25: 497-506. marine animals. Vibrios are abundant in management, species diversification,
7. Diana, J.S., C.K. Lin and Y. Yi. 1996. Timing of the marine environment and within the movement of aquatic animals and so
supplemental feeding for tilapia production. J. tissues/organs of several hosts e.g. fish on. It is again time to take stock of our
World Aquaculture Soc., 27: 410-419. and shellfish. More recently, certain achievements, capabilities, challenges
8. Lin, C.K. 1990. Integrated culture of walking catfish vibrios have been associated with the as well as opportunities. The main
(Clarias macrocephalus) and tilapia (Oreochromis mortality of corals and other cnidarians, objectives of the 7th Indian Fisheries
niloticus). In: R. Hirano and I. Hanyu (eds.), The worldwide. A wide range of biotech- Forum are to:
Second Asian Fisheries Forum. Asian Fisheries nological applications e.g. vaccine de- Provide a scientific platform to
Society, Manila, Philippines. 209-212. velopment, environmental monitoring deliberate on research accomplish-
9. McGinty, A.S. 1991. Tilapia production in cages: ef- and production of bioactive compounds ments and to identify the R & D
fect of cage size and number of noncaged fish. Prog. are currently under way using vibrios. needs in the sector.
Fish-Cult, 53: 246-249. Seven species have their whole-genome Provide opportunity to hear experts
10. Yi, Y., C.K. Lin and J.S. Diana. 1996. Influence of sequences available or approaching in strategic fields and interact
Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) stocking density completion allowing detailed genomic Develop strategies for bringing in
in cages on their growth and yield in cages and in and post-genomics analyses. Clearly, it awareness on environmental issues
ponds containing the cages. Aquaculture, 146: 205- is timely to bring together researchers and socio-economic benefits for bet-
215. committed to the study of the biology ter technology transfer.
11. Shrestha, M.K., S.S. Shrestha and D.K. Jha. 2000a. of vibrios. The goal of this meeting is Understand modern techniques of
Cage cum pond integration system for large size to have a forum of discussion of the resource management.
Nile tilapia production. In: S.M. Shrestha and N.R. present knowledge on vibrios as well Encourage young scientists to
Devkota (Eds.), IAAS Res. Rep. (1995-2000). Inst. as to identify the main research needs undertake need based and resource
Agric. Anim. Sci., Rampur Chitwan, Nepal. 47-56. for future projects. Cutting-edge studies specific research.
12. Shrestha, M.K., S.S. Shrestha and D.K. Jha. 2000b. covering the four main streamlines of Address the problem of resource
Cage cum pond integration system for large size current research i.e. Biodiversity, Ecol- constraint in the expansion of fish
Nile tilapia production during summer season. In: ogy & Applications, Genomics, and production activity.
S.M. Shrestha and N.R. Devkota (Eds.), IAAS Res. Disease & Epidemiology will be pre- Participate/visit exhibition/Trade
Rep. (1995-2000). Inst. Agric. Anim. Sci., Rampur sented during Vibrio 2005. The meeting show/Aqua show to understand
Chitwan, Nepa. 57-67. is targeted at bacterial taxonomists, recent developments in field of sci-
13. APHA, American Public Health, American Water microbial ecologists, genome research- ence, technology, equipments etc.
Works Association, Water Pollution Control Federa- ers, health management workers and For more information, email
tion. 1985. Standard Methods for the examination students. cvasu@7iff2005.org or visit http://
The conference is organized in four www.7iff2005.org/.
separate sessions, each taking up half a