INTRODUCTION TO THE PROJECT

ABSTRACT:

Simulation of power received by the earth station from the given satellite involves all the

communication Concepts and Orbital Mechanics of the Satellite. The Project theme is to create

the communication channel between the Earth Ground Station and Satellite by using only the

position vector and velocity vector of the Satellite and other standard parameters of the satellite.

The Artificial Satellites moves in the space around a planet in an orbit. The State Vectors

determine the position and velocity of the satellite in an orbit at any instant of time. By using

these State Vectors as a basis we will develop the communication between the satellite and earth

Station by taking Care of all the factors that effect the communication. The Satellite position in

the space in a particular orbit is generally determined with any of the Standard reference frames

like ECI frame, ECF frame, Perifocal Frame. Then the Orbit is extrapolated to generalize the

satellite position in the orbit. Then the Earth Station coordinates are taken and range of the

satellite is determined. The Dopplers apparent shift in frequency between the satellite and the

ground station is also considered. The minor channel accounting factors like Path loss are also

taken care. Thus the Modeling of the satellite to earth channel project is completed.

1
1. TWO BODY ORBITAL MECHANICS

1.1 KEPLERs LAWS :

I. FIRST LAW:

The Orbit of each planet is an ellipse with the sun at focus

II. SECOND LAW:

The line of joining the planet to the sun sweeps out equal areas in equal times.
III. THIRD LAW:

The square of the period of a planet is proportional to the cube of its mean

distance from the sun.

1.2 NEWTONS LAWS:

I. Every body continues to be in state of rest or of uniform motion in a straight line unless it

is compelled to the change that state by forces impressed up on it.

II. The rate of change of momentum is proportional to the force impressed and is in the same

direction of the force.

III. for every action there is always opposed an equal reaction.

1.3 CONSTANTS OF MOTION:

2
From the previous knowledge of physics one knows that the gravitational field is conservative.

That is, an object moving under the influence of gravity alone does not lose or gain the

mechanical energy but only exchanges one form of energy, kinetic, for another form called

Potential energy.

It is also known that tangential component of the force is responsible for the change of angular

momentum of a system in the rotational motion about the center of rotation. Since the

gravitational force is directed always to the center of the large mass we would expect that the

angular momentum of the satellite about the center if our reference frame (the large mass)

does not change. We will prove these statements in coming sections.

1.4 CONSERVATION OF MECHANICAL ENERGY:

The energy constant of motion is derived as follows

We know from law of physics,

r +( /r 3)r=0 --------------- (1)

1. Dot multiplying the equation (1) by the r , we get

r . r + r .( /r 3)r =0

2. Since in general a . a=a a , v=r v =r then we get

v . v + r . r =0 , so we get
r3

V V +( / r 3) rr =0

3
 d
3. Noticing the fact that d /dt (v 2 / 2)=vv and the
(/r )
= ( / r2) r
dt

2
we get ( d /dt {v /2 /r }=0

4. To make step 3 perfectly general we should say that

(d /dt) {v 2 /2+ c /r }=0 ;

5. if the time rate of change of an expression is zero , that expression must be a constant

which we will call therefore

2 u
=v /2+c
r = a constant called the specific mechanical energy

The first term of the above expression will be kinetic energy per the unit mass of the

satellite. The second term is the potential energy per unit mass you need to equate it with the

work done in moving a satellite from one point in space to another against the force of the

gravity. The arbitrary constant c depends up on the frame of reference being chosen and will

be assigned the value zero in normal cases.

Thus the specific mechanical energy is given by,

=v2 /2 u /r

4
EXAMPLE PROBLEM:

In an inertial coordinate system, the position and velocity vectors of the satellite are respectively

( 4.1852 I +6.2278 J +10.463 K ) 107 ft 4

And the ( 2.5936 I +5.1872 J ) 10 ft / sec , where the I, J,

K represents the unit vectors. Determine the specific mechanical energy and the angular

momentum.

SOLUTION:

r = 12.899* 10^7 feet;

v = 5.7995*10^14 feet/sec;

Specific mechanical energy () = v2/2 r ;

9 2 2
Answer 1.573 X 10 f t /sec

Angular momentum (h) r x v ;

2
h=5.4274 I +2.73137 J +0.54273 K f t / sec

5
1.5 THE TRAJECTORY EQUATION:

The equation of the motion for a two body problem is

r +( /r 3 )r =0

Crossing this relation with h leads toward a form which can be integrated:

r x h=( /r 3)(h x r) ---------- Equation (2)

The left side of the equation above is clearly d /dt ( r x h) and the right side of the equation

is time rate of change of some vector quantity i.e.,

3 3 3
( /r (h x r )=( /r )(r x v) x r =( /r )[v (r . r)r (r . v )];

( / r )v( r /r 2 )r

Since r . r =r r , also note that times the derivative of the unit vector also

d
( r /r )=( /r) v ( r /r 2) r
dt

The equation (2) is rewritten as

6
 d /dt (r x h)= d /dt( r /r )

Integrating on both sides of the above equation

r x h=( r /r)+ B

where B is the vector constant of integration , if we dot multiply this equation by the r we get a

scalar equation:

r .( r x h)=r . (r /r )+ r . B

Since a .(b x c)=(a x b). c a . a=a2 we get

h2=r +rBcos ( v)

Where the v (nu) is the angle between the constant vector B and the radius vector r solving for r

we obtain

h2 /
B
r= 1+
( )
cos ( v)

1.6 THE POLAR EQUATION OF THE CONIC SECTION:

r
p
v

7
origin of the focus
 FIGURE 1 GENERAL EQUATION OF ANY CONIC IN POLARCOORDINATES

e = 0; curve is circle

0<e<1; curve is ellipse

e=1; curve is parabola

e>1; curve is hyperbola

The above equation is the trajectory equation expressed in the polar coordinates where the polar

angle v is measured from the fixed vector B to r . To determine what kind of curve it represents

we need only compare it to the general equation of the conic section written in polar coordinates

with the origin located at a focus and where the polar angle v is the angle between the r and the

point on the conic nearest the focus.

1+ecos(v )
r= p /

In the above equation p is the geometrical constant of the conic called the semilatus rectum.

e is the eccentricity and determines which type of conic section represented by the equation.

Thus, the similarity between the trajectory equationn and the equation of the conic section not

only verifies the Keplers first law but also allows us to extend the fact that orbital motion is

possible along the all conical paths not just ellipse.

8
We can summarize our knowledge concerning orbital motion up to this point as follows.

1. The family of curves called conic sections (ellipse, circle, parabola, and hyperbola) represents

the only path for an orbiting object in the two body problem.

2. The focus of the conic object is located at the center of the central body.

3. The mechanical energy of the satellite does not change as the satellite moves along its conical

orbit. However the exchange of energy between the two forms of mechanical energy i.e.,

potential and the kinetic energy is possible

4. The orbit motion takes place in a plane which is fixed in inertial space

5. The specific angular momentum of a satellite about the central attracting body remains

constant. As r and v changes along the orbit, the flight path angle will change as h remains

constant.

1.7 GEOMETRIC PROPERTIES COMMON TO THE ALL CONIC

SYSTEMS :

The conic systems are the circle, ellipse, parabola, and hyperbola.

A conic is a circle or locus of a point which moves so that the ratio of its absolute distance from

a given point ( a focus) to its absolute distance from a given line( a dielectrix) is a constant e

(eccentricity).

All conical sections have two foci F and F. The prime focus F marks the location of the

9
central attracting body in an orbit. The secondary or vacant focus F has little significance in

orbital mechanics

The length of chord passing through the two foci is called the major axis of the conic and is

labeled as (a) .

The width of each curve at the focus is a positive dimension called the latus rectum(p)

The extreme ends of major axis of an orbit are referred to the apses. The point nearest the

prime focus is called the periapsis and the point the farthest the focus is called the apoapsis.

Depending on what is attracting body in the orbit situation these points may also be noted as the

perigee/perihelion and apogee/aphelion.

The distance from the prime focus to the either of perigee or apogee (where it exists) can be

expressed by simply putting the v=0 degrees or 180 degrees for perigee and for apogee.

p
rmin=rperigee=
1+e

p
rmax=rapogee=
1e

1.8 THE ECCENTRICITY VECTOR:

In the derivation of the above eqn we encountered with a constant called B .

From the eqn of the conical and trajectory equation we get

10
 B= e ;

by integrating the two body eqn of motion we obtained the following result

r x h=( /r )r + B

Solving for B and hence we get the e value

e=(v x h)/r /r

we can eliminate h from this expression by substituting h=r x v

thus we get the simplified formula as

e=(v 2 /r ) r(r . v) v

This eccentricity vector will be used in orbit determination.

The simple relationship b/w specific energy constant and the semi major axis a of an orbit is

e ' = /2 a

Since h determines latusrectum (p) and e determines semi major axis(a) the two together

combined determine (e) as follows

e= [1+
2e ' h 2

2
]

Note that if e is positive e is greater than1 which implies hyperbola

11
 If e is zero e is equal to 1 which implies parabola

If e is negative e is less than 1 which implies ellipse

EXAMPLE PROBLEM:

8 2 2
For a given satellite e =2.0 x 10 f t /sec , e=0.2 determine the specific angular momentum,

semilatus rectum an the semi major axis

Solution:

a=/2 e = 3.5198 X 107 fe et

2
p=a(1e ) = 3.3790 x 107 feet

p 11
ft square/sec ;
h= ) = 6.897 x 10

EXAMPLE PROBLEM:

The radar tracking satellite tells us that a certain decaying weather satellite has e=0.1 and perigee

altitude 200n.mi. Determine the altitude at apogee and the specific mechanical energy of the

satellite and angular momentum.

Solution:

12
 rp r +200 = 3643.9 n . miles

1+e
n . miles
p=rp ) = 4008.3

ra=p /(1e) = 4453.5 n . miles .

Altitude at apogee = ra r =1009.8 n . miles

h=( p)= 5.855 x 1011 feet square/ sec ;

2 a=ra +rp 8097.6 n . miles

e =(/2 a)= -2 .861108 feet square/ sec square ;

1.9 THE ELLIPTICAL ORBIT:

13
The orbit of all the planets in the solar system as well as the orbits of all earth satellites is

ellipses. Since the ellipse is a closed curve, an object in an elliptical orbit travels the same path

over and over.

The time for the satellite to go around its orbit is called the period.

Here we are to discuss the geometry of ellipse and later derive the expression for the period of

the elliptical orbit

1.10 GEOMETRY OF ELLIPTICAL ORBIT:

An ellipse can be constructed using the two pins and a loop of thread. Each pin marks the

location of a focus and since the length of the thread is constant the sum of distances from any

14
point on the ellipse to each focus (r+r) is constant as shown

FIGURE 2 SIMPLE WAY TO CONSTRUCT AN ELLIPSE

when pencil is at the either end point of the ellipse it is easy to see that

'
r +r =2 a

also by interception the distance between the foci is

rarp=2 c

15
in general eccentricity of the ellipse is determine by the

rarp
e=
ra+rp

The width of an ellipse at the center is called the minor axis, 2b.

1.11 PERIOD OF AN ELLIPTICAL ORBIT:

The angular momentum of a satellite is expressed as

dv
h=r 2
dt

from the elementary calculus the differential element of area dA , swept out by the radius

vector

as it moves through an angle dv is given by

dA=0.5 r 2 dv

hence on rearranging above two equations we get

dt=2/h dA

During one orbital period the radius vector sweeps out entire area of ellipse.

Hence integrating above equation for an one period

16
We get time period of the orbit is

TP=2ab/h;

Where ab is the total area of an ellipse and TP is the time period

Thus on further simplification

2 1.5
TP= a

1.12 THE CIRCULAR ORBIT

The circular orbit is just a special case of the ellipse. So all the relationships we just derived for

the elliptical orbits including the period are also valid for the circular orbit. Of course, the semi

major axis of a circular orbit is just its radius. so the equation for the Time period TP is

2 1.5
TP= a

where the term a stands for the radius of the circle.

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2. COORDINATE SYSTEMS

2.1 COORDINATE SYSTEMS IN SPACE:

Our first requirement for describing an orbit is a suitable inertial frame of reference.

In the case of orbits around the sun such as comets, planets, asteroids the heliocentric ecliptic

coordinate frame of reference is convenient.

In order to describe this coordinate system we will give the position of the origin, the orientation

of the fundamental plane (i.e. X-Y plane), the principal direction (i.e. Z axis direction) and the

direction of the Z axis. Since the Z axis is perpendicular to the fundamental plane it is necessary

to specify which direction is positive, the Y axis is always chosen to form the right handed set of

the coordinate axes.

The detailed explanation for the Coordinate systems for the satellites of the earth which are used

in this project are as follows

2.2 GEOCENTRIC EQUATORIAL COORDINATE SYSTEM:

The geocentric equatorial system has its origin at the earths center. The fundamental plane is

equator and the positive x axis points towards the vernal equinox direction. The z axis points in

the direction of the North Pole. It is important to keep in mind that the XYZ system is not fixed

with the earth and not turning with the earth; rather the geocentric equatorial frame is non

rotating with respect the stars (except for the precession of the equinoxes) and the earth turns

18
relative to it. For the satellites of the earth we want to use the geocentric equatorial frame system.

Unit vectors I, J, K lies along the XYZ axes respectively will be useful in describing the vectors

in the geocentric equatorial system.

FIGURE 3 GEOCENTRIC EQUITORIAL FRAME

2.3 THE PERIFOCAL COORDINATE SYSTEM:

One of the most convenient coordinate frames of reference for describing the motion of the

satellite is the Perifocal coordinate system. Here the fundamental plane is the p

lane of the satellites orbit. The coordinates axes are named as Xw, Yw and Zw .The X axis

19
points towards the perigee; the Y axis is rotated 90 degrees in the direction of the orbital motion

and lies in the orbit plane; the Z axis along the h completes the right handed Perifocal system.

FIGURE 4 PERIFOCAL COORDINATE SYSTEM

2.4 CLASSICAL ORBIT ELEMENTS:

20
FIGURE 5 ORBITAL ELEMENTS

Five independent quantities called the orbital elements are sufficient to completely describe the

size, shape and orientation of the orbit. A sixth element is required to pinpoint the position of the

21
satellite along the orbit at a particular time.

The classical set of six orbital elements is determined as follows

I. Semi major axis (a):

- A constant determining the size of the conical orbit

II. Eccentricity (e):

- A constant defining the shape of the conic orbit

III. Inclination (i):

- The angle between the K unit vector and the angular momentum h.

IV. Longitude of the ascending node ():

- The angle in the fundamental plane, between the I unit vector

and the point where the satellite crosses through the fundamental plane in a northerly direction

(ascending node) measured counter clock wise when viewed from the north side of the

fundamental plane

V. Argument of perigee (w):

-The angle in the satellites plane orbit between the ascending node

and the perigee point measured in the direction of the satellites motion

VI. Time of perigee passage (T):

- The time when the satellite was at perigee point.

The above definitions are valid whether we are describing the orbit of an earth satellite in the
22
geo-centric equatorial frame

Its common when referring to earth satellites to use the term argument of perigee for (w).

The list of six orbital elements defined above is by no means exhaustive.

- Frequently the semi latus rectum (p) is substituted for the (a) in the above list.

There are certain terms defined for the sake of convenience:

: The Longitude of the periapsis

the angle from I to the periapsis measured eastward to the

ascending node ( if it exists) and then in the orbital plane to the periapsis.

If both and w are defined then the

=+ w

if there is no periapsis then both w and are undefined.

Any of the following may be substituted for the time of periapsis passage and would suffice to

locate the satellite at any instant t0

vo true anomaly at epoch

- the angle in the plane of the satellites orbit between the periapsis and the

position of the satellite at a particular time t0 called the epoch

u0 argument of latitude at the epoch

- the angle in the plane of the orbit between the ascending node (if it exists) and

23
the radius vector to the satellite at time t0.

if the w and v0 exists then u0 = v0+ w

If there is no ascending node then the both the w and v0 are not defined and will not exists.

l0 True longitude at epoch

The angle between I and r ( the radius of the satellite vector at time instant

to) measured eastwards to the ascending node(if it exists) and then in the orbital plane to r. If w,

vo, and are defined then the

l0 = w + vo, + = + uo = + vo

If there is no ascending node (equatorial orbit) then l0= + vo

If there is no periapsis then (circular orbit) then, l0 = + uo

if the orbit is both circular and equatorial then l0 is simply the true angle from I to the r both of

which are always defined.

Two other terms frequently used to describe the orbital motion are

direct and retrograde. Direct means easterly. This is the direction in which the sun, earth and

most of the planets rotate on their axes and the direction in which all of the planets revolve
around the sun.

Retrograde is the opposite to that of direct .The inclinations for a retrograde orbit lies

between the 90 degrees 180 degrees and for the direct orbit it will be from 0 degrees to 90
degrees.

24
2.5 DETERMINING THE ORBITAL ELEMENTS FROM THE
POSITION AND VELOCITY VECTOR:

Lets assume that a radar site is providing the position vector (r) and the velocity vector (v) of a
satellite relative to the geocentric-equatorial frame of reference at a particular time to.

We determine the six orbital elements from above vectors which describes the motion of the
snsatellite in the space.

The first step is to form three fundamental vectors h, n & e

I. THE ANGULAR MOMENTUM VECTOR (h)

h=r x v Where r=ri I +rj J + rk K and v = vi I + vj J+ vk K

[ ]
I J K
Thus, h = det ri rj rk = hi I + hj J + hk K
vi vj vk

An important thing to remember is that h is perpendicular to the plane of the orbit.

II. THE NODE VECTOR n:

The node vector n defines the sets of nodes say ascending nodes in particular.

n=kxh

[ ]
I J K
= det 0 0 1 = ni I + nj J +nk K = -hj J + hi J
hi hj hk

From the definition of the vector cross product n must be perpendicular to the k and h .

To be perpendicular to k, n must lie in the equatorial plane and to be perpendicular to h, n must

25
lie in the orbital frame. Thus, n must lie in the equatorial and orbital planes, or their intersection

which is called the line of nodes

specifically n is the vector pointing along the line of nodes in the direction called the ascending

node. The magnitude of n is of no consequence to us. We are interested in its direction.

III. THE ECCENTRICITY VECTOR e:

The vector e points from the center of earth (focus of the orbit) towards the perigee with a

magnitude exactly equal to the eccentricity of the orbit.

2
v /r
1
e= ]r - (r.v) v

2.6 SOLVING FOR THE ORBITAL ELEMENTS:

We have n, h and e vectors, we can proceed easily to obtain the orbital elements.

The parameter (p) which describes the latus rectum and eccentricity follow directly from the h

and e while all the remaining orbital elements are the angles between the vectors.

If we know how to find the angle between the two vectors then the problem is solved.

In general the angle () between the two vectors A and B is given by

cos ( )= A . B / AB

ofcourse , being able to evaluate the cosine of the angle does not mean that you know the angle

26
 You still have to decide whether the angle is smaller or greater than 180 degrees. The answer to

this quadrant resolution problem must come from the other information in the problem as we

shall see.

we can outline the method of finding the orbital elements as follows

I. p=h 2 /

II. e= magnitude of e

III. ( i ) is the angle between the K and h

hk
cos ( i )=
h ; Inclination angle (i) is always less than 180 degrees

IV. () is the angle between the I and n

cos ) n ; if nj is greater than 0 then is less than 180 degrees

V. w is the angle between the n and e

cos ( w )=(n . e)/ne ; if ek is greater than 0 then w is less than 180 degtees

VI. vo is the angle between e and r

cos v o=(e . r )/er ; if r.v>0 then vo is less than 180 degrees

VII. u0 is the angle between n and r

27
 cos u 0=(n . r )/nr ; if rk>0 the u is less than 180 degrees
0

8. lo = +wo+ vo = + uo

All the quadrant checks in parentheses make physical sense. The quadrant check for the v0 is

nothing more than a method of determining the whether the satellite is between perigee and

apogee( where the flight path angle is always positive) or between the apogee and perigee (where

the flight path angle is always negative).

EXAMPLE PROBLEM:

The radar tracks a meteoroid and from the tracking data the following position and velocity
vectors are found (in geocentric equatorial frame)

r = 2I DU

v = 1 J DU

Determine the six orbital elements for the observed meteoroid

Solution:

find ( h )

h = r x v = 2K DU square /TU

find (p)

2
p = h / = 4 DU

find eccentricity (e)

2
v / r
e= 1 ] r - (r.v) v = 1 I

28
 e= |e| = 1 the path of the meteoroid is parabolic with respect to earth

find the inclination (i)

hk
cos ( i )=
h = 1 hence the i=0 degrees

thus the meteoroid is travelling in the equatorial plane.

find the longitude of ascending node ()

cos ) n ; since the meteoroid is travelling in the equatorial plane
there is no ascending node
because the trajectory does not cross the equatorial plane and therefore,

for this case is not defined

find argument of periapsis (w)

cos ( w )=(n . e)/ne ; since there is no ascending node the w is also undefined.

in the lieu of the w the longitude of periapsis, can be determined because the orbital plane

is

coinciding with the equatorial plane (i = 0 degrees) is measured from the I axis to periapsis

which is collocated with the e

cos = (e . I)/e = 0 degrees

hence it is determined that perigee is located along the I axis

find the true anomaly, vo

cos v o=(e . r )/er = 1; hence vo = 0 degrees

29
and hence it is found that meteoroid is presently at perigee.

find the longitude of epoch lo

lo = + vo = 0 degrees

2.7 DETERMINING r and v FROM THE ORBITAL ELEMENTS:

In this section we see how to determine the r and v vectors i.e. position and velocity vectors of a

satellite in a particular orbit at given instant when six classical elements are given.

This is both interesting and practical exercise since it represents the one way of solving basic

problem of astrodynamics that updating the position and velocity vector of a satellite to some

future time. Suppose we know ro and vo at some time to then we can determine the six orbital

elements , the first five of them are constants( if we accept the true body problem) and only the

true anomaly (v) changes . This will enable you to construct new set of orbital elements and the

only step remaining is to determine the new r and v from this updated set.

The method of determining r and v from the orbital elements consists of two steps

1. EXPRESSING r and v in the PERIFOCAL SYSTEM

2. TRANSFORMING r and v of Perifocal system to geocentric-equatorial components.

I. EXPRESSING r and v in the PERIFOCAL SYSTEM:

30
Lets assume that we know p, e, i , w , ,v we can write the expression for the r in terms of
Perifocal system as

r=rcos ( v ) P+rsin ( v ) Q -------- Perifocal (1)

where the r represents the magnitude which is determined from the polar equation of a conic:

p
r=
1+ecos ( v )

To obtain v we only need to differentiate r in the eqn Perifocal(1) by keeping in the mind that

pQ
perifocal frame is inertial and so are equal to zero.

This expression for v is

v = r =( r cos vr v sinv ) P+ ( r sin v +r v cosv ) Q

2
The simplification for v is done by using the fact that h=r2 p=h /

v = [sinv P+ ( e+ cosv ) Q]

p

EXAMPLE PROBLEM:

A space object has following orbital elements as determined by the NORAD space track system

p= 2.25 DU

e=.5

i=45 degrees

=30 degrees

31
w= 0 degrees

vo = 0 degrees

Express the r and v vectors of the space object in the Perifocal coordinate system

Solution: determine r where r represents the magnitude of r i.e.

p
r=
1+ecos ( v ) = 1.5 DU

Hence the vector r is

r=rcos ( v ) P+rsin ( v ) Q = 1.5P DU

Hence the vector v is

v = [sinv P+ ( e+ cosv ) Q] = 1 Q DU/TU

p

3. COORDINATE
TRANSFORMATIONS:

Before discussing how to transform r and v i.e. position and velocity vector from Perifocal to the

geocentric equatorial plane we will review the coordinate transformations.

A vector may be represented in any coordinate frame of reference. Its common on astro

dynamics to use rectangular coordinates although occasionally spherical coordinates are more

convenient.

32
A rectangular fundamental frame is usually defined by specifying its origin, its fundamental (x-y)

plane ,the direction of the positive Z axis and the principal X axis direction in the fundamental

frame. Three unit vectors are defined to indicate the direction of the three perpendicular axes

Any of the three vectors can be expressed as the linear combination of the three unit vectors.

The collection of the three unit vectors is called basis.

3.1 WHAT A COORDINATE TRANSFORMATION DOES:

FIGURE 6 ROTATION ABOUT ZAXIS

33
A coordinate transformation merely changes the basis of a vector- nothing else. The vector has

still same length and direction even after the coordinate transformation and still it represent the

same thing .

A vector has two properties that can be expressed mathematically magnitude and direction.

Certain vectors have a definite starting point, but this point of origin can be expressed

mathematically and does not change in the coordinate transformation. For example suppose we

know the south, east and zenith components of the vector from a radar site on the surface of

the earth to the satellite. A simple change of basis will enable you to express this vector in the

terms of IJK components.

p=pi I + pj J+ pk K

The transformation did not change what a vector represents so it is still the vector from the

radar site to the satellite. In other words , expressing a vector in the coordinates of a particular

frame does not imply that vector has its tail at the origin.

3.2 CHANGE OF BASIS USING MATRICES:

Changing from one basis to another basis can be streamlined by using the matrix methods.

Suppose we have the coordinate frames XYZ and XYZ related by a simple rotation

through a positive angle about the z axis. we will define a positive rotation about any axes

34
by means of right hand thumb rule if the thumb of the right hand is extended in the direction

of the positive coordinate axis, the finger curl in the sense of the positive rotation

Let us imagine three unit vectors I, J and K extending along the x , y and z axes respectively

and another set of unit vectors U,Vand W extend along the x, y and z axes . Now suppose

a vector a can be expressed in terms of IJK basis as

a = ai I +aj J +ak K

and in terms of UVW basis as

a = au U +av V +aw W

FIGURE 7 RELATION BETWEEN UVW AND IJK UNIT VECTORS

35
we can see that the unit vectors UVW and IJK unit vectors are related as

cos
U=I ) + J (sin ) + K (0)

V = I (-sin ) + J (cos ) + K (0)

W=I(0) + J(0) + K (1)

Thus the above procedure is extended for the vector a

au = aI (cos ) + aJ (sin ) + aK (0)

av = aI (- sin ) + aJ (cos ) + aK (0)

aw = aI (0 ) + aJ (0) + aK (1)

Thus we can express the above set of equations in very compact manner if we use matrix

notation and think of the vector a as the triplet of numbers representing the column matrix

we shall use the subscripts to identify the basis, thus

a IJK =[a I a J a K ]T a UVW =[a U a V a w ]T

the transformation matrix(A) to convert the vector a from the IJK to the UVW frame is given

by

36
 [ ]
cos sin 0
A= sin cos 0
0 0 1

where the is the angle between the I and U vectors.

Thus the Matrix representation of the relation b/w the UVW and the IJK coordinate system is

a UVW =A a IJK In the sense that

[ ][ ] []
au cos sin 0 ai
av = sin cos 0 aj
aw 0 0 1 ak

3.3 SUMMARY OF TRANSFORMATION OF MATRICES FOR

SINGLE ROTATION OF COORDINATE FRAME:

Arguments similar to those above may be used to derive the transformation matrices that will

represent the rotations of the coordinate frame about X or Y axes. These are summarized below.

ROTATION ABOUT THE X AXIS:

the transformation matrix B corresponding to a single rotation of the coordinate frame about the

positive X axis through an angle is

37
 [ ]
1 0 0
B= 0 cos sin
0 sin cos

ROTATION ABOUT THE Y AXIS:

The transformation matrix C corresponding to the single rotation of the coordinate frame about

the positive Y axis through an angle is

[ ]
cos 0 sin
C= 0 1 0
sin 0 cos

3.4 SUCCESIVE ROTATIONABOUT SEVERAL AXES:

So far we have learnt how to use the matrices to perform a simple change of basis where the new

set of unit vectors is related to the old set by the simple rotation about the one of the coordinate

axis.

Suppose we know IJK components of the vector a in the geocentric equatorial frame and we

wish to find the SEZ components of the vector in the topocentric horizon frame of reference.

we will proceed in this manner

Starting with the IJK frame we can first rotate angle about the Z axis and then rotate it through

38
an positive angle (90o L) about the Y axis to bring in to angular alignment with the SEZ frame.

The three components of the first rotation can be found from

[ ] []
cos sin 0 ai
sin cos 0 aj
0 0 1 ak

The above expression is actually a column matrix and represent the three components of a in the

intermediate frame. We can multiply this column matrix by the appropriate matrix corresponding

to the second rotation and obtain

[] [ ] [ ] []
aS sin L 0 cos L cos sin 0 ai
aE = 0 1 0 sin cos 0 aj
aZ cos L 0 sin L 0 0 1 ak

since the matrix multiplication is associative we can multiply the two simple rotation matrices

together to form a single transformation matrix and we write

[ ][ ] []
aS sinLcos sinL sin cos L ai
aE = sin cos 0 aj -------- eqn conversion(1)
aZ cos L cos cosL sin sinL ak

We should note that the order in which we multiply the two rotations is important since the

matrix multiplication is not commutative. Since the matrix multiplication can represent the

axis system we can infer from this that the order in which the rotations are performed is not

39
irrelevant.

For example if you are in an airplane and you rotate in pitch 45 degrees and then roll 90 degrees

right you will be in different altitude than if you first roll 90 degrees then pitch up 45 degrees.

The eqn conversion(1) can be compactly written as

aSEZ = D aIJK

[ ]
sinL cos sinL sin cos L
where D = sin cos 0
cos Lcos cosL sin sinL

in general the inverse of a matrix is difficult to calculate , fortunately all the transformation

matrices between the rectangular frames have unique property that they are orthogonal.

A three by three matrix is said to be orthogonal id the rows and columns are scalar components

of a mutually perpendicular unit vectors . The inverse of the Orthogonal matrix is equal to its

transpose Thus the

aIJK = D-1 aSEZ

[ ]
sinLcos sinLsin cos L
where D =-1 Transpose of sin cos 0
cos L cos cosL sin sinL

40
3.5 TRANSFORMATION FROM THE PERIFOCAL COORDINATE
FRAME TO THE GEOCENTRIC EQUITORIAL FRAME:

The Perifocal coordinate system is related geometrically to the IJK frame through the angles

, i and was shown in the figure

FIUGURE 8 PERIFOCAL AND IJK FRAMES

the transformation of the coordinates between the P Q W and I J K systems can be

accomplished by means of the rotational matrix R

Thus if the ai , aj and ak are the components of the a in the IJK system and ap aq ak are the

components of a in PQW system then

[] []
ai ap
aj =R aq
ak aw

The elements of the matrix R is given by

41
 [ ]
r 11 r 12 r 13
R= r 21 r 22 r 23
r 31 r 32 r 33

Where,

r11 = cos cos wsin sin w cos i

r12 = - cos sin wsin cos w cos i

r 13=sin sin i

r 21=sin cos w +cos sin w cos i

r 22=sin sin w+ cos cos w cos i

r 23=cossin i

r 31=sin w sin i

r 32=cos w sin i

r 33=cos i

Having determined the elements of the rotation matrix it only remains to find the r and v in

terms of the IJK components Thus

42
 [ ] [ ][ ] [ ]
ri rp vi vp
rj =R vq vj =R vq
rk vw vk vw

special precautions are to be taken when the orbit is equatorial or circular or both.

In this case either or w is undefined. In the case of circular orbit v is also undefined. So it is

necessary to measure true anomaly from some arbitrary frame of reference such as ascending

node or (if the orbit is equatorial) from the unit vector I .

4. POSITION AND VELOCITY A

FUNCTION OF TIME
43
4.1 TIME OF FLIGHT ON THE ELLIPTICAL ORBIT:

we have already seen that in one orbital period the radius vector sweeps out an area equal to the

total area of ellipse i.e. ab .

In going part way around an orbit, say from perigee to some point P, where the true anomaly is

v , The radius vector sweeps out the shaded area A1, in the figure. Because area is swept out at a

constant rate in an orbit (KEPLERs SECOND LAW) we can say that

tT TP
= Time of flight eqn(1)
A 1 ab

where is T is the time of periapsis passage and TP is the time period.

44
The only unknown in the Time of flight eqn (1) is the Area A1.The geometrical construction

illustrated in the figures shown will enable us to find the expression for A1.

A circle of radius (a) has been constructed about an ellipse. A dotted line perpendicular to the

major axis has been extended through P to where it intersects the auxiliary circle at Q.

The angle is called the ECCENTRIC ANOMALY (E)

Before going further we must derive a simple relationship between the ellipse and the auxiliary

circle. From the analytical geometry the equations of the curves in Cartesian coordinates are

x2 y2
Ellipse: 2
+ 2 =1
a b

x2 y2
+ =1
circle: a2 a2

From which

45
 b
Yellipse=
a
(a2x 2)

Ycircle= ( a2x 2)

Yellipse b
=
Thus Ycircle a elliptical orbit eqn (1)

This simple relationship between the two y ordinates of the two curves plays a key role in the

subsequent area and length comparisons.

A 1=area of PSV A 2

A 2=ab / 2(e sin Ecos E sin E)

Area of the PSV is under the ellipse. It is bounded by the dotted line and the major axis. Area

QSV is the corresponding area under the area of the auxiliary circle. It follows directly from the

elliptical orbit eqn (1) that the area of QSV is just the area of the sector QOC which is

0.5 a E2 where E is in the radians, minus the triangle whose base is ( acosE and whose

altitude is (asinE ) Hence

Area of PSV =ab/2( Ecos E sin E)

Substituting the expression for the area A1 yeilds

46
 ab
( Eesin E )
A1= 2

finally substituting in the time of flight eqn(1) and expressing the time period as 2 (a 3 /)

we get

E
Esin

tT =
( a3
)
------------- elliptical orbit eqn (2)

Kepler introduced the definition

M =EesinE ------------------ elliptical orbit eqn (3)

where M is called the mean anomaly . If we also use the definition

n= (

)
a3 -------------------- elliptical orbit eqn (4)

where n is the mean motion, then the mean anomaly is defined as

M =n ( tT )=EesinE ------------- elliptical orbit eqn (4)

The above equation is often referred as KEPLERs Equation

Obviously in order to use elliptical orbit eqn (2) we must relate the Eccentric Anomaly E to its

corresponding true anomaly v as shown

cos E=( ae+r cos v)/ a

47
 a ( 1e2 )
Since r=
1+e cos v

thus the relation between the Eccentric Anomaly (E) and True Anomaly v can be expressed as

1+ecosv
cos E=(e+cos v)/ )

Eccentric Anomaly can be determined from the above equation. The correct quadrant of E is

obtained by noting that v and E are always in the same half plane. If v is between 0 and then E

is also between 0 and .

Suppose we want to find the time of flight between a point defined by vo and some general point

defined by the v when the initial point is not at periapsis. Provided that the object does not pass

through the periapsis enrooting from vo to v, we can say that

t=( tT ) ( )

if the object passes through the periapsis (which is the case when ever vo is greater than v) then

we can say that

t=TP+ ( tT ) ( )

with the elliptical orbit eqn (2) substituted in the above equation we get

in general we can say that

48
 2 k + ( EesinE )( Eoesin Eo)

(
3
t=
a

)
where k is the number of times the object passes through the periapsis enroute from vo to v.

4.2 KEPLERs PROBLEM:

In classical terms, the Kepler problem is basically solution of the equation shown below

M =Ee sin E . Keplers eqn(1)

where M is known as n(t-T) . M can be obtained from the equation

M=
(
a3)( t )2 k + M 0

49
FIGURE 9 MEAN ANOMALY (VS) ECCENTRIC ANOMALY

Even though the Keplers eqn (1) is one equation with one unknown, Its an transcendental

equation in E. There is no way of getting E by itself of the equal sign. Kepler himself realized

this. He says that he found it impracticable and that he did not Nbelieve there was any

geometrical or rigorous method of attaining to it.

The first approximate Solution for E is made by Kepler himself. The next was by Newton in the

Principia from the graphical construction involving the cycloid he was able to find an

approximate solution for the eccentric anomaly. A very large number of analytical and graphical

solutions have been discovered because nearly every mathematician since Newton has given

attention to this problem.

We will resort to the Newtons method for the solution of the Equation solving.

50
4.3 NEWTONs ITERATION SCHEME:

We can formulate the Newtons Iteration scheme as follows

First select a trial value for E say call it as E N. Next compute the Mean anomaly from the

keplers eqn (1) that is

MN = EN - e sin EN

Now select the new trial value , EN+1 from the equation

dM
at E=
EN+1 = EN + (M- MN) dE En ------------ Newtons iteration (1)

dM
at E=
Where dE En is the slope of the M vs E curve at the trial value E N .The slope

expression is obtained by differentiating Keplers equation(1)

dM
=1ecosE
Hence dE

Therefore Newtons iteration (1) can be written as

M Mn
En+ 1=En+
1+ e cos En

When the difference M-Mn becomes zero or acceptably small we can get quit iterating. Since the

slope of the M vs. E curve approaches zero at E=0 or 2 when e is nearly 1, we can anticipate

convergence difficulties for near parabolic orbits.

51
Pick the first trial value of E1 = should guarantee the convergence. However even when e is

nearly equal to 1.

Once E is determined by any method, the true anomaly may be found from the equation. Exactly

the analogous methods are used to solve for v for hyperbolic orbit when a, e and v and the time

of flight are given.

4.4 ALGORTITHM FOR KEPLERS EQUATION

The algorithm for solving the Keplers Problem is as follows

1. From ro and vo determine the r0 , a , e , p and v0

2. Given the t-t0 solve for the appropriate Keplers time of flight equation for E using the trial

and error method such as the Newtons Iteration. Solve for v if needed.

3. Solve for the r from the polar equation of an ellipse

4. Determine the r and v in the Perifocal frame and then convert to the geocentric equatorial

frame of reference.

52
5. CONCEPTUAL MEASUREMENT
SYSTEMS:

5.1 RANGE OF THE SATELLITE:

All measurements of range are based on the time of flight principle. Simply stated, an instrument

an instrument transmits a signal, usually with some appropriate time duration, which is reflected

by the passive target or retransmitted by an active target.

A two way range may originate with an instrument, and the signal may have to travel to the

satellite and back to the transmitting site.

5.2 IDEAL RANGE:

A common measurement in an orbit determination is the distance between the Earth based

instrument performing the measurement and the satellite. If the position vector of the instrument

is rI and the position vector of the satellite is r with respect to the instrument then range is given

by

0.5
p=[ ( r ri ) . ( r ri ) ]

In this ideal range representation, the range should be more precisely described as the

geometrical range or the instantaneous range, since it represents the instantaneous, geometric

distance between the measuring instrument and the satellite. This ideal representation has

ignored the subtle issues such as finite speed of the light and the fact that p is the distance

53
between a specific point on the satellite. Further more if pobs represents the ideal range at

any time t, r and rI represents the true position vectors at this time then p pobs are related

by

pobs= p+

Where represents the instrumental errors and propagation delays. Note also that if the position

vectors r and rI are in the error then must contain the necessary terms to make the above

equation necessarily an equality.

The geometric range p is invariant under the rotation of axes used to describe r and rI . That is ,

XY Z
if ) represents an inertial frame and ( x , y , z ) represents the Earth fixed system then

the geometric range is represented as

0.5
p=[ ( XXi )2 + ( Y Yi )2+ ( ZZi )2 ]

And

0.5
p=[ ( xxi )2 + ( y yi )2 + ( zzi )2 ]

Where p is identical for both the representations.

54
FIGURE 10 RANGE VS TIME

5.3 IDEAL RANGE RATE:

In some cases Ideal range rate or the rate of change of rate may be a measurable quantity.

From the expression of the range in the (X Y Z) non rotating system, the range rate can be

determined as follows

p=( p . p )/ p

Where p=( XXi ) Ux+ ( Y Yi ) Uy+ ( ZZi ) Uz

Note that the position and velocity of a ground based instrument can be expressed in the non

rotating (X Y Z) frame will be dependent on the rotation of the earth.

In other words, the range rate is the component of the relative velocity in the direction defined

the observing instrument and the satellite in the line of sight direction the direction defined by

relative position vector.

55
FIGURE 11 RANGE RATE VS TIME

5.4 AZIMUTH AND ELEVATION ANGLE

Line of Reference:

The line joining the point on earth to the North Star is called the line of reference. This is

because the North Star is situated on the Earths axis of rotation. Therefore there is no relative

motion of the same w.r.to any point on the earth.

Local Horizon:

The tangential plain to the earth at the point on earth is referred to as the Local Horizon.

Azimuth:

The angle which the antenna axis projection on the local horizon makes with the point if

reference is called Azimuth.

Elevation:

56
The angle which the antenna axis makes with the local horizon is called Elevation. Jus as the

latitude and longitude of a place uniquely determined its position the earth surface. In the same

way the Azimuth and Elevation uniquely determine the direction of any object

(Satellite in this case) in space, which can be considered as a sphere of infinite radius. As in

spherical coordinates, In three dimensional geometry, these two angles form the (azimuth) and

(elevation) coordinates.

5.5 LINK BUDGET

When we talk about a communication link, we are not just referring to the channel or region

between the transmitter and receiver; it is far more than that. The link encompasses the entire

communications path, from the information source, through all the transmitting processing steps,

through the transmitter and the channel, up to and including the receiver with its entire signal

processing steps and terminating at the information destination

The link analysis and its output link budget, consists of the calculations and the tabulations of the

useful power and the interfering noise power available at the receiver. The link budget starts with

the transmitter power, traces through various amplifications and losses and determines the

strength and quality of the signal received.

57
 By examining a link budget and its supporting documents it is possible to learn many

things about overall system design and judge whether the analysis was done precisely or if it

represents a rough estimate. Together with other modeling techniques the link budget can help

predict prime power requirements, technical risks and cost. The link budget is one of the system

managers most useful documents. It represents the bottom line in the search for optimum system

performance.

An accurate link budget includes many detailed calculations and there is the possibility of

becoming lost in detail. Therefore it is very important to be familiar and to understand the basic

concepts that are involved in a link budget and to know the key equations. The most important

concepts that are involved in a link budget are the following:

Equivalent isotropic radiated power, EIRP

Power flux density, PFD
Antenna gain , G
Transmission losses, L
Noise temperature, T
Figure of merit, G/T
Carrier to noise ratio, C/N
Carrier to noise density ratio, C/N0
Carrier to thermal noise ratio, C/T

Three key equations make up a simple link budget:

EIRP=10 log P t +G t(dBW )

C /T =EIRP L+G r /T ( dBW )

L(Path loss)=32.44+20 logD+ 20logF

58
 C /N 0=C /KT =C /T (22.8)(dBHZ)

In the first equation the equivalent isotropic radiated power (EIRP) is calculated from the

transmitter power (Pt) in dBW and the transmit antenna gain (G t) in dB. In the second equation,

the carrier to thermal noise ratio (C/T) is equal to the equivalent isotropic radiates power (EIRP)

in dBW, minus the space loss (L) in dB, plus the figure of merit of the receiving equipment

(Gr/T) in dB/K. Finally the carrier to noise density ratio (C/N 0) in dBHz is the carrier to thermal

niose ratio (C/T) in dB/K minus a account constant (10 *log10K, where K is Boltzmanns

constant).

6. SATELLTIE GROUND TRACK:

6.1 GROUND TRACK

A satellite ground track is the trace of the points formed by the intersection of the satellites

position vector with the earths satellite position vector with the earths surface.

Although the ground tracks are generally generated from the orbital elements, we can gain

insight by determining the orbital elements from a given ground track. The time it takes Earth to

rotate through the difference in the longitude between the two successive ascending node equal

to the orbit period.

59
 FIGURE 12 SATELLITE POSTION IN THE

ORBIT

6.2 LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE

OF THE SATELLITE

Consider a spacecraft in the orbit over the surface of the central body, as shown in the figure

above.

La = longitude of the space craft at a time t

Lo = longitude of the space craft at a time t

= longitude of the ascending node at the last crossing (measured from the prime meridian)

i = orbital inclination

Ala = argument of the latitude( the angle in the orbital plane from the ascending node to the space

craft position; Ala = w+v

t = time of travel from the ascending node to the current position .s

w = argument of periapsis

v = true anomaly of the current position

For a right spherical triangle

sin La=sin i sin Ala

sin lo=tan La/ tan i

60
The argument of latitude is measured in the direction of motion and is equal to the true anomaly

plus the argument of periapsis. The maximum latitude occurs when the Ala is 90 degrees and

numerically equals to the orbit inclination; when Ala is zero or 180 degrees, the space craft

position is on the equator and the latitude is zero degrees. When Ala is between the 0 and 180

degrees, the space craft is in the northern hemisphere and the latitude is noted as north for earth

and as positive for the other planets.

The longitude of the space craft for a spherical non rotating earth would be

Lo=lo+

For a rotating earth the space craft longitude must be adjusted to account for the earths rotation

rate of 360 degrees per mean side real day (86,164 seconds)

The adjustment Re is added to the western longitudes and subtracted from the eastern longitudes

and is expressed as Re=360r/86,164 =0.0041781r

61
7. PROJECT EMPHASIS
7.1 WHAT WE DO

Thus we accomplished the following work in the project they are

I. We take the satellite position vector and velocity vector in the space i.e. x, y, z and xdot,

ydot, zdot values at a particular time instant t from the ephemeris .

II. Then we determine the six orbital elements with the help of the equations mentioned in

the previous chapters and we see the nature of the orbit

III. Then we try to determine the period of the orbit and the time it takes to travel to the

perigee from an epoch.

IV. We try to extrapolate the orbit thus we can determine the satellite position vector with in

the orbit at any instant with mere perfection.

V. Then we determine the range of the satellite from the earth station of a given coordinates

and we plot the range VS. Time

VI. We determine the power received at the maximum elevation angle and minimum

elevation angle. Thus we say that the power received at any point will be between the

maximum and minimum power and we calculate it. we plot the variation between the

power received and the elevation angle

62
7.2 EXECUTION USING MATLAB:

We created the M-FILE using MATLAB tool and written the code as follows

______________________________________________________________________________
___________________________

clc;
clear all;
close all;

%CONSTANTS DEFINED

mu=3.9860044*power(10,14);
re=6400000;
velocityoflight=3*10^8;
earthrotationrate=7.292115146*10^-5;
alphaindegrees=148.8343;

%INPUTS GIVEN TO THE PROGRAM IN ECI FRAME

x= 4645.054198800000449 ; % ENTER THE xcoordinate in meters

y= 3319.863128699999834 ; % ENTER THE ycoordinate in meters
z=-4081.135381800000232 ; % ENTER THE zcoordinate in meters

xdot= -2.762749007900000 ; % ENTER THE xdot value in meter/second

ydot= -3.551350387900000 ; % ENTER THE ydot value in meter/second
zdot= -6.041480997700001; % ENTER THE zdot value in meter/second

hours= 0;
minutes= 47;
seconds= 36;
time=hours*3600+minutes*60+seconds; % position vector time in seconds

hoursnew=0;
minutesnew=47;
secondsnew=59;
timenew=hoursnew*3600+minutesnew*60+secondsnew;

altitude=0.83991*10^3;
earthstationlongitudeindegrees=13.03444722;
earthstationlatitudeindegrees= 77.51168611;

63
transmittedfrequency=1575.42*10^6;%in Hertz
transmittedwavelength=velocityoflight/transmittedfrequency;

%______<CALCULATION OF POSITION AND VELOCITY VECTOR MAGNITUDES>________

positionvector=[x y z];
velocityvector=[xdot ydot zdot];
magr=sqrt(x*x+y*y+z*z) % magnitude of the position vector (r) =[ x y z ]
vsquare=xdot*xdot+ydot*ydot+zdot*zdot ;
velocityvectormagnitude=sqrt(vsquare) % magnitude of the velocity vector v= [ xdot ydot
zdot]

%___________<<< ANGULAR MOMENTUM CALCULATION and SEMILATUS

RECTUM>>>______________

h= cross(positionvector,velocityvector);
hx=h(1);
hy=h(2);
hz=h(3);
hsquare=hx*hx+hy*hy+hz*hz;
angularmomentummagnitude=sqrt(hsquare);
display( 'area swept per second =');display(sqrt(hsquare)/2);
p=hsquare/mu;

64
%_____________<<CALCULATION OF SIX ORBITAL ELEMENTS>>______________

%----------1.(ECCENTRICITY AND 2.SEMI MAJOR AXIS VALUE CALCULATION)--------

E=(vsquare/2.0)-(mu/magr);
a=-mu/(2.0*E);
e=sqrt(1.0+(2.0*E*hsquare/(mu*mu)));
display('Eccentricity of the orbit is =');display(e);
display('Semi major axis of the orbit is (a in km)=');display(a/1000);

%----------3.(INCLINATION OF THE ORBIT IN RADIANS AND DEGREES)---------

temp=(hz/sqrt(hsquare));
i=atan2((sqrt(1-temp*temp)),temp);
idegrees=180.0*i/pi;
display('The Inclination of the orbit is (i in degrees)=');display(idegrees)

%---------(CALCULATING THE VECTOR REPRESENTING THE LINE OF NODES)------

k=[0 0 1];
n=cross(k,h);
nx=n(1);
ny=n(2);
magn=sqrt(nx*nx+ny*ny);%n=[nx ny]

%----------------(CALCULATING THE ECCENTRICITY VECTOR)---------------

% ECCENTRICITY VECTOR(E)=(1/mu)[(vsquare-(mu/r))Vector r-(Vector r dot Vector v)Vector

V];

z1=(vsquare-(mu/magr))/mu;
z2=(x*xdot+y*ydot+z*zdot)/mu;
ex=z1*x-z2*xdot;
ey=z1*y-z2*ydot;
ez=z1*z-z2*zdot;
mage=sqrt(ex*ex+ey*ey+ez*ez);%ECCENTRICITYVECTOR =[ex ey ez]

%-------------4.TRUE ANONMALY (v)in degrees and radians----------------

%--------------(v)=acos[(vector e dot vector r)/(mage*magr)];---------

doter=ex*x+ey*y+ez*z;
temp=doter/(mage*magr);
v=acos(temp);
vdegrees=180.0*v/pi;
display('True anomaly(v)of the satellite in degrees is=');display(vdegrees);

%-------------5.ARGUMENT OF PERIGEE(w) in radians and degrees------------

%(w)=acos[(vector n dot vector e)/(magn*mage)];magn=magnitude of vector n ;

mage=magnitude of vector e;

65
 dotne=nx*ex+ny*ey;
temp=dotne/(magn*mage);
w=acos(temp);
wdegrees=180.0*w/pi;
display('THE ARGUMENT OF PERIGEE IN DEGREES=');display(wdegrees);

%--------------6.ANGLE OF THE ASCENDING NODE(omega) in degrees and radians----------------

%(OMEGA)=acos(nx/magnitude of vector n);

temp=nx/magn;
omega=acos(temp);
omegadegrees=180.0*omega/pi;
display('THE ANGLE OF ASCENDING NODDE IN DEGREES=');display(omegadegrees)

%--TIME REQUIRED FOR THE SATELLITE TO REACH PERIGEE FROM AN EPOCH----

%--- TIMEPERIOD CALCULATION------

%-------Time Period of the orbit(TP)=sqrt(a*a*a/mu)*pi*2.0;-------

TP=pi*2.0*sqrt((a*a*a)/mu);
display('TIME PERIOD OF THE ORBIT IN SECONDS=');display(TP);

frequency=2*pi/TP;

timerequiredtotraveltoperigee=TP*vdegrees/(360.0);
display('Time Required to move to perigee(in
sec)=');display(timerequiredtotraveltoperigee)

perigeetime=time-floor(timerequiredtotraveltoperigee) % The satellite is at perigee

location perigeetimse in sec

%------------------ ORBIT EXTRAPOLATION -----------------------

%-----------(CONVERSION FACTORS DEFINED FOR PURPOSE)----------------

ci=cos(i);
si=sin(i);
sw=sin(-w);
cw=cos(-w);
somega=sin(-omega);
comega=cos(-omega);

r11= comega*cw-somega*sw*ci;
r12=-comega*sw-somega*cw*ci;
r13= somega*si;
r21= somega*cw+comega*sw*ci;
r22=-somega*sw+comega*cw*ci;
r31=sw*si;

66
r32=cw*si;
r33=ci;

l=(a*a*a)/mu;%define l = constant multiplication factor

l=sqrt(l);

k=sqrt(mu/p);

alphainradians=alphaindegrees*pi/180;
cosalpha=cos(alphainradians);
sinalpha=sin(alphainradians);

%---------((( ORBIT EXTRAPOLATION))))----------

for timediff=1:1*TP
newtime=time+timediff;

%------ MEAN ANOMALY CALCULATION -------

MeanAnomaly(timediff)=((newtime-perigeetime)/l)+0*pi;
MeanAnomalyindegrees(timediff)=+MeanAnomaly(timediff)*180.0/(22.0/7.0);

%----- NEWTONS ITERATION METHOD IMPLEMENTATION -----

GuessE(1)=MeanAnomaly(timediff)+200;

for j=1:20

GuessE(j+1)=GuessE(j)-(GuessE(j)-e*sin(GuessE(j))-MeanAnomaly(timediff))/(1-
e*cos(GuessE(j)));

end

%------------ ECCENTRIC ANOMALY CALCULATION -----------

EccentricAnomaly(timediff)=GuessE(20);
EccentricAnomalyindegrees(timediff)=EccentricAnomaly(timediff)*180.0/pi;

%-------------- MEANANOMALY CALCULATION------------

MeanAnomalynew(timediff)=EccentricAnomaly(timediff)-
e*sin(EccentricAnomaly(timediff));
MeanAnomalynewindegrees(timediff)=MeanAnomaly(timediff)*180/pi;

%-------------TRUEANOMALY CALCULATION -------------------

TrueAnomaly(timediff)=acos((e-cos(EccentricAnomaly(timediff)))/
(e*cos(EccentricAnomaly(timediff))-1));
TrueAnomalyindegrees(timediff)=TrueAnomaly(timediff)*180.0/pi;

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 % POSITION AND VELOCITY VECTOR MAGNITUDE VECTOR

magrp(timediff)=p/(1+e*cos(TrueAnomaly(timediff)));
magvp(timediff)=k*sqrt(1+e*e+2.0*e*cos(TrueAnomaly(timediff)));

% POSITION AND VELOCITY VECTOR IN THE PERIFOCAL FRAME

rp(timediff)=magrp(timediff)*cos(TrueAnomaly(timediff));
rq(timediff)=magrp(timediff)*sin(TrueAnomaly(timediff));

vp(timediff)=-k*sin(TrueAnomaly(timediff));
vq(timediff)= k*(e+cos(TrueAnomaly(timediff)));

% POSITION AND VELOCITY VECTOR IN GEOCENTRIC EQUITORIAL FRAME

ri(timediff)=r11*rp(timediff)+r12*rq(timediff);
rj(timediff)=r21*rp(timediff)+r22*rq(timediff);
rk(timediff)=r31*rp(timediff)+r32*rq(timediff);

vi(timediff)=r11*vp(timediff)+r12*vq(timediff);
vj(timediff)=r21*vp(timediff)+r22*vq(timediff);
vk(timediff)=r31*vp(timediff)+r32*vq(timediff);

xnewcoordinate(timediff)=ri(timediff);
ynewcoordinate(timediff)=rj(timediff);
znewcoordinate(timediff)=rk(timediff);
newpositionvectorr=[xnewcoordinate(timediff) ynewcoordinate(timediff)
znewcoordinate(timediff)];

xdotnewcoordinate(timediff)=vi(timediff);
ydotnewcoordinate(timediff)=vj(timediff);
zdotnewcoordinate(timediff)=vk(timediff);
newvelocityvectorv=[xdotnewcoordinate(timediff) ynewcoordinate(timediff)
znewcoordinate(timediff)];

% ANGULAR MOMENTUM CALCULATION

newhxcomponent(timediff)=ynewcoordinate(timediff)*zdotnewcoordinate(timediff)-
ydotnewcoordinate(timediff)*znewcoordinate(timediff);
newhycomponent(timediff)=znewcoordinate(timediff)*xdotnewcoordinate(timediff)-
zdotnewcoordinate(timediff)*xnewcoordinate(timediff);
newhzcomponent(timediff)=xnewcoordinate(timediff)*ydotnewcoordinate(timediff)-
xdotnewcoordinate(timediff)*ynewcoordinate(timediff);
angularmomentumsquare(timediff)=newhxcomponent(timediff)*newhxcomponent(timed
iff)+newhycomponent(timediff)*newhycomponent(timediff)
+newhzcomponent(timediff)*newhzcomponent(timediff);
angularmomentumvector=cross(newpositionvectorr,newvelocityvectorv);

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 % ECCENTRICITY CALCULATION

EVECTOR(timediff)=(magvp(timediff)*magvp(timediff)/2.0)-(mu/magrp(timediff));
eccentricity(timediff)=sqrt(1.0+(2.0*EVECTOR(timediff)*angularmomentumsquare(timed
iff)/(mu*mu)));

%---------(CALCULATING THE VECTOR REPRESENTING THE LINE OF NODES)------

knew=[0 0 1];
ntemp=cross(knew,angularmomentumvector);
nxtemp=n(1);
nytemp=n(2);
magntemp=sqrt(nxtemp*nxtemp+nytemp*nytemp);%n=[nx ny]

%----------------(CALCULATING THE ECCENTRICITY VECTOR)---------------

% ECCENTRICITY VECTOR(E)=(1/mu)[(vsquare-(mu/r))Vector r-(Vector r dot Vector v)Vector

V];

z1temp=(magvp(timediff)^2-(mu/magrp(timediff)))/mu;
z2temp=(ri(timediff)*vi(timediff)+rj(timediff)*vj(timediff)+rk(timediff)*vk(timediff))/mu;
extemp=z1temp*ri(timediff)-z2temp*vi(timediff);
eytemp=z1temp*rj(timediff)-z2temp*vj(timediff);
eztemp=z1temp*rk(timediff)-z2temp*vk(timediff);
magetemp=sqrt(extemp*extemp+eytemp*eytemp+eztemp*eztemp);
%ECCENTRICITYVECTOR =[ex ey ez]

%-------------5.ARGUMENT OF PERIGEE(w) in radians and degrees------------

%(w)=acos[(vector n dot vector e)/(magn*mage)];magn=magnitude of vector n ;

mage=magnitude of vector e;

dotnetemp=nxtemp*extemp+nytemp*eytemp;
temp=dotnetemp/(magntemp*magetemp);
wnew(timediff)=acos(temp);
wnewdegrees(timediff)=180.0*wnew(timediff)/pi;

%--------------6.ANGLE OF THE ASCENDING NODE(omega) in degrees and radians----------------

%(OMEGA)=acos(nx/magnitude of vector n);

temp=nxtemp/magntemp;
omeganew(timediff)=acos(temp);
omeganewdegrees(timediff)=180.0*omeganew(timediff)/pi;

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 % LATITUDE OF THE SATELLITE CALCULATION

latitude(timediff)= asin(sin(i)*sin(frequency*timediff));
latitudeindegrees(timediff)=latitude(timediff)*180/pi;

longitude(timediff)=-earthrotationrate*timediff+atan(tan(frequency*timediff)*cos(i));
longitudeindegrees(timediff)=longitude(timediff)*180/pi;

%ELEVATION ANGLE CALCULATION

temporary(timediff)=atan(rj(timediff)/ri(timediff));
temporaryindegrees(timediff)=temporary(timediff)*180/pi;

if temporaryindegrees(timediff) > 0

elevationangleindegrees(timediff)=temporaryindegrees(timediff);

end

% RANGE OF THE SATELLITE

%ECEF CONVERSION

xecef(timediff)=ri(timediff)*cosalpha+rj(timediff)*sinalpha;
yecef(timediff)=-ri(timediff)*sinalpha+rj(timediff)*cosalpha;
zecef(timediff)=rk(timediff);

xdotecef(timediff)=vi(timediff)*cosalpha+vj(timediff)*sinalpha;
ydotecef(timediff)=-vi(timediff)*sinalpha+vj(timediff)*cosalpha;
zdotecef(timediff)=vk(timediff);

range(timediff)=sqrt((xecef(timediff)-xstation)^2+(yecef(timediff)-ystation)^2+
(zecef(timediff)-zstation)^2);
rangerate(timediff)=sqrt((xdotecef(timediff)-xdotstation)^2+(ydotecef(timediff)-
ydotstation)^2+(zdotecef(timediff)-zdotstation)^2);

%DOPPLERS FREQUENCY EFFECT

costheta=re/a;

%component of satellite towards the observer is

vrecevier(timediff)=magvp(timediff)*costheta;
dopplersshiftinrecevingsignal(timediff)=vrecevier(timediff)/transmittedwavelength;

end

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pathloss=32.44+20*log10(range*frequency)%in db

powerrecevied=EIRP-pathloss+gainofrecevier%in dbm

timediffbewteenthegivenvectorandrequiredvector=timenew-time
newpositionvector=[ri(timediffbewteenthegivenvectorandrequiredvector)
rj(timediffbewteenthegivenvectorandrequiredvector)
rk(timediffbewteenthegivenvectorandrequiredvector)]
newvelocityvector=[vi(timediffbewteenthegivenvectorandrequiredvector)
vj(timediffbewteenthegivenvectorandrequiredvector)
vk(timediffbewteenthegivenvectorandrequiredvector)]
display('ARGUMENT OF
PERIAPSIS(indegrees)=');display(wnewdegrees(timediffbewteenthegivenvectorandrequiredv
ector));
display('ASCENDINGNODE(indegrees)
=');display(omeganewdegrees(timediffbewteenthegivenvectorandrequiredvector));
display('MEAN
ANOMALY(degrees)=');display(MeanAnomalyindegrees( timediffbewteenthegivenvectorandre
quiredvector));
display('ECCENTRICANOMALY(degrees)=
');display(EccentricAnomalyindegrees(timediffbewteenthegivenvectorandrequiredvector));
display('TRUEANOMALY(degrees)=');display(TrueAnomalyindegrees(timediffbewteenthegive
nvectorandrequiredvector));

%________________________PLOTS_____________________________

figure;
plot(sqrt(angularmomentumsquare));
title('ANGULAR MOMENTUM VS TIME');
xlabel('time ');
ylabel('angular momentum ');
grid on;

figure;
plot(eccentricity)
title('ECCENTRICITY VS TIME');
xlabel('time ');
ylabel('eccentricity');
grid on;

figure;
plot(latitudeindegrees);
title('LATITUDE OF THE SATELLITE');
xlabel('time(seconds)');
ylabel('Latitude of the satellite in degrees');
grid on;

figure;
plot(range);
title('range vs time');
xlabel('time(seconds)');

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ylabel('range');
grid on;

figure;
plot(rangerate);
title('range rate vs time');
xlabel('time(seconds)');
ylabel('range rate');
grid on;

figure;
plot(wnewdegrees);
title('argumentofperiapsis vs time');
ylabel('argumentofperiapsis in degrees');
xlabel('time(seconds)');
grid on;

figure;
plot(omeganewdegrees);
title('Ascending node vs time');
ylabel('Ascending node in degrees');
xlabel('time(seconds)');
grid on;

figure;
plot(TrueAnomalyindegrees);
title('TRUEANOMALY vs time');
ylabel('True Anomaly in degrees');
xlabel('time(seconds)');
grid on;

figure;
plot(EccentricAnomalyindegrees,MeanAnomalynewindegrees);
title('ECCENTRICANOMALY VS MEANANOMALY');
xlabel('ECCENTRICANOMALY');
ylabel('MEANANOMALY');
grid on;

figure;
plot(elevationangleindegrees);
title('ELEVATION ANGLE IN DEGREES ');
xlabel('time');
ylabel('Elevation angle in degrees ');
grid on;

figure;
plot(dopplersshiftinrecevingsignal/1000);
title('DOPPLERS EFFECT');
xlabel('time');
ylabel('DOPPLERS SHIFT AT RECEVIER in KHZ');
grid on;

figure;
plot(longitudeindegrees,latitudeindegrees);

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 title('longitude');
xlabel('time');
ylabel('longitudeindegrees');
grid on;
______________________________________________________________________________
___________________________

7.3 RESULTS SEEN IN MATLAB COMMANDING WINDOW

magr = 6.8243e+006

velocityvectormagnitude = 7.6743e+003

area swept per second =ans = 2.6186e+010

Eccentricity of the orbit is =e = 0.0083

Semi major axis of the orbit is (a in km)=ans = 6.8815e+003

The Inclination of the orbit is (i in degrees)=idegrees = 41.2268

True anomaly(v)of the satellite in degrees is=vdegrees = 2.0018

THE ARGUMENT OF PERIGEE IN DEGREES=wdegrees = 17.9650

THE ANGLE OF ASCENDING NODDE IN DEGREES=omegadegrees = 153.4698

TIME PERIOD OF THE ORBIT IN SECONDS=TP = 5.6812e+003

Time Required to move to perigee(in sec)=timerequiredtotraveltoperigee = 31.5913

perigeetime = 2825

timediffbewteenthegivenvectorandrequiredvector = 23

newpositionvector = 1.0e+006 * -6.4851 -1.8027 -1.1250

newvelocityvector = 1.0e+003 * 0.7750 -5.8583 4.8962

ARGUMENT OF PERIAPSIS(indegrees)=ans = 17.9650

ASCENDINGNODE(indegrees) =ans = 153.4698

MEAN ANOMALY(degrees)=ans = 3.4204

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ECCENTRICANOMALY(degrees)= ans = 3.4505

TRUEANOMALY(degrees)=ans = 3.4793

Pathloss= 1.689362376823140e+002

Powerrecevied=-1.609362376823140e+002

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7.4 SCOPE OF THE PROJECT AND CONCLUSION

This program will work for any satellite placed in the low earth orbit with the lower
eccentricity. Most of the satellites are LEO satellites

Thus we can also extend the features of this project so that we can finally model the
space to communication between the satellite and the ground station.

This project is based on the two body model and does not take in to account perturbatory
forces such as luni solar attraction and earth oblateness.and based on orbit mechanics and
the link design of the satellite.

The Mat lab software is mainly used because of its ability to compute the multiplication
of the matrixes that are involved.

This can be viewed as the simulation of the real time channel between the satellite and
the ground station.

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 I here by conclude that this project is successfully completed.

REFERENCES
1. STASTICAL ORBIT DETERMINATION by

- BYRON D. TAPLEY

- BOB E.SCHUTZ

- GEORGE H.BORN

2. FUNDEMENTALS OF ASTRODYNAMICS AND APPLICATIONS

- DAVID A.VALLADO

3. FUNDAMENTALS OF ASTRODYNAMICS by

- ROGER R.BATE

- DONALD D.MILLER

- JERRY E.WHITE

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