AconPoII 2016 - 17

POWER CONDITIONERS
Eladio Durn Aranda

Dpto. Ingeniera Electrnica, de Sistemas Informticos y Automtica
Universidad de Huelva
Tlf. : 959 217655
e-mail: aranda@uhu.es
1
1.- Introduction.
Power Conditioners.
2.- Overview on power devices.

Power diodes, MOSFETs, IGBTs, and Thyristors.
2.- Overview on power converters.

AC/DC converters, DC/DC converters, and DC/AC converters.
4.- Actuators.
Servo motors.
Eladio Durn Aranda 2

Introduction.
Power Conditioners are part of the onboard electrical system of an

aircraft, and are in the system power management.
Basically the mission of the power converters is to change the way

electricity is presented, with minimal losses, thus making the
conversion with greater performance.
There are basically four types of converters: DC/DC converters, AC/DC

converters (Rectifiers), DC/AC (Inverters) and AC/AC converters.
Power converters consist of power semiconductor devices such as:

IGBTs, Thyristors, GTOs, Diodes, MCTs, BJTs and MOSFETs.

Introduction.
Power converters have contributed to the development and implementation

of the More Electric Aircraft (MEA) and All Electric Aircraft (AEA) concepts
that result from substitutions conventional equipment dependent
pneumatic, mechanical and hydraulic systems, for equipment dependent on
electric power.

Introduction.
On conventional aircraft, the Electrical Power System (EPS) consists of a 3 phase 115/200V AC system
at either a nominal 400 Hz constant frequency, and a regulated 28V DC system. For redundancy the AC
busses 1 and 2 are not electrically connected, to avoid that failures on one bus (AC bus 1 or 2) may be
transmitted to the other, or cause malfunction. But if one generator is damaged, a tie bus ensures the
connection of both buses, so that the electrical power of one generator would be distributed to both
AC main busses 1 and 2. AC/DC converter and TRU (Transformer Rectifier Units) are the main power
converters. Battery is used as an emergency power source.
The main problems of these low voltage systems are due to the section of the wires required.
Introduction.
Military and International Standards Aircraft Electric Power Characteristics.
MIL-STD-740 ISO 1540

DC
(Direct Current)
Voltage Ripple Voltage Ripple
Normal Operating 22-29V 24-29V

1,5V 2V
Emergency 18-29V 18-29V
AC MIL-STD-740 ISO 1540

(Alternating Current) Normal Operating Normal Emergency
Phase Voltage Phase 108-118V 104-122V

108-118V
RMS Nominal 109,5-116,5V 106-120V
Frequency 393-407Hz 380-420Hz 360-440Hz

Phase Unbalance 3V 3V 4V
Phase Difference 116-124 deg. 118-122 deg.
Crest Factor or Peak Factor
1,31-1,51 1,31-1,51
(Vmax/VRMS)
THD max. 5% 5%
Maximum DC Component 0,1V

Introduction.
Some newer aircrafts have been adopted HVAC power system (230V at 360-800Hz), such as B787.
By using variable frequency (VF) power system, the bulky, heavy, inefficient CSD could be removed from the
aircraft. Thus, the aircraft EPS could achieve higher performance.
Auto Transformer Unit (ATU) is used to generate 115V variable frequency. A Buck-Boost Converter Unit with a high
frequency transformer, is used as the battery charger. The Wing Anti-Ice Protection (WAIP) system can be supplied
via the HVAC bus. A derivate HVAC essential bus can supply the Electro Mechanic Actuator (EMA) providing the
Flight Control System (FCS) with HVAC. The Environmental Control System (ECS) can be directly supplied via the
HVAC bus.
Compared with the conventional 115V EPS, power transmission loss and converter weight can be reduced by
50.7% and 42.5% respectively.
Introduction.
Several possible architectures of the main HVDC aircraft EPS can be implemented: +/- 270V DC
two wires with ground (Bipolar DC), 270V DC single cable with ground (Monopolar DC) and +/-135V
DC two wires with ground (Bipolar DC).
Fuel cell system can be replaces the position of conventional APU which is driven by turbines.
This is because the efficiency of turbine powered APU is typically less than 20% and also has
undesirable noise and gaseous emissions. Some topology had been proposed to integrate fuel
cell system into aircraft EPS.

Power Devices.
The current trend in the manufacture of power semiconductor devices

is based on the development of semiconductor allowing to block high
voltage with low conduction resistance.
The obtaining of devices capable to block high voltage requires low

doping levels (few carriers), and therefore high resistivity, but this in
turn contributes to an increase in conduction resistance, resulting in
devices with ability to block large voltages, also show a higher
conduction voltage drop.
In general, devices with greater blocking capacity are those with higher
switching times due to increased time required to inject and drain the
stored charge.

Switch Realization.
SPST (single-pole single-throw) switches. All power semiconductor

devices function as SPST switches.
Active switch: Switch state is

controlled exclusively by a third
terminal (control terminal).
Passive switch: Switch state is
controlled by the applied current
and/or voltage at terminals 1 and 0.
SCR: A special case, turn-on
transition is active, while turn-off
transition is passive.
Single-quadrant switch: On-state i(t)
and off-state v(t) are unipolar.

Power Diode.
A passive switch.
Single-quadrant switch.
Can conduct positive on-state current.
Can block negative off-state voltage.
Types of power diodes.

Low frequency diodes (standard recovery):
IFAV: 1A - 6000A. VRRM: 400V 3600V. VF: 0.7V 1.2V. trr : 10s. Intended for low frecuency.
Fast recovery and ultra-fast recovery diodes:
IFAV: 10A - 200A. VRRM: 400V 1500V. VF: 1V 2V. trr : <5s. Intended for converter applications
(>20KHz).
Schottky diodes:
IFAV: 1A - 120A. VRRM: 15V 150V. VF: 0.7V. trr : 5ns. Restricted to low voltage (few devices can
block 100V or more).

(diode bridge, 4 diodes)
+ -

(diode bridge, 6 diodes)

POWER MOSFET.
(Metal-Oxide Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistor)
An active switch, controlled by terminal C

(Gate).
Normally operated as single-quadrant
switch.
Can conduct positive on-state current (can
also conduct negative current in some
circumstances).
Can block positive off-state voltage.
A majority-carrier device: fast switching speed.

Typical switching frequencies: tens and hundreds of kHz.
On-resistance increases rapidly with rated blocking voltage.
Easy to drive.
The device of choice for blocking voltages less than 500V.
1000V devices are available, but are useful only at low power levels (100W).

Types of power MOSFETs.

IGBT.
(Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor)
An active switch, controlled by terminal C (Gate).

Single-quadrant switch.
Can block positive off-state voltage.
Becoming the device of choice in 500-1700V applications, at power levels of 1-1000kW.

Positive temperature coefficient at high current, easy to parallel and construct modules.
Forward voltage drop, 2-4V typical.
Easy to drive (similar to MOSFET).
Slower than MOSFET, but faster than GTO, SCR.
Typical switching frequencies: 3-30kHz
IGBT technology is rapidly advancing, next generation 2500V.

IGBTs.

Two-quadrant switches.
An active switch, controlled by terminal C (Gate).

Operated as two-quadrant switch.
Can block positive or negative off-state voltage.
The SCR (without controlled turn-off), GTO and MCT are two-quadrant
switches.

SCR .
(Silicon Controlled Rectifier)
The SCR: highest voltage and current ratings, low cost, passive turn-off transition.
Positive feedback (a latching device).
Simple construction, with large feature size.
Cannot be actively turned off.
A voltage-bidirectional two-quadrant switch.
5000-6000V, 1000-2000A devices.

GTO .
(Gate Turn-Off Thyristor)
The GTO: intermediate ratings (less than SCR, somewhat more than IGBT). Slower than IGBT.
Slower than MCT.
Negative gate current is able to completely reverse-bias the gatecathode junction.
Turn-off current gain: typically 2-5 (Difficult to drive).

MCT.
(MOS-Controlled Thyristor)
A latching SCR, with added built-in MOSFETs to assist the turn-on and turn-off processes.
Still an emerging device, but some devices are commercially available.
Small feature size, highly interdigitated, modern fabrication.
The MCT: So far, ratings lower than IGBT. Slower than IGBT. Easy to drive. Still an emerging
device.

Four-quadrant switches .
(Called Solid State Relays, SSRs)
An active switch, controlled by terminal G (Gate).

Operated as two-quadrant switch.
Can conduct positive or negative on-state current.
Can block positive or negative off-state voltage.
The TRIAC is such a device, without controlled turn-off.

Four-quadrant switches.
Several ways to realize a four-quadrant switch.
T1 T1 T2 D2
D1
Q
D3 D4
T2 D1 D2

Power range of commercially available power semiconductors.

Application for Power Devices.

CA/DC Converters (Rectifiers).
The rectification process is based on the conversion of low frequency

sinusoidal current to a pulsating direct current.
When for such conversion, Diodes are used, the rectifier is called
uncontrolled, and the average value of the output voltage is constant.
When the semiconductors that forming the rectifier are Thyristors,
controlled rectifier is known, and in this case the mean value of the
output voltage depends on the firing angle of the Thyristors.
The three-phase rectifiers, like the single-phase, are classified into half-
wave and full-wave in configuration polygon or star.

Three-Phase Rectifiers.
Half-Wave Uncontrolled
e1 vo t
D1 e1 e2 e3
v Vm
Vo Med .
e2 D2 Vm 2
io
n
2 7 6 11 6 t
e3 D3 0
Vo Z Load 6 5 6 3 2
D3 D1 D2 D3
3
5 6
Vm sen
3 3 3 3
Vo Avg . Vm sen t d t Vm
2 6 2

Full-Wave Uncontrolled (Delta Secondary Configuration)
vo t
e2 e3 e1
'
e1 D1 D1 Vm e1 e2 e3
v
e2
D2 D2'
e3
v
6 2 5 6 7 6 3 2 11 6 t
0
D3 D3'
D1 D1 D3 D3 D2 D2
v
' ' ' '

D D2' D D D D3'
Vo io 3 2 1 1
Z Load
3
2 3
Vm cos
6 6 3
Vo Avg . Vm sen t d t Vm
2 3

Full-Wave No-Controlled (Wye Secondary Configuration)
io
vo t e2 e3 e1 e2 e3 e1
e1 e1 e3 e3 e2 e2 e1
' ' '
D1 D2 D3
3 Vm
e2
n Vo Z Load 6 2 5 6 7 6 3 2 11 6 t
e3 0
D2' D1' D1' D3' D3' D2'

D1 D2 D3 D3 D3 D2 D2 D1 D1
v
3
2 3
3 Vm cos
6 6 3 3
Vo Avg . 3 Vm sen t d t Vm
2 3

Twelve Pulses Rectifier
(conexin en serie de rectificadores)
Para reducir el rizado de la tensin de salida, aumentar su frecuencia
(los armnicos se ubican en frecuencias mltiplos de 6) con mayor
tensin de salida, dos rectificadores pueden acoplarse en serie.
io vo t
A B C Vo
e2 D1' D2' D3'
N1
e2
Vo1
e3 Vo1 Vo 2
D1 D2 D3
v
Vo Z Load
D4' D5' D6 ' 6 2 5 6 7 6 3 2 11 6 t

N2 0
e1
e2 Vo2 2
e3
3 3 3
D4 D5 D6
Vo Avg . Vo1 Avg . Vo 2 Avg . Vm
v
Vm '

Para obtener 12 picos de senoide se requiere:
6 3
Vm ' 3 Vm N 2 3 N1 Vo Avg . Vm

Phase Control Technique
Half-Wave Controlled

vo 0
6
e3
Vm e1 e2
e1
T1 Vm 2
e2 2 7 6 11 6 t
T2 io 0
n 6 5 6 3 2
e3 T3
Vo Z Load Vm
T3 T1 T2 T3
3 5 6
Vo Avg . Vm sen t d t
2 6
Vo Avg .
3

Vm sen cos
3
3 3
2
Vm cos

Three-Phase Rectifiers
Half-Wave Controlled

vo 0 Carga R vo 0 Carga R-L
3 3
e3
e1 e2 e3 Vm e1 e2
Vm
Vm 2 Vm 2
t t
0 0
6 2 5 6 7 6 3 2 11 6 6 5 6 3 2
Vm Vm
T3 T1 T2 T3 T3 T1 T2 T3
2 2
3
Vo Avg . , load R Vm sen t d t
6 2 6
3
Vo Avg . , load R Vm 1 cos
6 2 6

Full-Wave Controlled

vo
6 0
io
3 Vm
e1 T1 T2 T3
2 7 6 11 6 t
e2 0
6 5 6 3 2
n Vo Z Load
e3
3 Vm
T1'
T2 '
T3 ' e3 e2 e2 e1 e1 e3
e3 e1 e2 e3 e1 e2
T1' T3' T3' T2' T2' T1' T1'
T2 T2 T1 T1 T3 T3 T2
2
6 2 3
Vo Avg . 3 Vm sen t d t
2 3
Vo Avg .
6

3 Vm sen 6 cos
3 3

Vm cos

Full-Wave Controlled

vo vo
2 0 Carga R 2 0 Carga R-L
3 Vm 3 Vm
t t
0 0
6 2 5 6 7 6 3 2 11 6 6 2 5 6 7 6 3 2 11 6
3 Vm 3 Vm
e3 e2 e2 e1 e1 e3 e3 e2 e2 e1 e1 e3
e3 e1 e2 e3 e1 e2 e3 e1 e2 e3 e1 e2
T1' T3' T3' T2' T2' T1' T1' T1' T3' T3' T2' T2' T1'
T2 T2 T1 T1 T3 T3 T3 T2 T2 T1 T1 T3 T3
2 2
6
Vo Avg . , load R 3 Vm sen t d t
3 2 3
3
Vo Avg . , load R 3 Vm 1 cos
3 3

vo
6 0
Semicontrolled
3 Vm
io
e1 T1 T2 T3 2 7 6 11 6 t
0
6 5 6 3 2
e2
n Vo Z Load
e3 3 Vm
e3 e2 e2 e1 e1 e3
e3 e1 e2 e3 e1 e2
D1 D2 D3
v
D3 D3 D2 D2 D1 D1
T2 T1 T3 T2
2
3 2 3 3
Vo Avg . e1 e3 d t 2 3 e1 e2 d t
3 2 3
2
3 2 3 3
d t
2 3 2 2 3
Vo Avg . 3 Vm sen t d t 3 Vm sen t
3
3 3
Vo Avg . Vm 1 cos
2
Three-Phase Rectifiers
Semicontrolled

vo vo
3 0 2 0
3 Vm 3 Vm
t t
0 0
6 2 5 6 7 6 3 2 11 6 6 2 5 6 7 6 3 2 11 6
3 Vm 3 Vm
e3 e2 e2 e1 e1 e3 e3 e2 e2 e1 e1 e3
e3 e1 e2 e3 e1 e2 e3 e1 e2 e3 e1 e2
D3 D2 D1 D3 D3 D2 D2 D1 D1
T2 T1 T3 T3 T2 T1 T3
2 2
3 4 3
Vo Avg .

3

2
e e d t
3
1 2
3 3
Vo Avg . Vm 1 cos
2
Ejercicio n 1.

DC/DC Converters.
The main objective of DC/DC power conversion is to transfer electric

power from a DC source into another DC source, which may be a load,
with lower losses and thus with higher efficiency. The DC/DC converters
are widely used at all power levels, which have been very popular for the
last three decades, they can increase or decrease the magnitude of the
DC voltage and/or invert its polarity.
Topology describes how source, load, inductive and capacitive elements,

and switches are interconnected in the converter. DC conversion relation
depends on the converter topology and the particular operating mode.
Efficiency depends on how close converter elements are to ideal,
assuming that the same elements are available, efficiency depends on the
converter topology. Switch electrical stress (voltage and current) decides
the choice of semiconductor devices used to implement the switches.

DC/DC Converters.
Control over DC conversion relation can be obtained by the pulse width

modulation (PWM) technique, usually by a constant frequency. The
duty cycle (D) is the ratio of the time of conduction (TON) to the
switching period (TS). In PWM the output voltage regulation is adjusts
(corrects) by changing the TON of the switching element in the
converter. Another control strategies used in DC/DC converters are:
variable frequency constant on-time, variable frequency constant off-
time and variable frequency variable pulse width. The constant
frequency control is usually preferred over variable frequency control
since filtering components can be optimized to suppress current and
voltage ripples at switching frequency and its harmonics. Also, noise
generated by variable frequency converters is more difficult to handle,
and in some applications it cannot be tolerated.

DC/DC Converters
A first classification of the DC/DC converters can be performed on

isolated and non-isolated topologies, depending on whether the DC/DC
converter is used with or without an electrical isolation by means high
frequency transformer. The output power range has often been used as
the primary guide when selecting a topology. However, there are many
other factors that play into the topology selection for an isolated DC/DC
power converter such as cost, size, electrical stress, output noise and
input voltage range. The size of a non-isolated power converter
depends on the number of active switches employed, while for an
isolated power converter, the size primarily depends on the transformer
size and the number of active switches employed. The utilization of the
power transformer affects the size of the power converter.

Non-isolated DC/DC Converters.
DC/DC converters can normally operate in two modes: Continuous

Conduction Mode (CCM) and Discontinuous Conduction Mode (DCM).
CCM means that the current through the inductor is continuous while
in DCM this current is discontinuous. CCM is preferred for high
efficiency and good utilization of the converter switches and passive
components. Filtering requirements are also greater for DCM due to the
higher peak requirements for the same throughput as in a like system
with CCM operation. In the DCM, the inductor current is zero during a
portion of the switching period (the energy stored in the inductor is
zero at the beginning and at the end of each switching period).
The three basic configurations of non-isolated converters are similar to
a DC transformer both in CCM and in DCM. In a DC transformer the
relationship of transformation can be controlled electronically by
changing the duty cycle of the converter in the range [0,1].
Buck Converter.
A step-down or Buck converter provides an output voltage which is

less than the input voltage.
Q iL L
TON
ig VL io Vo ( CCM ) Vg Vg D
TS
Vg PWM D C Vo R
2 Vg
Vo ( DCM )
8 L
1 1
R D 2
Ts
Boost Converter.
A step-up or Boost converter provides an output voltage which is

greater than the input voltage. Eleva la tensin pero reduce la corriente
Vg
iL L D Vo ( CCM )
VL 1 D
ig io
Vg
Vg PWM Q C Vo R
2 R D 2 Ts
Vo ( DCM ) 1 1
2 L

Buck-Boost Converters.
A step-down/step-up or Buck-Boost single inductor converter (Bu-

BoSIC) provides an output voltage which can be either higher or lower
than input voltage.
D
Q Vo ( CCM ) Vg
iL
1 D
ig D io
Vg PWM VL L C Vo R R T
Vo ( DCM ) D Vg
2 L
Cuk Converter provides a negative-polarity (similar to Bu-BoSIC)

regulated output voltage with respect to the common terminal of the
input voltage.
L1 C1 L2
iL1 iL 2
ig VL 1 VL 2 io
VC 1
Vg PWM Q D C2 Vo R

SEPIC (Single-Ended Primary Inductance Converter). It has a non-
inverting buck-boost characteristic.
L1 C1
iL1 D
ig VL 1 io
VC 1
Vg PWM Q L2 VL2 C Vo R
iL 2
Zeta converter is also known like inverse-SEPIC because this converter

can be obtained by interchanging the power input and the power
output ports on SEPIC converter. These two converters have a
relationship of duality, and moreover, they are bidirectional.
C1
Q iL 2 L2
ig iL1 VL 2 io
VC 1
Vg PWM V L1 L1 D C2 Vo R

Ejercicio n 2.

Bidirectional DC/DC Converters
The parallel combination of a controllable switch and a diode is also

used in converters, which allow for a current flow in both directions
(from the input source to the load and from the load back to the input
source). Such converters are called bidirectional power-flow or simply
bidirectional converters. It contains unipolar voltage and bidirectional
current switch-diode combinations at both the primary switch and the
secondary switch. When the primary switch and secondary diode
operate, the current flows from the input source to the load. The
converter current can also flow from the output to the input through the
secondary switch and primary diode. Bidirectional arrangements can
be made for almost all converters.
A bidirectional Buck converter operates as a Boost converter when the

current flow is from the output to the input. A bidirectional Boost
converter operates as a Buck converter with a reversed current flow.
Bidirectional DC/DC Converters.
ig
iL
D1 L
V L
L
ig Q1
Vg Vb
Vg C Vb
Q D2
2
Q1 D1 D2 Q2
C
Bidirectional Buck Converter.
Bidirectional CSC Converter.
L D2 L1 C D2
ig Q ig Q2
2
Vg C Vb Vg Vb
Q D1 L2
1 Q1 D1
Bidirectional Boost Converter. Bidirectional SEPIC Converter.

D1 D2 L1 C L2
ig Q1 Q2
ig
Vg C L Vb Vg Vb
Q D1 D2 Q2
1
Bidirectional Buck-Boost Single Inductor Converter. Bidirectional Cuk Converter.

Isolated DC/DC Converters
In many DC applications, a galvanic isolation between the DC input and

the DC output is required for safety and reliability, the electrical
isolation is an added modification in most cases. An economical means
of achieving such an isolation is to employ a transformer version of a
DC/DC converter. High frequency transformers are of a small size and
low weight and provide high efficiency. Their turns ratio can be used
additionally to adjust the output voltage level (turns ratio multiplies the
original DC conversion ratio). Another advantage of a transformer is
the capability of providing multiple outputs (by adding more secondary
windings), allowing to create one or more output voltages.

Isolation transformer.
A transformer is an electrical device that transfers electrical power between

two or more windings, the inductor stores energy in a magnetic eld.
B t V1 t dt
i1 t i1 t N N i2 t wb m 2
Tesla Saturacin
1 2
rp1 Lf 1 Lf 2 rp 2
V1 t rm Lm V2 t
B
m Lm
H
N3 i3 t
H t im t
A vuelta
Lf 3 rp 3
m
V3 t
rp modela la resistencia debida a los devanados (prdidas en el cobre).

Curva de magnetizacin B H
( Densidad de flujo magntico-Intensidad del campo magntico aplicado)
rm modela las prdidas en el ncleo debido a la Histresis.
L f modela las fugas de flujo magntico no concatenado.
Lm modela la pendiente de la curva B-H, y el almacenamiento de energa

magntica en el ncleo.

Isolated DC/DC Converters.
Isolated power converter topologies can be classified as either single-

ended or double-ended depending on the usage of the B-H curve.
During the operation, if the flux swings in only one quadrant of the B-H
curve, then the topology is classified as single-ended. If the flux swings
in two quadrants of the B-H curve, then the topology is classified as
double-ended. For a given set of requirements, a double-ended
topology requires a smaller core than a single-ended topology and
does not need an additional reset winding.
Among Buck derived DC-DC converters, the most popular are the
Forward converter, the Flyback converter, the Push-Pull converter, the
Half-Bridge converter, and the Full-Bridge converter.

Flyback Converter.
A Flyback converter is a practical isolated version of the Bu-BoSIC,

where the inductor has been replaced by a Flyback transformer.
i1 t i1 t N N i2 t
1 2
D Io
ig t Lm1 V1 t V2 t C Vo R
Vg
PWM Q
N2 D
Vo ( CCM ) Vg
N1 1 D
N2 R T
Vo ( DCM ) D Vg
N1 2 L

Forward Converter.
Forward converter is derived from the Buck converter. This topology
avoids the problem of large stored energy in the transformer core.
However, the circuit is more complex and requires an additional
magnetic element (a transformer), an inductor, an additional transformer
winding, plus three diodes.
D3 1
N3 When N3 = N1 Dmx. =
i3 t
2
V3 t 1
When N3 > N1 Dmx. <
i1 t i1 t i2 t iL t 2
1
D1 L Io
When N3 < N1 Dmx. >
ig t Lm1 V1 t V2 t D2 C Vo R 2
N2
Vg N1 N2 Vo ( CCM ) Vg D
N1
Q PWM
N2 2
Vo ( DCM ) Vg
N1 8 L
1 1
R D 2
Ts

Push-Pull Converter.
The Push-Pull converter uses two to transistors perform DC-DC

conversion. The converter operates by turning on each transistor on
alternate cycles (the two transistors are never on at the same time).
Transformer secondary current flows at the same time as primary
current (when either of the switches is on).
D1 i2 t iL t
N1 N2 L Io
Lm1 VP1 t VS 1 t C Vo R
ig t
i1 t
N1 N2
N2
Vg VP 2 t VS 2 t Vo ( CCM ) 2 Vg D
N1
i2 t D2 i1 t
N2 4
Q1 D1 D2 Q2 Vo ( DCM ) Vg
N1 8 L
1 1
R D 2
Ts

Half-Bridge Converter.
The Half-Bridge is a two-transistor converter frequently used in high-

power designs. A very important advantage of the Half-Bridge is input-
to-output isolation (the regulated DC output is electrically isolated from
the AC line). The switch transistor drive circuitry must be isolated from
the transistors, requiring the use of base drive transformers.
ig t
Q1 D1
Vg
2 C D1 i2 t iL t
N1 N2 L Io
Vg Vg VP1 t VS 1 t Co N2
Vo ( CCM ) Vg
Lm1 Vo R
D
N1
Vg C N2
2
Q2 D2 VS 2 t N2 2
Vo ( DCM ) Vg
N1 8 L
D2 i1 t 1 1
R D 2
Ts

Full-Bridge Converter.
The Full-Bridge converter requires a total of four switching transistors
to perform DC/DC conversion. The full input voltage utilization means
the Full-Bridge can produce the most load power of all the converter
types. Primary and secondary current flows in the transformer during
the switch on times, while the output capacitor discharges into the load
when both transistors are off. The Full- Bridge topology has all of the
double-ended benefits.
ig t
Q1 D1 D3 Q3
D1 i2 t iL t
N1 N2 Io
L N2
Vg Vg VP1 t Lm1 VS 1 t Co Vo R Vo ( CCM ) 2 Vg D
N1
N2
N2 4
D4 D2 VS 2 t
Vo ( DCM ) Vg
Q4 Q2
N1 8 L
1 1
D2 i1 t R D 2
Ts

Ejercicio n 3.

Convertidores CC/CA (Inversores).
La evolucin que han experimentado los semiconductores de potencia,

en trminos de frecuencia de conmutacin, prdidas en conduccin, y
facilidad de control; junto con una de sus principales aplicaciones
(control de velocidad y par de motores de induccin), han contribuido
en gran medida al desarrollo de los convertidores CC/CA.
Los Inversores ofrecen la posibilidad de variar tanto la frecuencia de la

tensin alterna desarrollada como su amplitud, lo cual permite que en
el control de motores se pueda gobernar la velocidad de rotacin, par e
incluso frenar e invertir el sentido de giro de forma precisa.

Clasificacin de los convertidores CC-CA.
Desde el punto de vista del tipo de fuente de continua conectada a su

entrada los Inversores se clasifican en: Inversores con fuente de
corriente (CSI), e Inversores con fuente de tensin (VSI).
Dependiendo del dispositivo de potencia empleado: Inversores con

Transistores, con Tiristores, con GTOs, con IGBTs.
Segn la topologa empleada: Medio Puente, Puente Completo, y

Trfsico.
Atendiendo a la tcnica de control empleada: Inversores de baja

frecuencia (no-modulados) e inversores de alta frecuencia
(modulados).
Inversores Resonantes.

Inversor en Medio Puente. 0 60 120 180 240 300 360 420 480 540
b1
(Voltage Source Inverter, VSI) t

b2
ig t T
2
T
Vg
Vg D1 Q1
Vg
C t
2
Vo +Vg/2
Vo
Vg Vg t
Z Load io
-Vg/2
io (R)
Vg +Vg./2 R
2 C D2 Q2 t
-Vg./2 R
io (L) Vo T

L 8 t
Vo T

L 8
vo (R,L,C, =-60o)
+Vm
t
-Vm
0 60 120 180 240 300 360 420 480 540

Inversor en Puente. b1 0 60 120 180 240 300 360 420 480 540
(Voltage Source Inverter, VSI) b2

t
t
b3
ig t b4
t
T
2
T
Q2 D1 D2 Q1
Vg
Vg
t
Vo
Vg Vg
Z Load io +Vg
Vo
-Vg
Q3 D4 D3 Q4 io (R)
+Vg/R
t
-Vg/R
io (L) Vo T

L4 t
Vo T

o L4
vo (R,L,C, =-60 )
+Vm
t
-Vm
0 60 120 180 240 300 360 420 480 540

Ejercicio n 4.

Inversor Trifsico
ig t
Q1 D1 Q3 D3 Q5 D5
iA iB iC
Vg Vg
Q4 D4 Q6 D4 Q2 D2
A B C

Inversor Trifsico (Conduccin a 120).

Inversor Trifsico. (Conduccin a 180)

Ejercicio n 5.

Inversor con fuente de corriente (Current Source Inverter, CSI). En todas
las configuraciones es posible un comportamiento dual. Su principal
aplicacin se encuentra en la alimentacin de cargas de CA, mediante
intensidad (corriente controlada frente a sobrecargas y puesta en marcha).
Se supone L muy grande, de forma que la corriente suministrada por la
fuente de CC permanece constante.
Ig
Q1 D1 D2 Q2
vo
Vg Vg
Z Load io
Q4 D4 D3 Q3

Inversores Multinivel.
Los inversores que sintetizan tensiones alternas formadas por varios
niveles de tensin CC fueron introducidos en 1980. Actualmente se
construyen inversores multinivel de hasta 10MW, conectados a media
tensin (2,3 a 6,9KV).
Se reduce el contenido armnico (menor cuanto mayor sea el nmero

de niveles) de la tensin de salida proporcionada por el inversor, y por
tanto el tamao del filtro necesario a baja frecuencia.
Permiten alcanzar altas tensiones y potencia a partir de pequeos

niveles de CC, sin necesidad de conexin en serie de interruptores de
potencia (aumento del rendimiento).
Sus principales inconvenientes estriban en la utilizacin de un mayor

nmero de interruptores de potencia, el incremento de la complejidad
en su control, y en la necesidad de disponer de tensiones de CC
estables y equilibradas para obtener baja distorsin.
S2 S1 a
Vg gV Inversor en Cascada de Puentes de 5 niveles
S4 S3 vo1 (Cascaded Full-Bridge Inverter).
Vo 0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 360
S 2' S1' vo 2 vo
+2Vg
Vg V
g
+Vg
S '
S ' n t
4 3
-Vg
Fuentes Aisladas -2Vg

a
vo1
N1 N2 +Vg
S2 S1 t
vo1
-Vg
S4 S3 vo2
+Vg
Vg gV Vo t
-Vg
S 2' S1' N1 N2
S1 S1 S1 S1 S1 S3 S3 S3 S3 S3 S3 S1
vo 2 S2 S4 S4 S4 S4 S4 S4 S2 S2 S2 S2 S2
S 4' S3' S2'
S1'
S2'
S1'
S4'
S1'
S4'
S1'
S4'
S3'
S4'
S3'
S4'
S3'
S4'
S3'
S2'
S3'
S2'
S3'
S2'
S1'
S2'
S1'
Aislamiento mediante
n
Transformador

Inversor en Cascada.
Requiere pocos componentes (para obtener 5 niveles de tensin de salida

se requieren 8 dispositivos).
Cada dispositivo debe bloquear una tensin igual a la de la fuente de CC a

la que est conectado.
Los dispositivos conmutan a baja frecuencia.
Necesita fuentes de CC aisladas o transformadores de aislamiento.
El desbalance entre la potencia suministrada por cada una de las fuentes

de CC, puede resolverse rotando cclicamente el suministro de potencia de
las mismas cada periodo.

Inversor multinivel con diodos anclados (Diode-Clamped Inverter, DCI) o
Inversor con neutro anclado (Neutral-Point-Clamped , NPC).
S1
S1(on) S2(on) Van=+Vg/2
Vg C1
S1'(on) S2(on) Van= 0
2 S1'(on) S2'(on) Van=-Vg/2
D1 S2
Vg Vg n a
Vg D1' S1'
2 C2
S 2'
Inversor NPC de tres
Niveles
Los diodos (D1 y D1), fijan (enclavan o anclan) la tensin de bloqueo de los
interruptores de potencia, a una fraccin de la tensin de la fuente de CC; la
mitad para un inversor NPC de tres niveles.

NPCI de 5 niveles.
S1
Vg C
4 D1 S2
S1(on) S2(on) S3(on) S4(on) Van=+Vg/2
S2(on) S3(on) S4(on) S1'(on) Van=+Vg/4
D2 S3 S3(on) S4(on) S1'(on) S2'(on) Van= 0
S3'(on) S2'(on) S1'(on) S4(on) Van=-Vg/4
Vg S1'(on) S2'(on) S3'(on) S4'(on) Van=-Vg/2
4 C
D3 S
4
Vg Vg n a
S1'
Vg
4 C
D1' D2' S 2'
S3'
Vg C
4
D3' S '
4
Inversor NPC de cinco

Niveles

Inversor NPC.
Requiere ms componentes (diodos) que el acoplamiento en cascada (para

obtener 5 niveles de tensin de salida se requieren 6 diodos ms).
Cada interruptor de potencia debe bloquear una tensin igual a una

fraccin de la fuente de CC (1/4 para 5 niveles).
Existe disparidad entre la capacidad de bloqueo de los diodos de fijacin.
Presenta disparidad entre los intervalos de conduccin de cada interruptor

de potencia (para un mismo intervalo, los interruptores superiores estn
sobredimensionados, respecto a los inferiores).
Existe desbalance entre la potencia suministrada por cada condensador,

conlleva un desbalance de tensiones.

Inversor multinivel con capacidades flotantes (Flying-Capacitor, FCI).
S1 S1(on) S2(on) Van=+Vg/2

S1(on) S1'(on)
Vg C1 Van= 0
S2(on) S2'(on)
2 S1'(on) S2'(on) Van=-Vg/2
S2
Vg Vg n Vg
2 C a
Vg S1'
2 C2
S 2'
Inversor FC de tres
Niveles
La tensin en la capacidad flotante, fija la tensin de bloqueo de los

interruptores de potencia a una fraccin de la tensin de la fuente de CC (la
mitad para un inversor FCI de tres niveles).

FCI de 5 niveles.
S1(on) S2(on) S3(on) S4(on) Van=+Vg/2

S1 S1(on) S2(on) S3(on) S1'(on)
S2(on) S3(on) S4(on) S4'(on) Van=+Vg/4
Vg C S1(on) S3(on) S4(on) S3'(on)
4 S1(on) S2(on) S1'(on) S2'(on)
S2 S3(on) S4(on) S3'(on) S4'(on)
S1(on) S3(on) S1'(on) S3'(on)
S2(on) S4(on) S2'(on) S4'(on) Van= 0
S1(on) S4(on) S2'(on) S3'(on)
S3 S2(on) S3(on) S1'(on) S4'(on)
Vg S1'(on) S2'(on) S3'(on) S1(on)
4 C S2'(on) S3'(on) S4'(on) S4(on) Van=-Vg/4
S1'(on) S3'(on) S4'(on) S3(on)
S4 S1'(on) S2'(on) S3'(on) S4'(on) Van=-Vg/2
Vg Vg n 3Vg
4
2Vg
4
Vg
4
a
C1 C2 C3
S1'
Vg
4 C
S 2'
S3'
Vg C
4
S 4'
Inversor FC de cinco
Niveles

Inversor FCI.
Requiere ms capacidades que las configuraciones anteriores.
Cada interruptor de potencia debe bloquear una tensin igual a una

fraccin de la fuente de CC (1/4 para 5 niveles).
Presenta redundancia en muchos de los niveles de tensin (un mismo nivel

de tensin puede ser sintetizado con varias combinaciones), permitiendo
diferentes estrategias de carga y recarga de las capacidades, lo cul
permite establecer un balance de tensiones para muchas aplicaciones,
aunque esto tambin provoca que la conmutacin de los interruptores sea
mayor y un aumento de las prdidas, an as, la configuracin FCI es la
que mayores problemas presenta para la obtencin de niveles de tensin
estable en condiciones estticas y dinmicas.

Actuators
77
Actuadores.
Bloques fundamentales de un proceso en lazo cerrado

Actuadores.
Los actuadores son los sistemas de accionamiento que permiten realizar

las acciones de control sobre un proceso.
Se clasifican en tres grupos, dependiendo del tipo de energa que utilicen:

Hidrulicos: se utilizan para manejar cargas pesadas. Sus movimientos
pueden ser suaves y rpidos.
Neumticos: son rpidos en sus respuestas, pero no soportan cargas
tan pesadas como los hidrulicos.
Elctricos: son los ms comunes en la mayora de los procesos
automatizados.
Los actuadores elctricos en aviacin se encuentran en: Motores,

servomotores, rels y contactores, bombas, electro vlvulas y
calefactores.

Servomotores (Servos).
Actan sobre las superficies mviles de la aeronave para producir su
movimiento en los tres ejes principales de rotacin: alabeo (roll),
guiada (yaw) y cabeceo (pitch).
Tienen la capacidad de ubicarse en cualquier posicin dentro de su

rango de operacin (generalmente menos de una vuelta completa), y
de mantenerse estable en dicha posicin proporcionando un elevado
par.
El valor de posicin deseado

(setpoint) se establece mediante una
seal PWM.
A mayor ancho de pulso, mayor

desplazamiento.

TON ( ms ) 1
180
Estn formados por un motor de corriente continua (brushed), una caja

reductora y un circuito de control.

El amplificador de error calcula el valor del error de posicin, como la

diferencia entre la referencia y la posicin en la que se encuentra el
motor (control proporcional). La referencia se obtiene mediante un
convertidor de ancho de pulso a voltaje (filtro paso bajo) y el valor de
la posicin del motor se obtiene, usando un potencimetro de
realimentacin acoplado mecnicamente a la caja reductora del eje del
motor: cuando el motor rote, el potencimetro tambin lo har,
variando el voltaje que se introduce al amplificador de error.
Para bloquear el servomotor en una posicin, es necesario mantener la

seal PWM. De esta forma, el sistema de control seguir operando, y el
servo conservar su posicin ofreciendo un par considerable a
cambiar de posicin. Si la seal PWM no se mantiene, el servomotor
quedar liberado, y cualquier fuerza externa puede cambiarlo de
posicin.

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POWER CONDITIONERS

Eladio Durn Aranda

2.- Overview on power devices.

2.- Overview on power converters.

Eladio Durn Aranda 2

Power Conditioners are part of the onboard electrical system of an

Basically the mission of the power converters is to change the way

There are basically four types of converters: DC/DC converters, AC/DC

Power converters consist of power semiconductor devices such as:

Eladio Durn Aranda 3

Power converters have contributed to the development and implementation

Eladio Durn Aranda 4

Military and International Standards Aircraft Electric Power Characteristics.

MIL-STD-740 ISO 1540

Normal Operating 22-29V 24-29V

AC MIL-STD-740 ISO 1540

Phase Voltage Phase 108-118V 104-122V

Frequency 393-407Hz 380-420Hz 360-440Hz

Eladio Durn Aranda 6

Eladio Durn Aranda 8

The current trend in the manufacture of power semiconductor devices

The obtaining of devices capable to block high voltage requires low

Eladio Durn Aranda 9

SPST (single-pole single-throw) switches. All power semiconductor

Active switch: Switch state is

Eladio Durn Aranda 10

Types of power diodes.

Eladio Durn Aranda 12

Eladio Durn Aranda 13

Eladio Durn Aranda 14

An active switch, controlled by terminal C

A majority-carrier device: fast switching speed.

Eladio Durn Aranda 15

Eladio Durn Aranda 16

An active switch, controlled by terminal C (Gate).

Becoming the device of choice in 500-1700V applications, at power levels of 1-1000kW.

Eladio Durn Aranda 17

Eladio Durn Aranda 18

An active switch, controlled by terminal C (Gate).

Eladio Durn Aranda 19

Eladio Durn Aranda 20

Eladio Durn Aranda 21

Eladio Durn Aranda 22

An active switch, controlled by terminal G (Gate).

The TRIAC is such a device, without controlled turn-off.

Eladio Durn Aranda 23

Several ways to realize a four-quadrant switch.

Eladio Durn Aranda 24

Eladio Durn Aranda 25

Eladio Durn Aranda 26

The rectification process is based on the conversion of low frequency

Eladio Durn Aranda 27

Eladio Durn Aranda 28

Full-Wave Uncontrolled (Delta Secondary Configuration)

' ' ' '

Eladio Durn Aranda 29

Full-Wave No-Controlled (Wye Secondary Configuration)

D2' D1' D1' D3' D3' D2'

Eladio Durn Aranda 30

D4' D5' D6 ' 6 2 5 6 7 6 3 2 11 6 t

Eladio Durn Aranda 32

Eladio Durn Aranda 33

Eladio Durn Aranda 34