Reviews

English as a Global Language preponderant role of English. In his final section,

David Crystal he considers whether anything could stop a global
Cambridge University Press 1997 150 pp. language. The only threat he perceives is one
12.95 which, short of a major shift in political power,
ISBN 0 521 59247 X might come from, an alternative form of
communication, such as automatic translation.
The Future of English
Chapter 2 traces, with a wealth of detail, the
David Graddol
spread of English from Elizabethan times to the
London The British Council 1997 64 pp.
15.99 present day. The chapter closes with an overview
ISBN 0 863 55356 7 of English in the world, based on Kachrus three
circles. Crystal concludes that a total of 670
Millenium fever continues to heat our professional million people use English with a native or
veins, and these two recent publications make near-native command (p. 61) increasing to
their particular contributions to raising the approximately 1,200-1,500 million if the criterion
temperature. of reasonable competence is adopted. He draws
Although both books deal with the role and status attention not only to the numbers but also to the
of English in the world, their origins are somewhat speed with which that expansion has taken place
different. This results in some significant since the 1950s. In 1950, the case for English as a
differences in the way their protean subject world language would have been no more than
matter is shaped. plausible. Fifty years on, and the case is virtually
unassailable (p. 63).
Chapter 3 continues the search for an explanation
English as a Global Language for the dominance of English by exploring some of
In his preface, David Crystal clearly sets out the the factors in 19th century history which laid the
aim of his book, which is to answer three basis for it. The rapid expansion of the British
questions: What makes a world language?, Empire went hand in hand with the Industrial
Why is English the leading candidate?, and Revolution at home and the emergence of the
Will it continue to hold this position? United States of America as a major industrial
and financial power. This ensured that the
The book is divided into five chapters. Chapter 1 explosion of technological knowledge was in
seeks to establish what makes a language global in English, and that it was rapidly diffused
scope, and reaches unsurprising conclusions: A worldwide in that language. Crystal also speaks
language becomes an international language for of the taken for granted status of English, and
one chief reason: the power of its people - the emergence, by the end of the nineteenth
especially their political power. (p. 7) However, century, of a climate of largely unspoken opinion
while It may take a militarily powerful nation to which had made English the natural choice for
establish a language . . . it takes an economically progress (p. 75).
powerful one to maintain and expand it. (pp. 7-8)
Crystal goes on to ask why a global language is Chapter 4 describes how the position of English
needed, concluding that the overwhelming need was further consolidated and expanded into the
arises from the exponential growth of twentieth century, and the author pays special
international contact in all spheres of life. He attention to the role of English in such areas as
then considers some potential dangers posed by a international relations, the media, international
global language: excessive power vested in the travel and tourism, international safety (especially
speakers of the language, linguistic complacency, air and maritime traffic control), education, and
and the linguistic death of smaller, less powerful communication, including the Internet. He
languages. In contrast to other recent attributes much of the success of English to its
commentators (Pennycook 1994, Phillipson 1992) having repeatedly found itself in the right place at
he does not attribute the last of these to the the right time (p. 110).

ELT Journal Volume 53/2 April 1999 Oxford University Press 1999 135

reviews welcome
The final chapter speculates about the future of English as a vehicular language - like a tool of
English in the world. In this Crystal ball, a number their trade?
of elements swirl. The author contemplates the What effects will economic globalization have
possibility of widespread rejection of English as on the demand for English?
part of a post-colonial backlash. As he rightly Will the emergence of world regions
observes (p. 116) The need for intelligibility and encourage lingua francas which challenge the
the need for identity often pull people - and position of English?
countries - in opposing directions. On the How does English help the economic
whole, however, he finds that there have been modernization of newly industrialized
very few such rejections of English to date. He countries?
then goes on to discuss at some length the Is the Internet the electronic flagship of global
situation in the United States, where US English English?
has been campaigning to give English special Will the growth of global satellite TV, such as
status as the nations official language. (The CNN and MTV, teach the worlds youth US
reasons for this lengthy treatment will become English?
clear later.) The political, socio-economic, and Will the spread of English lead to over half the
educational arguments for and against legislation worlds languages becoming extinct?
are meticulously rehearsed, and the authors Is it true that the English language will prove to
conclusions are uncomfortable: There seems to be a vital resource and benefit to Britain in the
be something about the intimate relationship coming century, giving it a key economic
between language, thought, individuality, and advantage over European competitors?
social identity which generates strong emotions.
And in a climate where supporters of official The problematic future of English is featured
English (no matter how moderate) have come to prominently in the Book Highlights (p. 4): In
be routinely labelled racist, and immigrants four key sectors, the present dominance of English
wishing to use their own language (no matter can be expected to give way to a wider mix of
how cultured) are castigated by such names as languages: first, the global audio-visual market,
welfare hogs, it is difficult to see the grounds for and especially satellite TV; second, the Internet
compromise. (pp. 129-30) and computer-based communication [generally],
including language-related and document
Crystal considers the rapid growth of the New handling software; third, technology transfer and
Englishes, and the fears of a fragmentation of associated processes in economic globalization;
English into mutually-incomprehensible varieties, fourth, foreign-language learning, especially in
but concludes, probably correctly, that most users developing countries, where growing regional
of English internationally will become bi-dialectal. trade may make other languages of increasing
His overall conclusion on the dominance of importance.
English is that, If this is part of a rich
multilingual experience for our future newborns, Like Crystal, Graddol has divided his book into
this can only be a good thing. If it is by then the five chapters. Chapter 1 looks at the legacy of
only language left to be learned, it will have been history and the role English plays in the twentieth
the greatest intellectual disaster that the planet century. He makes the point that we are at a
has ever known. (pp. 139-40) significant point of evolution . . . the close
relationship which formerly existed between
language, territory, and cultural identity is being
The future of English challenged by globalizing forces . . . (which) will
shape the contexts in which English will be
David Graddol, in his Foreword, states that his learned and used in the 21st century (p. 6). In
book is a practical briefing document . . . intended his analysis of the types of speakers of English,
to stimulate debate about the future status of Graddol argues against using Kachrus concentric
English which can inform policy developments. . .. circles. Instead, he prefers a model in which the
His Overview (p. 3) highlights the issues to be circles interlock, thus suggesting the way in which
discussed and the questions to which they give there will be movement from one circle to the
rise: next, resulting in a majority of L2 speakers by the
How many people will speak English in the year next century. He moves on to consider the likely
2050? language hierarchies worldwide and in specific
What role will English play in their lives? Will regions, where English will share dominance with
they enjoy the rich cultural resources the other major languages, and where many minor
English language offers or will they simply use languages will inevitably disappear.

136 Reviews

reviews welcome
Chapter 2, Forecasting, looks in some detail at languages will play a greater role. In his final
the complexity and uncertainty of attempting to section, he outlines some of the global inequalities
predict the future. He outlines the statistical consequent upon and associated with the
models on which he draws: the Hooke model dominance of English.
and the engco model, both of which input data
Chapter Four explores some of the likely effects
from demographic and economic forecasts. He
of the trends discussed in Chapter Three. In a
compares the world linguistic situation to
section on English in the globalized workplace (p.
complex systems which are best dealt with by
43) he concludes that . . . English must service a
chaos theory, which helps to account for the way
range of corporate roles and identities and must
in which . . . stable states or trends can, without
be usable for both team-working and service
much warning, become unstable. An apparently
interactions. Not surprisingly, demands on an
unstoppable trend towards global English usage
could change direction in the future as the employees competence are rising. Education
consequence of some surprisingly minor event. and training programmes are only just beginning
(p. 21) In the final section, he proposes scenario to be tailored to employment trends. He goes on
building as an alternative to the narrower concept to discuss education and training issues, including
of forecasting. Scenarios are not predictions; they teacher supply, the trend towards increasing
are what-if explorations of a number of possible English-medium provision in higher education,
futures, leading to a better understanding of likely the growth of adult education, and various models
change factors. of distance education. In discussing the global
media, he forecasts (p. 46) that Satellite
Chapter 3 examines a number of key global television, a technology which has the capacity
trends. The first of these is demography: How to envelop the world audience with a
many first language speakers of major languages homogeneous product, will create greater
will there be? How much will migration affect linguistic and cultural diversity and be more
language spread? How will changing class supportive of local languages than previously
structures affect English (the growth of the supposed. The effects of the fragmentation of
English-speaking middle classes)?, What effect culture by the media are also highlighted. He goes
will inexorable urbanization have on the worlds on to discuss the effects of a growing youth culture
languages? In a section on the world economy, he on linguistic patterns, again emphasizing the
assesses the likely impact of economic trends on potential for diversity: Transnational companies
language, including calculations of the GLP selling style have no particular loyalty to the
(Gross Language Product) for major languages, English language: they will follow the market . . .
and the growth of English as the major language With franchise agreements, licences, and the
of trade. The section on technology draws general extension of large companies into niche
attention to the difficulty of predicting accurately markets, it may be quite possible that the currency
how the information revolution will unfold. He of English is eroded. (p. 49) His conclusions on
claims (p. 30) that The close linkage that once the growth of the Internet are similarly
existed between computers and English has been circumspect: As computer usage spreads, it is
broken. Also explored here are likely develop- predicted that English content on the Internet
ments in restricted codes of English generated by may fall to 40% of the total material. (p. 51)
computers. In the next section, he discusses the
likely complexification of language use through Graddols final chapter attempts to bring together
the new working practices brought about by the complex threads of the arguments he has put
globalization. He concludes that Rather than a forward in order to address key questions about
process which leads to uniformity and the future of English (p. 55). He first considers
homogeneity, globalization seems to create new, World English. With regard to a standard, he
hybrid forms of culture, language and political predicts a progressive development of poly-
organization: the results of global influences centrism. He likewise predicts (p. 57) that the
meeting local traditions, values and social trade advantages to the UK in using English, and
contexts. (p. 33) He also comments extensively in producing and marketing intellectual property,
on the growth of the immaterial economy and and even in controlling the global ELT market,
the way English seems to have come to dominate will be significantly eroded by alternative
the new knowledge-intensive industries. In a suppliers, both in Europe and in Asia: The
section on cultural flows, he deals with flows of future of British English in the world will
people, of communication, and of finance, depend in part on continued, careful manage-
concluding that in all these areas the ment of its brand image. In his section on rival
predominance of English will give way to more languages, he concludes . . . that no single
complex configurations, in which major regional language will occupy the monopolistic position in

Reviews 137

reviews welcome
the 21st century which English has - Graddols study was sponsored by the British
almost - achieved by the end of the 20th century. Council as part of its English 2000 Project. As
It is more likely that a small number of world such, its aims are to provide information, and an
languages will form an oligopoly, each with assessment of future developments, which will
particular spheres of influence and regional help the Council better promote Britain and the
bases. (p. 59) He uses the engco model to English language throughout the world. I shall
generate a league table of linguistic influence, in touch upon the degree to which the Councils
which English remains at the top but with many expectations have been met in a later section.
close rivals. Sadly, he also observes that The shift
The audiences for the two books are clearly quite
from linguistic monopoly to oligopoly brings
different: Crystals has been written for anyone of
pluralism in one sense, but huge loss of diversity
any nationality concerned with English . . .
in another. This will be offset only in part by an
including . . . general readers and anyone with
increasing number of new hybrid varieties, many
a love of the language (cover blurb); Graddols is
arising from contact with English. (p. 59) He
for educationists, politicians, managers - indeed
predicts that, although the demand for English
any decision maker or planning team with a
will continue to rise, British providers of ELT will
professional interest in the development of
face increasing competition, and risk losing
English worldwide. (p. 1) These differences are
market share. Likewise, satellite TV will become
reflected in the stance adopted by each writer
increasingly localized, the dominance of English in
toward the subject. Crystal is essentially seeking to
the computer industry will be eroded, the use of
explain the current importance of English by
English on the Internet will be proportionately
reference to the past, so there is relatively little
reduced, and technology transfer may increasingly
discussion of the future. Although the tone is not
be conducted in regional languages. His
triumphalist, it appears to take for granted the
recommendations for managing the future
continuing dominance of English. Graddol is more
include developing a more ethical framework
concerned with probing the future, and with
. . . What social responsibilities are associated with
questioning the role of English in a polycentric
the promotion and teaching of English? . . . A
world of flow. Crystals message is ultimately
more sensitive approach will be needed in the
comforting: all will be well in due course of time.
future, which recognizes that English is not a
Graddol seeks to problematize the role of English,
universal panacea for social, economic, and
and to question widely-held beliefs, which will be
political ills, and that teaching methods and
a discomforting experience for some (including
materials, and educational policies need to be
possibly his sponsors).
adapted to local contexts. (p. 63)
Writing for a general readership, Crystals style is
Comparative evaluation direct and untechnical, easy to read, and laid out
with clear signposting of sections and sub-sections.
In comparing these two books, I am acutely aware
Unfortunately, there is no proper bibliography,
that I am not comparing like with like. They differ,
simply half a dozen suggestions for further
sometimes radically, along a number of
reading. By contrast, I found Graddol difficult to
dimensions: their purpose, the audience for
read, not simply because of the more technical
whom they were written, the stance they adopt,
nature of the content, but also because of the
their style, and the conclusions they reach. I shall
layout and design. It has a plethora of different
take each of these dimensions in turn.
fonts (at least six) and uses both black and varying
Crystals declared purpose is to contribute to a tones of mud-green for certain titles and for
peaceful and tolerant society through bringing diagrams and tables. It is in A4 format with two-
about understanding of the value of a common page spreads for most sections. This is presumably
language while sustaining the value of multi- for ease of reading, but it is marred by the large
lingualism. The impulse for the book came from number of marginalia, which distract from the
the chairman of US English, the largest main text. The overall impression is of
organization . . . campaigning for English to be fragmentation and clutter. The repetition of
made the official language of the USA. (p. ix) information in different parts of the book only
This must cast some doubt on the books motives, adds to the readers difficulty. The Summary
yet he claims that this book has not been written pages at the end of each chapter are in fact a
according to any political agenda. (p. x) Readers misnomer: they rarely summarize all the
will judge for themselves whether he achieves this information from the chapter, and frequently
degree of impartiality. It is certainly the case that omit large chunks of it (see Chapters 3 and 4 in
his discussion of the official English debate in the particular). The overall impression is of a
US is scrupulously even-handed. proliferation of sprawling information which is

138 Reviews

reviews welcome
difficult to access. This is unfortunate, because the disbeliefi It couldnt really be like that, could
arguments, though complex and detailed, are it? However, as I went back to my students and
worthy of serious consideration. And the listened, and as I began to listen to other teachers,
references at the end of each chapter are a mine I realized that any decontextualized record of
of information drawn from wide-ranging sources. spoken discourse does indeed appear to be
incoherent and nonsensical gibberish spoken by
It must be clear from the above that the two books
semi-literates. My amazement on this occasion
come to somewhat different conclusions. Crystal is was topped only by the experience of reading and
essentially sanguine, seeing the continuing listening to transcripts of authentic conversations
dominance of English as virtually a foregone in English in Crystal and Daveys Advanced
conclusion. Graddol is less optimistic, and a good English Conversation (1975). It was a revealing
deal more circumspect. His prediction of a more moment. Did we, people, you and I, indulge in
polycentric, complex, linguistic world in which such inane after dinner conversations? Were our
English loses its hegemonic position and where attempts at scintillating wit really that boring?
British suppliers of ELT services lose market But, of course, the conversations in real time had
share, may make uncomfortable reading for his not been inane, and only appear so to the
sponsors. Likewise his recommendation that if the eavesdropper. Rather like the voyeur in an aural
Council, among others, wish to maintain their version of Hitchcocks Rear Window, we are
position, they may have to adopt a less trying to make sense of snatches of experience.
triumphalist and more consultative stance in For those present at the event itself, the strands of
their dealings with clients worldwide. sense-in the broadest possible of terms-emerge
Both books make a major contribution to the through all those other elements that count in
literature on English as a world language; face-to-face interaction, and which many of us in
Crystals through its clarity and impressive the English language teaching profession now
marshalling of detailed support for the continued take for granted.
pre-eminence of English; Graddols for its in- Crystal and Daveys Advanced English
depth probing of a more problematic future, and Conversation first appeared 23 years ago, so one
for its invitation to continuing debate. might assume that it was time to take stock again.
References This would be particularly true if, as Carter and
Pennycook, A. 1994. The Cultural Politics of McCarthy claim, nothing on the topic has
English. London: Longman. appeared in the interim. They offer us a series of
Phillipson, R. 1992. Linguistic Imperialism. recorded examples of contemporary spoken
Oxford: Oxford University Press. English with transcripts, introductory activities,
general and line-by-line commentary, along with
suggestions for further reading.
The reviewer
Alan Maley was formerly Director-General of the The 20 conversations are taken from the
Bell Educational Trust, Cambridge, Senior Fellow CANCODE data (the Cambridge-Nottingham
at the National University of Singapore, and has Corpus of Discourse English), consisting in 1996
published over 30 books as well as numerous of five million words and constructed mainly from
articles on EFL/ESL. He is currently editor of the spontaneous, everyday speech in a variety of
Oxford Resource Books for Teachers series, and social contexts and interaction environments. (pp.
also a consultant, working on short-term teaching 7-8) The book is divided into eight sections on
assignments worldwide. such discourse functions as narrative, language in
action, service encounters, etc. Where the original
recordings are of poor quality, they have been re-
Exploring Spoken English recorded, with a copy of the original recording
R. Carter and M. McCarthy also included, for reference purposes. The
Cambridge University Press 1997 160~~. introduction gives readers the background to the
&10.50 CANCODE project, sets out the aims of the book,
ISBN 0 521 568609 gives a glossary of important terms (p. 12) that
Cassette 97 minutes &8.50 are exemplified in the various units and referred
ISBN 0 521 567777 to in the commentaries, and explains the transcript
The first transcript of spoken English that I had notation.
the opportunity of studying was an extract from a My first reaction on listening to the cassette and
secondary school English lesson. Although I reading the transcripts was that the samples
already had several years in the classroom offered were more intelligible than the original
behind me, my initial reaction was stark Crystal and Davey conversations, presumably

Reviews 139

reviews welcome