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Asexual reproduction
1. Asexual reproduction involves only one parent. Most simple organisms reproduce asexually.
2. There are five type of asexual reproduction:
(a) Binary Fission
- A parent cell dividing itself into two new offspring.
- Examples are amoeba, paramecium, bacteria, Euglena.
(b) Budding
- The parent produces a bud which detached to become a new individual.
- Examples are yeast and Hydra.
A mushroom A fern
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Chapter 4: Reproduction
Sexual reproduction
1. Sexual reproduction is the production of offspring by the fusion of gametes (reproductive cells).
2. The male gamete (sperm) will fuses with the female gamete (ovum) by a process known as
fertilisation.
3. This results in the formation of zygote. The zygote develops into a new individual.
Fertilisation
4. There are two types of fertilisation, internal fertilisation and external fertilisation.
5. In internal fertilisation, the sperms are deposited in the female reproductive tract and fertilisation
occurs within the body of the female.
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Chapter 4: Reproduction
6. In external fertilisation, sperms and eggs are shed into the water in great numbers simultaneously.
Only a small number of eggs are fertilised by the sperms. External fertilisation occurs in most fish,
amphibians and aquatic plants.
External Fertilisation
7. The differences between sexual and asexual reproduction.
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Chapter 4: Reproduction
4.2: Male and Female Reproductive System
Male Reproductive System
Structure Function
Testis -Produces sperms and male sex hormones.
Penis -Delivers sperms into the vagina of the female.
Scrotum -A bag which holds the testes outside the body and protects them.
Sperm duct -A tube which channel sperms from testes to urethra.
Seminal vesicle -A sex gland which produces fluid that provides nutrients for sperms.
Prostate gland -A sex gland which produce fluid that provide medium for the sperms to swim in.
Urethra -A tube which carries sperms and urine out of the body.
2. Sperms are the male gametes (male sex cells). Sperms carry genetic information from the male parent
in their nuclei.
3. Each sperm consists of a head, a middle piece and a long tail.
4. The structure of the sperm
5. The role of the sperm is fertilised the female gamete (ovum) to form zygote.
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Chapter 4: Reproduction
Female Reproductive System
1. Female reproductive system
Structure Function
Ovary -Produces ovum and female sex hormones.
Fallopian Tube -Carries ovum from ovary to the uterus.
(oviduct) -It is the place where fertilisation takes place.
Uterus (womb) -A structure where the embryo develops during pregnancy.
Cervix -A ring of muscle at the lower end of the uterus where it joins the vagina.
Vagina -A muscular tube that opens to the outside of the female body.
-Birth canal
-Place where sperms are deposited
3. Ovum is the female sex cell or female gamete.
4. The ovum is larger than the sperm and it is spherical-shaped.
5. The ovum fuses with the sperm to form a zygote during fertilisation.
6. The structure of an ovum.
7. The ovum stores some food in its cytoplasm. The food is used to nourish the embryo which develops
from the zygote.
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Chapter 4: Reproduction
8. The differences between the ovum and the sperm
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Chapter 4: Reproduction
4.3: Menstrual Cycle
1. Menstruation (period) is the discharge of disintegrated uterus lining together with the dead ovum and
blood through the vagina.
2. A menstrual cycle is the repeated cycle which normally takes about 28 days.
3. A menstrual cycle can be divided into 4 phases, they are
(a) Menstruation phase (1st to 5th day)
Discharge of disintegrated uterus lining, dead ovum and blood through vagina.
(b) Repair phase (6th to 10th day)
Uterus wall grows and becomes thick again.
(c) Fertile phase (11th to 17th day)
Mature ovum is released from the ovary on 14th day.
- The process of releasing a mature ovum is called ovulation.
- A woman may become pregnant if she has an intercourse during fertile phase.
(d) Premenstrual phase (18th to 28th day)
Uterus is prepared for the implantation of the fertilised ovum.
- Ovum will disintegrate if it is not fertilised.
Menstrual phase
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Chapter 4: Reproduction
4.4: Fertilisation and Pregnancy
1. During ovulation, an ovum is released from the ovary.
2. If the woman is having an intercourse, millions of sperms are transferred to the vagina. The sperm
swim through the cervix and up to the fallopian tube. In the fallopian tube, one sperm will enter the
ovum and fertilised the ovum through the process called fertilisation.
3. After fertilisation, the zygote divides repeatedly to form an embryo as it travels along the fallopian
tube towards the uterus.
4. When the embryo reaches the uterus, it attaches itself to the uterus wall. This is called implantation.
5. The female with the implanted embryo is now pregnant.
Pregnancy
1. During the early stage of pregnancy, the embryo obtains its supply of nutrients from ovum and uterus
lining.
2. The surfaces of the embryo and the uterus lining bind firmly
to form a large disc called the placenta.
3. The implanted embryo will then get its supply of nutrients
and oxygen from its mother through placenta.
4. By eight weeks after the fertilisation, the developing
embryo becomes clearly human and is called a foetus.
5. The foetus is attached to the placenta by the umbilical cord. The foetus obtains nutrients and oxygen
from the mothers blood through umbilical cord while waste materials, such as urea and carbon
dioxide, pass along the same umbilical cord into the mothers blood.
6. The foetus is completely surrounded by a membrane called the amnion.
7. The amnion is filled with amniotic fluid. The amniotic fluid protects the foetus against shock.
8. The time for the full development of a foetus is forty weeks. This is often referred to as the gestation
period.
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Chapter 4: Reproduction
9. In human being, the stages in childbirth are as follows:
(a) Muscles in uterus contract rhythmically and slowly.
(b) Sac of amniotic fluid break.
(c) Foetus rotates the body until the head points toward cervix.
(d) Cervix expands.
(e) Strong contraction of uterus.
(f) Placenta and umbilical cord expel from mothers body.
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Chapter 4: Reproduction
4.6: Research in Human Reproductive System
1. Two main issues of concern in human reproduction are sterility and birth control.
2. Sterility is the inability to reproduce.
3. Some causes of sterility in males and their treatment:
Causes of sterility Treatment
Blocked sperm duct Remove any blockage in the tubes between the testes and the seminal
vesicles.
Low sperm count Stop smoking, reduce stress and stop taking alcoholic drinks.
Abnormal sperms Take hormonal pills
Impotence/ erectile dysfunction Take drugs that are prescribed by the doctor.
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Chapter 4: Reproduction
Birth control
1. Birth control allows married couples to decide whether they would want to have children. It also
allows them to choose the number of children and the time to have them.
2. This is done by contraception.
3. Methods of birth control:
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Chapter 4: Reproduction
4.7: Sexual Reproduction System of Flowering Plants
1. Flowers are the sexual reproductive organs of flowering plants.
2. The part of a flower.
3. The male part of the flower is called stamen. Stamen consists of anther and filament.
4. The female part of the flower is called pistil. Pistil consists of stigma, style and ovary.
5. Parts of the flower and their function.
Parts Function
Sepal Protect the young flower in the bud stage.
Petal Attract animal pollinators by their colour and scent.
Stigma Receive pollen grains.
Style Connect stigma to ovary.
Ovary - Produces ovules.
- Develops into fruit after fertilization.
Ovule - Contain female gamete.
- Develops into seeds after fertilization.
Anther Produce male gametes (pollen grains).
Filament Supports the anther.
6. There are two types of flowers:
(a) Unisexual flowers contain either the stamens or the pistils. Examples are papaya and corn.
(b) Bisexual flowers contain both the stamens and the pistils. Examples are hibiscus and morning glory.
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Chapter 4: Reproduction
4.8: Pollination
1. Pollination is the transfer of pollen grains from the anthers to the stigma.
2. There are two types of pollination.
3. In self-pollination, pollen grains are transferred from the anther to the stigma of the same flower or to
the stigma of another flower on the same plant.
4. In cross-pollination, pollen grains are transferred from the anther of a flower of one plant to the
stigma of a flower of another plant of the same species.
5. Advantages of the cross-pollination:
(a) Produces new plants which are healthier and more resistance to bad weather and diseases.
(b) Produces a great variety of new plants.
(c) The new plant produces better yield.
6. Flowers can be pollinated by pollinating agents such as:
(a) Insects (bee, butterfly)
(b) Wind Examples are lalang, maize and paddy
(c) Water Example is duckweed
(d) Animal (humming bird, bat)
7. Differences between insect-pollinated and wind-pollinated flower:
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Chapter 4: Reproduction
4.9: The Development of Fruits and Seeds
1. Fertilisation of plant.
2. After fertilisation,
(a) Fertilised ovule develops into a seed.
(b) Ovary develops into the fruit.
(c) Sepals, petals, stigma and stamen will wither and drop off.
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Chapter 4: Reproduction
4.10: Germination of Seeds
The structure of seeds
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Chapter 4: Reproduction
Germination
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Chapter 4: Reproduction
4.11: Vegetative Reproduction in Flowering Plant
1. Vegetative reproduction is asexual reproduction that involves the developments of the vegetative
parts of a plant into a new plant.
2. Flowering plants which reproduce vegetatively are often classified according to the vegetative parts
such as roots, stems and leaves.
3. Examples of vegetative reproduction:
Stems
-underground stems
Leaves
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Chapter 4: Reproduction
4. Advantages of vegetative reproduction:
(a) Flowers or fruits can be obtained in much less time through vegetative reproduction.
(b) The quality and quantity of plants that will be produced are known in advance.
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