http://en.wikipedia.

org/wiki/Electrical_conductivity

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EC_meter

http://www.topac.com/conductivityprobes.html

Conductivity Cells
Types of Conductivity Cell
2 Electrode Cell
The two electrode cell is the most commonly used
conductivity cell Glass cells have electrodes made of
platinum. Epoxy cells have easy to clean graphite plates.
The conductivity cells on this page do not have errors
caused by fringe field effects because the entire
measuring field is contained within the electrode body.
This kind of probe can be used with almost any
conductivity meter.

4 Electrode Cells
The electrode design reduces the problem of
polarization error and fouling of the electrode.
(polarization comes about because electro-chemical
reaction with the probe surface ). In the four electrode
design alternating current is applied only to the outer
pair of rings. The voltage is measured on the inner rings
without polarization effects because no current flows in
the measuring circuit. This type of probe is superior in
function in almost any solution and covers the whole
conductivity range with one probe,

Siemen).  For ease of expression, 1000 µS/cm are

equal to 1 mS/cm. Often times conductivity is simply
http://www.mbhes.com/conductivity_measurement expressed as either micro or milli Siemens.  However
.htm this unit of measurement is sometimes (incorrectly)
referred to as micro-mho's rather than micro-
Siemens.  The expression "mho" was simply the word
Units of Measurement ohm spelled backwards. 

Electrical Conductivity is the ability of a solution to
transfer (conduct) electric current.  It is the reciprocal
of electrical resistivity (ohms).  Therefore
conductivity is used to measure the concentration of
dissolved solids which have been ionized in a polar
solution such as water.  The unit of measurement
commonly used is one millionth of a Siemen per
centimeter (micro-Siemens per centimeter or
µS/cm).  When measuring more concentrated
solutions, the units are expressed as milli-
Siemens/cm (mS/cm) i.e.- 10-3 S-cm (thousandths of a
Several means of conductivity expression have been
adopted by various industries as a way of making the
units of expression into whole numbers.  The water
softening industry refers to "grains" of hardness and
uses TDS or total dissolved solids as a measurement
scale.  While TDS is really a gravimetric
measurement, because in solution the solids are
predominately present in ionic form, they can be
approximated with conductivity.  The TDS scale uses
2 µS/cm = 1 ppm (part per million as CaCO3).  It is
also expressed as 1 mg/l TDS.  While the method of
measurement is the same, some conductivity meters other.  [* Probes with different electrode spacing
can make the conversion and express the results of a allow measurement of various conductivities.]
measurement in many different units.  This is helpful
for users who are accustomed to one particular unit of The amperometric method applies a known potential
measurement.  (voltage, V) to a pair of electrodes and measures the
current (I).  According to Ohm's law: I=V/R where R
  is the resistance.  The higher the current so obtained,
the greater the conductivity.  The resistance in this
Resistivity versus Conductivity method unfortunately is not constant even though the
distance may be fixed.  Salt deposition on the
When the ionic concentration is very low (such as in electrodes due to electrolysis can vary the resistance. 
high purity water), the measured conductivity falls For low to medium levels of conductivity (< 2
below a value of one micro Siemens per centimeter.  mS/cm) this may be sufficient, but for greater
In order to express these numbers as whole numbers accuracy and for higher levels, a different method is
as opposed to fractions, the resistivity scale is often required. 
used.  The numbers are exactly the inverse of each
other.  For example: the reciprocal of 0.10 µS/cm [or Potentiometric
1/(0.10 x 10-6 S/cm)] is then 10 x 106 ohms-cm (10
MΩ-cm). This is also commonly referred to as A potentiometric method is based on induction and
"mega-ohms".  Either unit of measurement can be eliminates the effects of polarization common to the
used to state exactly the same value.  Commonly the amperometric method.  The potentiometric method
conductivity scale is more versatile as it can be used employs four rings: the outer two rings apply an
for a broader range of measurements.  alternating voltage and induce a current loop in the
solution while the inner rings measure the voltage
Because air is soluble in ultra high purity water (18.3 drop induced by the current loop.  This measurement
MΩ-cm), the reading will not be stable in an open is directly dependent upon the conductivity of the
container.  solution.  A shield around the rings maintains a
constant field by fixing the volume of solution
around the rings. 
 
Because a potentiometric (4-ring) conductivity sensor
Temperature Compensation
is not limited by electrolysis which commonly affects
amperometric probes, it can be used to measure a
Temperature plays a role in conductivity.  Because much wider range of conductivities.  Practically,
ionic activity increases with increasing temperature, stainless steel rings can be used.  But, the preferred
conductivity measurements are referenced to 25ºC.  metal is platinum because it can withstand higher
The coefficient used to correct for changes in temperatures and produces a more stable reading. 
temperature, β is expressed as a percentage per Platinum sensors are also easier to clean.  Advanced
degree Celsius.  For most applications, beta has a microprocessor conductivity instruments can vary the
value of two.  In order to establish the true value of voltage applied to the sensor which enables them to
beta a solution is measured at the elevated extend the range of a potentiometric probe even
temperature (without temperature compensation).  further.  This technique allows advanced meters to be
Then the solution is cooled and re-measured.  β can able to measure both high and low conductivities as
then be exactly calculated for that particular solution.  well as the ultra low conductivity of deionized water
Advanced meters allow for custom reference with one probe.
temperatures.
Inductive or Toroidal
Probe Types and Polarization Errors
Another method of conductivity measurement uses
Amperometric an inductive probe (sometimes referred to as a
toroidal sensor).  Typically these are found in
The probe used to measure conductivity was industrial process control systems.  The sensor looks
originally an amperometric system which had two like a donut (toroid) on a stick.  The advantage of this
electrodes spaced one centimeter* apart from each technology is measurement without any electrical
contact between the electrode and the process fluid.  USP <645> with Stage 1,2 and 3 compliance is
The probe uses two toroidal transformers which are
inductively coupled side by side and encased in a
plastic sheath. The controller supplies a high
frequency reference voltage to the first toroid or drive
coil which generates a strong magnetic field.  As the
liquid containing conductive ions passes thru the hole
of the sensor, it acts as a one turn secondary
winding.  The passage of this fluid then induces a
current proportional to the voltage induced by the
magnetic field.  The conductance of the one turn
winding is measured according to Ohm's law.  The
conductance is proportional to the specific
conductivity of the fluid and a constant factor
determined by the geometry and installation of the
sensor.  The second toroid or receiving coil also is
affected by the passage of the fluid in a similar
fashion.  The liquid passing thru the second toroid
also acts as a liquid turn or primary winding in the
second toroidal transformer.  The current generated
by the fluid creates a magnetic field in the second
toroid.  The induced current from the receiving coil is
measured as an output to the instrument.  The
controller converts the signal from the sensor to
specific conductivity of the process liquid.  As long
as the sensor has a clearance of at least 3 cm the
proximity of pipe or container walls will have a
negligible effect on the induced current.
 
Calibration
Most conductivity meters can be calibrated using a
standard of a known value.  Often a value of 1413
µS/cm is used.  Some meters will allow the user to
select from a wide range of pre-selected values. 
Calibration should be performed using a standard
which is as close to the solution being measured as
possible.  More advanced meters will allow
calibration at two, three, four or even five points.  micro Siemens, milli Siemens, mega Ohms, TDS:
This results in good accuracy over a wider range of
measured values.  Some meters will even recognize
the value a standard when the probe is immersed
during calibration similar to auto buffer recognition
in pH meters.  This simply is another way a making a
conductivity meter easier to use.  Temperature is so
important in conductivity measurement, it should also
be calibrated at least one and preferably two different
points.
US Pharmacopoeia and European Pharmacopoeia
Standards
required for purified water and WFI (water for
injection).  Only a few resistivity/conductivity meters
conform to these requirements.  Some of these
requirements are:
 Resolution of 0.1µS/cm or greater
 Accuracy at 1.3µS/cm of 0.1µS/cm
 Must be able to read with or without
automatic temperature compensation
 Verifiable cell constant +/- 2%
The advanced HI 98188 will easily meet or exceed
these criteria.
Portable and Bench Meters
Instruments which measure conductivity are available
as portable field instruments which are hopefully
waterproof since they are to be used in wet
environments.  Depending upon the model, the
meters can:
 Used in various ranges of conductivities
 Incorporate a temperature sensor in the
probe
 Auto-range to automatically express the
results in the proper units
 Allow data logging of measurements with
computer output port and data capture
software
 Rechargeable batteries
 Offer automatic calibration from the keypad
 Include a potentiometric (4-ring)
conductivity sensor
Laboratory bench meters normally will have all of
the features available in the portable meters. 
Additionally, they often can express measurements in
ppm or ppt, and salinity  in PS, % or ppt.  Look for
features such as automatic time interval logging and
log on demand plus automatic standard recognition
during calibration.  GLP (good laboratory practice)
features allow the user to store and retrieve data
regarding the status of the system.  And for those on
a tight budget, some conductivity bench meters will
even include a pH meter with two separate
electrodes.  These combination meters share the same
display.
Process Conductivity/TDS Controllers
For continuous measurement systems, a controller is
used.  These instruments are typically panel mounted
and offer a host of excellent features including but
not limited to:  auto-ranging, control output relay(s),
analog recorder output, in-line probe cleaning,
diagnostic features and even a computer digital
output with SMS (Short Messaging Service) or
modem capabilities.  Process controllers can also be
divided into three general types depending upon the
type of probe they employ.  The first uses an
amperometric probe for applications where cost is a
consideration.  The second uses a standard
potentiometric type temperature compensated probe
similar to those used with bench or portable meters.  solution.
These are good work horses for most applications. 
However, the third type of controller uses an
inductive probe.  This probe has many advantages in
an industrial setting.  Common problems like
contamination or polarization factors are eliminated
because the sensor is has no electrodes in contact
with the process fluid.  Depending upon the
application, users should select a controller and a
compatible sensor suitable to the type of fluid and
physical environment of use.
http://www.eutechinst.com/techtips/tech-tips25.htm
Conductivity Temperature Compensation
Conductivity measurements are temperature
dependent. The degree to whcih temperature
affects conductivity varies from solution to
solution and can be calculated using the
following formula:
Gt = Gtcal {1 + (T-Tcal)}
where: Gt = conductivity at any temperature T in
°C, Gtcal = conductivity at calibration temperature
Tcal in °C,  = temperature coefficient of solution
at Tcal in °C.
Substance Concentratio
Alpha (a)
at 25°C n
HCl 10 wt% 1.56
KCl 10 wt% 1.88
H2SO4 50 wt% 1.93
NaCl 10 wt% 2.14
HF 1.5 wt% 7.20
HNO3 31 wt% 31.0
Common alphas () are listed in the table
above. To determine that of other solutions,
simply measure conductivity at a range of
temperatures and graph the change in
conductivity versus the change in temperature.
Divide the slope of the graph by Gtcal to get .
All meters have either fixed or adjustable
automatic temperature compensation referenced
to a standard temperature - usually 25°C. Most
meters with fixed temperature compensation use
a  of 2%/°C (the approximate  of NaCl
solutions at 25°C). Meters with adjustable
temperature compensation let you to adjust the
 to more closely match the  of your measured
Conductivity Meter Calibration and Cell
Maintenance
Conductivity meters and cells should be
calibrated to a standard solution before using.
When selecting a standard, choose one that has
the approximate conductivity of the solution to
be measured. The conductivity of some common
solutions is shown in the table below.
Solution Conductivity
Absolute pure
0.055 µS/cm
water
Power plant
1.0 µS/cm
boiler water
Good city water 50 µS/cm
Ocean water 53 mS/cm
A polarized or fouled electrode must be cleaned
to renew the active surface of the cell. In most
situations, hot water with a mild liquid detergent
is an effective cleanser. Acetone easily cleans
most organic matter, and chlorous solutions will
remove algae, bacteria or molds. To prevent cell
damage, abrasives or sharp objects should not
be used to clean an electrode. A cotton bud
works well for cleaning but care must be taken
not to widen the distance of cell. 
Conductivity Cells
Most conductivity meters have a
two-electrode cell (see illustration)
available in either dip or flow-
through styles. The electrode
surface is usually platinum, titanium,
gold-plated nickel, or graphite.
The four-electrode cell uses a reference voltage
to compensate for any polarization or fouling of
the electrode plates. The reference voltage SUMMARY
ensures that measurements indicate actual Conductivity is the ability of a solution to conduct
conductivity independent of electrode condition, electricity. Conductivity measurement can be
resulting in higher accuracy for measuring pure applied
water. to the full range of water solutions, from high
purity
Important Features to Consider water to the most conductive solutions known.
Things to consider in applying conductivity:
1. Use contacting conductivity for low
 Auto-ranging: Meter automatically
conductivity
selects the appropriate range for
applications in clean process streams.
measurement. There is no need to
2. For accuracy in applications approaching
change the dial, multiply values on the
1 μS/cm, use contacting conductivity with high
display, or turn the potentiometer.
purity water temperature compensation.
 Temperature compensation: A cell
3. Use toroidal conductivity for dirty, corrosive,
with built-in temperature sensor allows
or
the meter to make adjustments to the
high conductivity applications.
conductivity or TDS readings based on
4. If a concentration measurement is required,
changes in solution temperature.
the
 TDS conversion factor: When a full stream composition, as well as its
solution does not have a similar ionic conductivity
content to natural water or salt water, behavior over the desired concentration and
then a TDS conversion factor is needed temperature
to automatically adjust the readings. range must be known. If a reliable estimate
 Adjustable temperature coefficients: cannot be made from published data, data
The TDS of certain samples, such as must be gathered in the laboratory.
alcohols and pure water, are affected by
changes in temperature. An adjustable
temperature coefficient allows the user
to compensate for temperature changes
on the solution being measured.
 Adjustable cell constant: Adjusts the
reading on the display to reflect use of a
cell with a constant other than k=1.0 cm-
1
.

http://www.emersonprocess.com/raihome/documents
/Liq_AppData_43-018.pdf

CONDUCTIVITY CALIBRATION
Moderate to High Range Measurements
For conductivity measurements in excess of 100
μS/cm, a conductivity standard may be used to
calibrate
a conductivity loop. The conductivity
measurement
may also be calibrated using grab sample
standardization.
Care must be taken that the correct temperature
coefficient is being used in both the on-line
instrument and the referee instrument to avoid
discrepancies
based on temperature compensation
errors.