1.

0 General

The industrial and commercial systems have advanced and grown in recent
years with capacities close to or sometimes exceeding that of small electric
utility (EB = Electricity Board) system. Even smaller electrical systems
demand optimised solutions with some of the cases involving need for
demanding design calculations for system design solutions.

Todays intensely competitive business environment forces management

personnel to be very aware of the total owning cost of their electrical power
distribution system

Therefore they demand assurances of maximum return on all capital

investments in the electrical power systems

The use of digital computers with sophisticated electrical system softwares

(like ETAP) makes it possible to study the performance of proposed and
actual systems under many operating conditions.

Answers to many questions regarding impact of system expansion, short

circuit capacity, stability, harmonics, load distribution, protection settings,
ground grid sizing etc, can be intelligently and economically obtained,

The planning, design and operation of Utility (i.e the Electricity Board),
industrial, oil and gas, petrochemical and commercial power systems require
several electrical calculations and studies to assist in evaluation of the initial
and future system performance, system reliability, safety and ability to grow
with the production and/or operating requirements.

With thrust on engineering studies to be part of design firms, consulting

engineering firms are required to carry out design related calculations
together with sophisticated electrical system modelling, studies and analysis
using appropriate power system softwares as part of work they have to
execute directly with end clients or owners and owners EPC contractors

Studies involve mathematical modelling of integrated electrical systems to

replicate actual system on which various simulations can be carried out on a
scale of accuracy adopting international standards which were not hitherto
possible with the hand calculations

Plant owners demand accurate, optimised solutions based on international

standards such as IE, IEEE, IS etc all of which are very easily achievable
using sophisticated electrical power systems such as ETAP which are
modular in concept to allow the users to buy modules they need for their
application thus saving on cost of software.
 The studies most likely to be needed are
Load flow studies for steady state power flow and steady state voltage
drop calculation in branches of system like cable, overhead line and
transformers.,
Power factor assessment studies
Short circuit or fault current calculation and analysis studies,
Large Motor start studies
Protective device coordination studies,
Arc flash studies and analysis to arrive at incident energy, flash
protection boundary & PPE/Warning labels assessment
Harmonic studies and analysis including filter assessment studies
Ground grid sizing studies for assessing ground resistance, ground
potential rise
Reliability studies
Contingency analysis for power transfer capability and security
limits
Optimum capacitor placement studies
Underground raceway
Transient stability studies covering Voltage and frequency recovery
stability analysis, Frequency & Voltage control assessment, Islanding
studies, Under-frequency load shedding scheme analysis, under-
voltage load shedding scheme analysis, Load-shedding and
generation tripping schemes including Post-fault analysis of
system disturbances

The studies simulation work which ETAP will aide will involve:-
Development and assessment of system design alternatives.
Generation integration impact and power evacuation studies
Generator and large motor model development and model testing
Power system simulation model development
Model verification
User defined modeling using SIMULINK Module Of MATLAB

The Lead engineer or Specialist Engineer of consulting firms must decide

which studies are needed to ensure that the system will operate safely,
economically and efficiently over the expected life of the system.

2.0 Preparation for the study

For a design or plant electrical engineer to solve a power system analysis

problem, the engineer must be thoroughly familiar with the fundamentals of
electrical power engineering.

The engineer can then analyse the problem, prepare necessary equivalent
circuits and obtain appropriate data before using a power system software to
perform repetitive calculations.

Failute to use valid analytical procedure to establish a sound basic approach

to the problem could lead to disastrous consequences in both the design and
operation of a system.
 Furthermore, a basic understanding of power engineering is essential to
correctly interpret the results of the power system software calculation results.

It is important to emphasise the need for thorough foundation and base of

experience in electrical power system engineering in addition to modern,
effective computing tools and software.

Electrical power system analysis engineering softwares (such as ETAP) are

excellent for studying power systems but it cannot be used as a substitute for
knowledge and experience. So some basic fundamentals of power system
engineering has to be attained or brushed before an engineer can use the
software.

To set up the electrical system MODEL SLD in the software for system
analysis, certain basic data must be gathered with accuracy and proper
presentation.

The extent of system representation, restriction in terms of nodes or buses

and branches ( such as cables, lines and transformers), balanced three
phase network and single line diagram (SLD), impedance diagram, load list at
various busbars, spilt of loads as motor or lighting, identification of harmonic
generating loads, etc, are all important inputs to a meaningful system study.

3.0 Load Flow Studies Using Load flow analysis study module

Load flows are steady state power flow and voltage drop calculation analytical
tools.

These calculate active and reactive power flows from the generating or power
grid sources and through each of the branches (brances are transformers and
cables and over head lines) along with and voltages at all the bus and nodes.

Applications include:

Calculation of voltages at all busbars due to power flow throw branches

from sources to load.
Check ALERT for under voltage or over voltage or branch over loading
Calculation of voltage drops (steady state voltage drop) in branches such
as cables, overhead lines or transformers for Identifying excessive voltage
variations/violations under normal circuit operation and abnormal
contingency outage conditions.
Checking current flows under different conditions.
Checking power factor of power flow at all source and branch circuits.
Calculation of current and power flows in branches for Identifying
overloaded circuits and necessary plant upgrades under normal and
contingency outage conditions.
 Identifying under loaded circuits for carrying out system optimisation
Estimating overall active and reactive power losses including assessment
of these losses in individual branches.
Estimating the range of TRANSFORMER ON LOAD AUTO TAP changers
or TRANSFORMER OFF Load Tap changers required to ensure system
voltages are maintained at all points to well within desired limits under
both peak and minimum load conditions
Specifying ratings cables, reactors and transformers for all conditions.
Specifying compensation equipment such as power factor correction
capacitors or reactive absorbing devices such as reactors.
Load flow study result acceptance criteria needs to developed and
agreed with the CLIENT for comparison of results with criteria as
required to analyse the power system load flow software results.

2.0 Fault Level Studies

Accurate fault level assessments support the legally required safety rating of
equipment to reduce dangers.

Study includes comparison of evaluated fault levels (like initial AC

symmetrical rms fault current, peak making fault current and Asymmetrical
break rms fault current values) at any given bus in the system for comparison
with corresponding switchgear and breaker peak and break fault ratings.

Each of the above peak fault kA peak, initial symmetrical rms Ik kA rms and
asymmetrical break rms kA rms rating of the switchgear/CB should be greater
than the calculated values of each of these currents. That is:-

Peak fault rating in kA peak of a switchgear/CB should be greater than

the calculated Peak fault (kA peak) current at that switchgear point of
the system.
Initial AC symmetrical kA rms fault rating of switchgear/CB should be
greater than the calculated Initial AC symmetrical kA rms fault
current at that switchgear point of the system.
Asymmetrical break kA rms fault rating of switchgear/CB at breaker
opening time (3 cycle to 4 cycle i.e 60 to 80 milli-sec should be greater
than the calculated Asymmetrical break kA rms fault current at that
switchgear point of the system.

Studies Helps To :

Identify equipment where ratings are exceeded.

Specify ratings for plant upgrades and new plant.
Contain or reduce fault levels on existing systems.
 Develop plant and operating procedures to limit fault current.

3.0 Stability Studies

System disturbances are a source of instability that can cause loss of

synchronisation, stalling or overloading of generators and motors.
Catastrophic failure of large parts of the power system can result, along with
plant damage.

Stability models & Studies used to:

Assess system susceptibility to transient events such as faults, motor

starting or sudden load application and load rejection.
Specify technical requirements for stable operation.
Design or verify suitable protection schemes.

4.0 Electrical protection

CAD methods to co-ordinate protection on a wide variety of electrical systems

so that faulty equipment is disconnected promptly leaving functioning
equipment in service wherever possible.