EXPERIMENT 1

AIM: TO STUDY DIFFERENT TYPES OF MACHINES IN LAB

1. LATHE
The main function of the lathe is to remove metal from a piece of work to
give it the required shape and size. This is accomplished by holding the
work securely and rigidly on the machine and then turning it against
cutting tool which will remove metal from the work on the form of strips.
To cut the material properly the tool should be harder than the material of
the workpiece, should be rigidly held on machine and should be fed on
progressed in a definite way relative to the work

FUCNTION OF THE LATHE PARTS

i) BED
a) It is sufficiently rigid, good clamping qualities to absorb vibration and
prevent deflection produced by cutting forces.
b) It supports headstock and receives both static, impact and dynamic
loading.
c) It supports both tailstock and carriage and facilitates its movement
when necessary.

ii) HEADSTOCK
a) It holds the job on the spindle and rotates it at different speeds either
by concentrated pulley or by all gear drive.
b) It transmits power from the headstock spindle to the feed rod and a
lead screw for automatic feeding and thread cutting mechanism.
c) There is a hole which extends through the spindle for long bar works.

iii) TAILSTOCK
a) It supports the other end of long job when machined in between
centres and minimise its sagging.
b) It holds the tool for performing different operations such as drilling,
boring, riming, tapping etc.
c) Small amount of tapper for a long job may be done by offsetting the
tail stock.

iv) CARRIAGE

a) It holds, moves and controls the cutting tool.

b) It gives the rigid support to the tool during operation.
c) It transfers power from feed rod to cutting tool through apron
mechanism for longitudinal cross feeding.

v) FEED MECHANISM
 a) It moves the carriage or cross slide for different operation such as
turning, boring, facing, grooving, parting off etc except thread cutting.

b) It gives the tool leverage to move longitudinal, cross and angular by

hand feeding.

c) It also facilitates the automotive longitudinal and cross feeding.

vi) THREAD CUTTING MECHANISM

a) There is a long threaded screw shaft named as screw leadscrew used

for thread cutting.

b) This leadscrew may be used to provide motion to the cutting tool for
turning, boring, reaming etc. when the machine is not equipped with the
feed rod.

2. RADIAL DRILLING MACHINE

The radial drilling machine is invented to drilling medium to large heavy
workpiece. It consists of a heavy round vertical column mounted on the large
base. The column supports a radial arm which can be raised and lowered to
accommodate workpiece of different height. The arm may be swing around to
any position the work bed. The drill had containing mechanism for rotating
feeding the drill is mounted on the radial arm and can be moved horizontally
on the guide ways and then can be clamped at any desired position. These
three movements in a radial drilling machine when combined together permit
the drill to be located at any desired point on a large workpiece for drilling the
hole. When several holes are drilled on a large workpiece, the position of the
arm on the drill head is altered so that the drill spindle may be moved from
one position to another.

3. GRINDING MACHINES
Grinding is a process carried out with a grinding wheel made up of abrasive
grains for removing very fine quantities of material from the workpiece
surface. The required size of abrasive grains are thoroughly mixed with the
bonding material and then pressed into a disc shape of given diameter and
thickness. This can be compared to a milling process with an infinite number
of cutting edges.

The different types of grinding machines are :

1. Cylindrical grinding m/c

2. Centre less grinding m/c
3. Surface grinding m/c
 4.CYLINDRICAL GRINDING MACHINE
It is used generally for producing external cylindrical surfaces. The machine is
very similar to a centre lathe. Typical measurements in a cylindrical grinding m/c
are shown in figure. The grinding wheel is located in a way similar to the tool
post with an independent power and is driven at high speed suitable for grinding
operation. Both the work and the grinding wheel rotate counter clockwise. The
work that is normally held between centre is rotated at much lower speed
compared to that of the grinding wheel as shown in figure.

In this type of grinding m/c , two type of operations can be done which are :

1. Transverse grinding

The work is rotated or the wheel feeds to produce cylinders

and is longer than the width of the wheel face.

2. Plunge grinding

The work rotates in a fixed position as the wheel feeds to

produce cylinders of a length equal to or shorter than the
width of the wheel.

5.CENTRELESS GRINDING M/C

It is a method of grinding exterior cylindrical, tapered and formed surfaces on
workpieces that are not held and rotated on centres. The principle elements of
external centreless grinding are the grinding wheel, the regulating wheel and the
work rest. Both wheels are rotated in the same direction. The work rest is located
in between the wheels. The work is placed upon the work rest and the latter,
together with the regulating wheel, is fed forward, forcing the work against the
grinding wheel.

6.MILLING MACHINE
Milling is the process of machining flat, curved or irregular surface by feeding the
workpiece against a rotating cutter containing a number of cutting edges. The
milling machine consists basically of a motor driven spindle, which mounts and
revolves the milling cutter, and a reciprocating adjustable worktable, which
mounts and feeds the workpiece.

Milling machines are basically classified as vertical or horizontal. These machines

are also classified as Knee-type, Ram-type, Bed-type, and Planar type. Most
milling machines have self-contained electric drive motors, coolant systems,
variable spindle speeds, and power operated table feeds.
RESULT
All machine tools are thoroughly studied.

EXPERIMENT 2
AIM:

To study the effect of cutting speed, feed, depth of cut and rake angle on
cutting ratio and shear angle.

APPARATUS:

Lathe, Vernier Calliper, Cutting tool, Thread and Ruler

THEORY:

Irrespective of basic nature of the chip obtained during machining of

metal, the main factor governing the formation of chips is the plastic
deformation of the metal by a shear process. The deformation of metal
occurs along a plane just ahead of the tool and running upto free work
surface. After passing out the shear plane, the deformed metal slides along the
tool face due to velocity of cutting tool. The size of shear zone is thick is the
metal is machined at low cutting speed and vice versa.
During orthogonal cutting, the tool moves with a velocity V C against the
work, thereby shears the metal along the shear plane AB. The out coming
chip of thickness t2 experiences two velocity components Vs and Vf along the tool
face and shear plane. The undeformed chip thickness is t, which is actually
the feed in certain machinery operations. From the above configuration, it is
possible to compute the value of shear angle () in terms of measurable
parameters t1, t2 and

From the right angled triangle, ABC,

AB = t1/sin() Where = shear angle

Further, from the right angled triangle, ABD,

sin(90 + ) = t2/AB

Therefore, AB = t2/sin(90 + )

where, = rake angle

t1/sin() = t2/cos( )

t1/t2 = sin()/cos( )
rc = sin()/cos( )

rc =sin()/(coscos + sinsin)

1/rc= (cos()cos() + sin()sin())/sin()

1/rc=cot()cos() + sin() Where rc = cutting ratio

tan = rccos()/(1 - rcsin())

The chip thickness ratio can also be expressed in a different way. Let l 2 be the
length of the cut chip which was l 1 before the cut. As he volume remains
constant, it can be written that:

L1t1b1 = l2b2t2

where b1 is the width of cut and b2 is the width of chip. If there is no side flow of
metal, b1 = b2.

Therefore, l1t1 = l2t2

Or l1/l2 = t2/t1

PROCEDURE:

1. Perform a turning operation on lathe and using a sharp tool, perform

orthogonal cutting.
2. Obtain the chip produced.
3. With the help of a thread and ruler, measure the length and breadth.
4. Calculate t1/t2 using above relation and hence find rc.
5. Calculate using
=tan-1[ rccos()/(1 - rcsin())]
6. Perform above steps at different speeds, feeds and depth of cut.

RESULT:

The effect of speeds, feeds, depths of cut, Rake angles on cutting ratio r c and
shear angle has been shown.

DISCUSSIONS AND ANALYSIS:

EFFECT OF CUTTING SPEED:

The cutting ratio increases as the cutting speed increases. The chip
becomes thinner and area of shear plane is reduced. The forces
required to produce the chip becomes smaller as the cutting speed
is increased. So, as the cutting speed is increased, specific energy
reduces, resulting in higher efficiencies.

EFFECT OF FEED:
 At larger feeds, the specific cuting energy P s and the shear strength
of the work increases. Ts remains constant but at low feeds, Ps and
Ts both increase. This is due to tool nose force.

EFFECT OF RAKE ANGLE:

As the rake angle increases the shear angle also increases. The
specific cuting energy Ps decreases as the rake angle increases.
The friction angle also increases as the rake angle increases. As
increases, the stress at the tool tip interface decreases and since
frictional stress remains constant , increases.

EXPERIMENT - 3

Aim:
To determine tool life of a given HSS tool.

Apparatus:

HSS Tool, Lathe, workpiece, measuring instrument (Tool makers microscope),

stop watch.

Theory:

New tool has sharp cutting edges and smooth flanks. When put into operation, it
gets subjected to cutting forces that are concentrated over a relatively small
contact area on the rake face and flank. Also, the chip slides over the rake face
and the Machined surface rubs past its flank. The temperatures over the contact
surfaces are pretty high. Each time the tool enters or exit from the court, it is
subjected to mechanical as well as thermal shock. Under such adverse
conditions, the hard to like HSS and carbides gradually wear out and then
fracture.

There are mainly two types of tool wear:

a) Crater wear: It occurs on the rake face of the tool in the form of a pit called as
crater. The crater is formed at some distance away from the cutting edge.
Careful measurements have shown that the location of maximum cratering and
maximum chip tool inter facial temperature coincide with each other. It may
therefore be assumed that cratering is a temperature dependent phenomenon
caused by diffusion, adhesion, etc. The crater significantly reduces the strength
of the tool and may lead to its total failure.

b) Flank wear: Wear on the flank of cutting tool is caused by friction between the
newly machined workpiece surface and the contact area on the tool flank.
Because of the rigidity of the workpiece, the worn area, referred to as the flank
wear land, must be parallel to the resultant cutting direction. The width of the
wear land is usually taken as a measure of the amount of wear and can be
readily determined by means of a tool maker's microscope.

Figure shows a typical graph of the progress of flank wear land width time or
distance cut. The curve can be divided into these regions:-

1. The region AB where the sharp cutting edge is quickly broken down and a
finite wear land is established.

2. The region BC where wear progresses at a uniform rate.

3. The region CD where wear occurs at a gradually increasing rate.

Region CD is thought to indicate the region where the wear of the cutting tool
has become sensitive to the increased tool temperatures caused by the
pressures in practice, it is advisable to regrind the tool before the flank wear
enters the last region where rapid breakdown occurs.

Chipping: Chipping refers to the breaking away of small chips from the cutting
edge of a tool an insert on account of impact ,excessive plastic deformation,
transient thermal stresses and flank wear land of the. The cutting edge appears
jagged or there are cavities or depressions in the wear land, it means chipping
has occurred.

High speed steel: At low cutting speeds, the cutting temperatures are low. The
maximum mode of wear is then adhesion and abrasion. Adhesion wear is more
rapid in operations involving interrupted cuts.

At higher cutting speeds, when cutting steel and often high melting point metals,
the tool temperatures rise above 700 Celsius. The HSS thus softens and plastic
deformation under cutting loads becomes possible. Crater wear also becomes
pronounced due to enhanced diffusion at higher temperatures.

Common Criteria for High Speed Steel of Ceramic Tools

The criteria recommended by the ISO to define the effective tool life for high
speed steel tools or ceramic tools are:

1. Catastrophic failure or

2. VB=0.3 mm if the flank is regularly worn on zone B or

3. VB max=0.6 mm if the flank is irregularly worn and chipped or badly grooved

in zone B.

Common Criteria for Sintered Carbide Tools

For sintered carbide tools following are recommended:

1) VB=0.3mm, or

2) VB max=0.6mm if the flank is irregularly worn in zone B,

3) Kt=0.06+0.3f, where f is feed.

Tool Life

Tool life generally indicates, the amount of satisfactory performance or service

rendered by a fresh tool or a cutting point till it is declared failed.

Tool life is defined in two ways:

a In R & D: Actual machining time (period) by which a fresh cutting tool (or
point) satisfactorily works after which it needs replacement or
reconditioning. The modern tools hardly fail prematurely or abruptly by
mechanical breakage or rapid plastic deformation. Those fail mostly by
wearing process which systematically grows slowly with machining time. In
that case, tool life means the span of actual machining time by which a
fresh tool can work before attaining the specified limit of tool wear.

b In industries or shop floor: The length of time of satisfactory service or

amount of acceptable output provided by a fresh tool prior to it is required
to replace or recondition.

Tool Life Equation

The Taylor's Equation for Tool Life Expectancy provides a good approximation.

A more general form of the equation is

where

=cutting speed

T=tool life

D=depth of cut

S=feed rate

x and y are determined experimentally

n and C are constants found by experimentation or published data;

they are properties of tool material, workpiece and feed rate.
Factors affecting tool life:

1. Tool material: the properties of tool material which enhance its life are:

i High hot hardness to resist deformation, adhesion, abrasion.

ii Toughness

iii Wear Resistance

iv Lack of chemical affinity with the work material

v High thermal conductivity

vi High specific heat

vii Low coefficient of thermal expansion

2. Work material: the properties of work material that tend to increase tool life
are:

i Softness

ii Absence of abrasive constituents

iii Presence of additives which help in lubrication

iv Lack of work hardening tendency

v Favorable microstructure

3. Cutting speed: High cutting speed increases tool temperature and softens the
tool material. It thereby aids abrasive, adhesive and diffusion wear. So tool life
decreases on increasing the speeds as given by Taylors equation.

VTn = C

4. Feed: Larger the feed, greater is the cutting force per unit area of the chip tool
contact on the rake face and work tool contact on the flank face. Cutting
temperature and therefore, the various types of wear are increased. Hence tool
life decreases.

5. Depth of cut: If the depth of cut is increased the area of chip tool contact
increases roughly in equal proportion to the change in depth of cut.
Consequently the rise in tool temperature is relatively small. Thus, an increase in
the depth of cut shortens tool life to some extent by accelerating the abrasive,
adhesive and differential types of tool wear.
6. Tool geometry: rake angles, cutting edge angles, relief angles and nose radius
affect tool life by varying degrees. The rake angle increases when the side rake
angle or the back rake angle or both are increased. The cutting forces, tool
temperatures and tool wear decrease with increase in the rake angle.
Consequently, tool life improves when rake angles are increased. However,
larger rake angles make the cutting edge sharper and reduce its mechanical
strength making the tool liable to chipping. Therefore, there is an optimum rake
angle associated with every tool work pair.

7. Cutting Fluid: cutting fluid lowers the cutting temperatures and hence
decreases the wear and increase tool life of the tool.

Procedure:
1 Make a mark on measuring device where the cross bar point and tool point
coincide. Now, relative to this mark, all the readings will be taken.
2 Perform turning operation on the lathe tool, using the HSS tool for about
one minute.
3 After doing this remove the burrs from the tool using grinding wheel.
4 Put the tool again on the measuring equipment and adjust in such a way
that tool point again coincides with cross base.
5 Repeat step 2 to 4 for 2 min and 3 min. machining time.
6 Find the tool life.
7 Using Taylors equation, plot the graph.

Observations:

Rpm =
Feed =
Depth of Cut =
L.C. of Micrometer =
Workpiece material =
Tool Material =

Reading (inch) Cumulat

Cumulati
S.N Time Wear ive
ve Time
o. (min) MSR VSR TSR (inch) Wear
(min)
(inch)

Discussion and analysis:

The progress of flank wear during machining is characterized by three stages:
 1 The initial breakdown stage, where the sharp cutting edge is rapidly
broken down and a tool wear land of finite dimensions established.
2 The middle stage, where wear occurs at a uniform rate.
3 The final rapid breakdown stage, where it is thought, the tool wears at an
increasing rate due to rapidly increasing temperatures generated by
friction between the flank wear land and transient surface on the
workpiece.

Result:
Tool life phenomenon for a HSS tool has been thoroughly studied. The graph
between wear and time has been plotted.

EXPERIMENT 4

AIM: To study the effect of cutting speed, feed and drill diameter on the thrust
and torque in radial drilling machine.

APPARATUS: Radial drilling machine, different drills, drill chuck, drill

dynamometer.

THEORY: The radial drilling machine is intended for drilling medium to large
and heavy work pieces. It consists of a heavy, round, vertical column mounted
on a large base. The column supports a radial arm which can be raised and
lowered to accommodate work pieces of different heights. The arm may be
swung around to ny position over the work bed. The drill head containing
mechanism for rotating and feeding the drill is mounted on the radial arm and
can be moved horizontally on the guide ways and then clamped to any desired
position. These three movements in a radial drilling machine when combined
together permit the drill to be located at any desired point on a large workpiece
for drilling the hole when several holes are drilled on a large workpiece, the
position of the arm and the drill head is altered so that the drill spindle may be
moved from one position to another.

Cutting speed refers to the speed at which tool point of the cutter moves with
respect to the work measured in feet per minute. Feed is the rate at which the
work moves into the cutter measured in feed per tooth revolution. Reeds and
speeds affect the time to finish a cut, tool life, finish of the machined surface,
and power required of the machine.

The cutting speed is mostly determined by the material to be cut and the
material of the tool. To calculate the proper spindle speed, divide the desired
cutting speed by the circumference of the tool (or of the part if it is rotating)
expressed in feet. The feed rate depends on the width and depth of cut, finish
desired and many other variables. To calculate the desired feed setting from the
feed rate, multiply feed per tooth per revolution by number of teeth and rpm of
the spindle.

Axis: The imaginary straight line which forms the longitudinal centre line of the
drill.
Back Taper: A slight decrease in diameter from front to back in the body of the
drill.
Body: The portion of the drill extending from the shank or neck to the outer
corners of the cutting lips.
Body diameter clearance: That portion of the land that has been cut away so
it will not rub against the walls of the hole.
Built-up edge: An adhering deposit of nascent material on the cutting lip or the
point of the drill.
Cam relief: The relief from the cutting edge to the back of the land produced by
a cam actuated tool or grinding wheel.
Chip breaker: nicks or grooves designed to reduce the size of chips, they may
be steps or grooves in the cutting lip or in the leading face of the land at or
adjacent to the cutting lip.
Chip packing: the failure of chips to pass through the flute during cutting
action.
Chipping: the breakdown of cutting lip or margin by loss of fragments broken
away during the cutting action.
Chisel edge: the edge at the end of the web that connects the cutting lip.
Chisel edge angle: The angle included between the chisel edge and the cutting
lip, as viewed from the end of the drill.
Clearance: the space provided to eliminate undesirable contact between the
drill and the work piece.
Clearance diameter: The diameter over the cutting away portion of the drill
lands.
Drill diameter: the diameter over the margins of the drill measured at the
point.
Flutes: Helical or straight groves cut or formed in the body of the drill to provide
cutting lips, to permit removal of chips and to allow cutting fluid to reach the
back cutting lips.
Flute length: the length from the outer corners of the cutting chips to the
extreme back end of the flutes; it includes the sweep of the tool used to
generate the flutes and therefore, does not indicate the usable length of the
flutes.
Helix angle: the angle made by the leading edge of the land with a plane
containing the axis of the drill.
Land: The peripheral portion of the body between adjacent flutes.

Land width: The distance between the leading edge and the need of the land
measured at a right angle to the leading edge.

Lead: The axial advance of a leading edge of the land in one turn around the
circumference.

Lips: The cutting edges of a two flute drill extending from the lead edge to the
periphery.

Lip relief: The axial relief on the drill point.

Lip relief angle: The axial relief angle at the outer corner of the lip.

Margin: The cylindrical portion of the land which is not cut away to provide
clearance.

Point angle: The angle included between the cutting lips projected upon a
plane parallel to the drill axes and parallel to cutting lips.

Shank: The part of the drill by which it is held and driven.

Tang: The flattened end of a taper shank centred at one side.

Force and torque in drilling

Like any other metal cutting tool when in operation the drill is subjected to a
turning couple T and axial thrust F. The parameters which influence torque
and thrust acting on a drill are:

a. Drill diameter(d)
b. Feed, mm/rev
c. Helix angle()
d. Number of cutting edges(n)
e. Point angle(2)
f. Work material and its structure
g. Depth of cut(d/2)
h. Cutting fluid
i. Drill sharpness

The torque acting on a drill is due to the following actions:

a. Cutting along the lips of the drill.

b. Cutting at the chisel
c. Extrusion at chisel edge

The torque acting on the drill is determined by using the expression:

T=C1d1.9f0.8 kg.mm

Where

C1=Constant,
For Carbon Steel C1=33.8

For Cast Iron C1=23.3

The thrust acting on the drill is also due to the above mentioned three factors

Thrust on the drill is given as

F=C2df0.7

Where

C2 = constant

Its value is

C2=84.9 for carbon steel

C2= 60.5 for C.I.

According to Shaw and Oxford

T 0.3 f 0.8 1x 2 1.8

3
= 1.2 [ 0.2
+32 x ]
d ( Hb ) d ( 1+ x )

Also

F 0.55 f 0.8 1x
2
= 1.2
[ 0.2
+2.2 x 0.8 ]
d ( Hb ) d ( 1+ x )

Where

T= Torque , kgf.cm

F=Thrust ,kgf

D=Drill diameter, mm

Hb=Brinell hardness of the work material

F= feed, mm/rev

x=closed edge length/drill diameter

Observations:
L.C. of dial indicator for force = 1 micron
L.C. of dial indicator for torque = 1 micron

Drill dia = 8mm feed=0.12m/sec

Cutting Speed Force/thrust (kgf) Torque (kgfm)

220 0.75 2
300 1 3
440 4.75 3.2

Feed=0.12mm/sec rpm=300

Drill Dia Force/Thrust (kgf) Torque (kgfm)

8 1 3
10 3 4.5
12 5 6.5

Drill dia = 8mm rpm=300

Feed (mm/rev) Force/Thrust (kgf) Torque (kgfm)

0.12 1 3
0.2 6 4
0.3 7 5

Result:
The effect of cutting speed, Feed and Drill diameter on Thrust and Torque on Drill
is studied and relevant graphs are plotted.

Discussion and Analysis:

Effect of cutting speed on thrust and Torque

As the cutting speed increases the force also increases, but becomes nearly
constant after a certain speed. Similarly torque also increases initially as the
speed increases but later on it starts decreasing with further increase in the
speed.

Effect of feed on Thrust and Torque

As the feed (mm/rev) given is increased, force acts on the drill also increases
linearly and hence a straight line is obtained. Similar is the case with the torque,
as the speed and feed increases, the torque also increases though it may not be
a linear graph.

Effect of drill diameter on Thrust and Torque

As the diameter of the drill increases the force and torque also increases. Force
v/s drill diameter graph comes out to be a straight line but has lesser slope than
that of force v/s drill diameter graph. Indicating that the increase in force due to
increase in drill diameter is more than torque.