Tipler Perguntas e Respostas

Chapter 13
Fluids
Conceptual Problems
1 If the gauge pressure is doubled, the absolute pressure will be

(a) halved, (b) doubled, (c) unchanged, (d) increased by a factor greater than 2,
(e) increased by a factor less than 2.
Determine the Concept The absolute pressure is related to the gauge pressure
according to P = Pgauge + Pat .
Prior to doubling the gauge pressure, P = Pgauge + Pat Pgauge = P Pat

the absolute pressure is given by:
Doubling the gauge pressure results in P ' = 2 Pgauge + Pat

an absolute pressure given by:
Substituting for Pgauge yields: P ' = 2(P Pat ) + Pat = 2 P Pat
Because P ' = 2 P Pat , doubling the gauge pressure results in an increase in the
absolute pressure by a factor less than 2. (e) is correct.
2 Two spherical objects differ in size and mass. Object A has a mass that
is eight times the mass of object B. The radius of object A is twice the radius of
object B. How do their densities compare? (a) A > B , (b) A < B ,
(c) A = B , (d) not enough information is given to compare their densities.
Determine the Concept The density of A

an object is its mass per unit volume.
The pictorial representation shown to B
the right summarizes the information
8m r m
concerning the radii and masses of the 2r
two spheres. We can determine the

relationship between the densities of A
and B by examining their ratio.
Express the densities of the two mA m

spheres: A = = 4 A3
VA 3 rA
and
mB m
B = = 4 B3
VB 3 rB
1271
1272 Chapter 13
Divide the first of these equations by mA

the second and simplify to obtain: A rA3 mA rB3
4
= 3
=
B mB mB rA3
3 rB
4 3
Substituting for the masses and radii A 8m r 3

and simplifying yields: = = 1 A = B
B m (2r )3
and (c ) is correct.
3 [SSM] Two objects differ in density and mass. Object A has a mass
that is eight times the mass of object B. The density of object A is four times the
density of object B. How do their volumes compare? (a) VA = 12 VB , (b) VA = VB ,
(c) VA = 2VB, (d) not enough information is given to compare their volumes.
Determine the Concept The density of an object is its mass per unit volume. We
can determine the relationship between the volumes of A and B by examining
their ratio.
Express the volumes of the two mA mB

objects: VA = and VB =
A B
Divide the first of these equations by mA

the second and simplify to obtain: VA A B mA
= =
VB m B A m B
B
Substituting for the masses and VA 8mB

densities and simplifying yields: = B = 2 VA = 2VB
VB 4 B m B
and (c ) is correct.
4 A sphere is constructed by gluing together two hemispheres of

different density materials. The density of each hemisphere is uniform, but the
density of one is greater than the density of the other. True or false: The average
density of the sphere is the numerical average of the two different densities.
Clearly explain your reasoning.
Determine the Concept True. This is a special case. Because the volumes are
equal, the average density is the numerical average of the two densities. This is
not a general result.
Fluids 1273
5 In several jungle adventure movies, the hero and heroine escape the
bad guys by hiding underwater for extended periods of time. To do this, they
breathe through long vertical hollow reeds. Imagine that in one movie, the water
is so clear that to be safely hidden the two are at a depth of 15 m. As a science
consultant to the movie producers, you tell them that this is not a realistic depth
and the knowledgeable viewer will laugh during this scene. Explain why this is
so.
Determine the Concept Pressure increases approximately 1 atm every 10 m in

fresh water. To breathe requires creating a pressure of less than 1 atm in your
lungs. At the surface you can do this easily, but not at a depth of 10 m.
6 Two objects are balanced as in Figure 13-28. The objects have

identical volumes but different masses. Assume all the objects in the figure are
denser than water and thus none will float. Will the equilibrium be disturbed if the
entire system is completely immersed in water? Explain your reasoning.
Determine the Concept Yes. Because the volumes of the two objects are equal,
the downward force on each side is reduced by the same amount (the buoyant
force acting on them) when they are submerged. The buoyant force is independent
of their masses. That is, if m1L1 = m2L2 and L1 L2, then (m1 c)L1 (m2 c)L2.
7 [SSM] A solid 200-g block of lead and a solid 200-g block of copper
are completely submerged in an aquarium filled with water. Each block is
suspended just above the bottom of the aquarium by a thread. Which of the
following is true?
(a) The buoyant force on the lead block is greater than the buoyant force on the
copper block.
(b) The buoyant force on the copper block is greater than the buoyant force on
the lead block.
( c) The buoyant force is the same on both blocks.
(d) More information is needed to choose the correct answer.
Determine the Concept The buoyant forces acting on these submerged objects
are equal to the weight of the water each displaces. The weight of the displaced
water, in turn, is directly proportional to the volume of the submerged object.
Because Pb > Cu, the volume of the copper must be greater than that of the lead
and, hence, the buoyant force on the copper is greater than that on the lead.
(b) is correct.
8 A 20-cm3 block of lead and a 20-cm3 block of copper are completely

submerged in an aquarium filled with water. Each is suspended just above the
bottom of the aquarium by a thread. Which of the following is true?
1274 Chapter 13
(a) The buoyant force on the lead block is greater than the buoyant force on the
copper block..
(b) The buoyant force on the copper block is greater than the buoyant force on
the lead block.
(c) The buoyant force is the same on both blocks.
(d) More information is needed to choose the correct answer.
Determine the Concept The buoyant forces acting on these submerged objects
are equal to the weight of the water each displaces. The weight of the displaced
water, in turn, is directly proportional to the volume of the submerged object.
Because their volumes are the same, the buoyant forces on them must be the
same. (c) is correct.
9 Two bricks are completely submerged in water. Brick 1 is made of

lead and has rectangular dimensions of 2 4 8. Brick 2 is made of wood and
has rectangular dimensions of 1 8 8. True or false: The buoyant force on
brick 2 is larger than the buoyant force on brick 1.
Determine the Concept False. The buoyant force on a submerged object depends
on the weight of the displaced fluid which, in turn, depends on the volume of the
displaced fluid. Because the bricks have the same volume, they will displace the
same volume of water and the buoyant force will be the same on both of them.
10 Figure 13-29 shows an object called a Cartesian diver. The diver

consists of a small tube, open at the bottom, with an air bubble at the top, inside a
closed plastic soda bottle that is partly filled with water. The diver normally
floats, but sinks when the bottle is squeezed hard. (a) Explain why this happens.
(b) Explain the physics behind how a submarine can silently sink vertically
simply by allowing water to flow into empty tanks near its keel. (c) Explain why a
floating person will oscillate up and down on the water surface as he or she
breathes in and out.
Determine the Concept
(a) When the bottle is squeezed, the force is transmitted equally through the fluid,
leading to a pressure increase on the air bubble in the diver. The air bubble
shrinks, and the loss in buoyancy is enough to sink the diver.
(b) As water enters its tanks, the weight of the submarine increases. When the
submarine is completely submerged, the volume of the displaced water and,
hence, the buoyant force acting on the submarine become constant. Because the
weight of the submarine is now greater than the buoyant force acting on it, the
submarine will start to sink.
Fluids 1275
(c) Breathing in lowers ones average density and breathing out increases ones
average density. Because denser objects float lower on the surface than do less
dense objects, a floating person will oscillate up and down on the water surface as
he or she breathes in and out.
11 A certain object has a density just slightly less than that of water so
that it floats almost completely submerged. However, the object is more
compressible than water. What happens if the floating object is given a slight
downward push? Explain.
Determine the Concept Because the pressure increases with depth, the object
will be compressed and its density will increase as its volume decreases. Thus, the
object will sink to the bottom.
12 In Example 13.11 the fluid is accelerated to a greater speed as it enters

the narrow part of the pipe. Identify the forces that act on the fluid at the entrance
to the narrow region to produce this acceleration.
Determine the Concept The acceleration-producing force acting on the fluid is

the product of the difference in pressure between the wide and narrow parts of the
pipe and the area of the narrow part of the pipe.
13 [SSM] An upright glass of water is accelerating to the right along a

flat, horizontal surface. What is the origin of the force that produces the
acceleration on a small element of water in the middle of the glass? Explain by
using a diagram. Hint: The water surface will not remain level as long as the
glass of water is accelerating. Draw a free body diagram of the small element of
water.
Determine the Concept The pictorial representation shows the glass and an
element of water in the middle of the glass. As is readily established by a simple
demonstration, the surface of the water is not level while the glass is accelerated,
showing that there is a pressure gradient (a difference in pressure) due to the
differing depths (h1 > h2 and hence F1 > F2) of water on the two sides of the
element of water. This pressure gradient results in a net force on the element as
shown in the figure. The upward buoyant force is equal in magnitude to the
downward gravitational force.
1276 Chapter 13
h1 Fr
g h2
r r
F1 F2
r
Fb
14 You are sitting in a boat floating on a very small pond. You take the
anchor out of the boat and drop it into the water. Does the water level in the pond
rise, fall, or remain the same? Explain your answer.
Determine the Concept The water level in the pond will fall slightly. When the
anchor is in the boat, the boat displaces enough water so that the buoyant force on
it equals the sum of the weight of the boat, your weight, and the weight of the
anchor. When you drop the anchor into the water, it displaces just its volume of
water (rather than its weight as it did while in the boat). The total weight of the
boat becomes less and the boat displaces less water as a consequence.
15 A horizontal pipe narrows from a diameter of 10 cm at location A to

5.0 cm at location B. For a nonviscous incompressible fluid flowing without
turbulence from location A to location B, how do the flow speeds v (in m/s) at the
two locations compare? (a) vA = vB , (b) vA = 12 vB , (c) vA = 14 vB , (d) vA = 2vB ,
(e) vA = 4vB
Determine the Concept We can use the equation of continuity to compare the
flow rates at the two locations.
Apply the equation of continuity at AB

locations A and B to obtain: AA vA = AB vB vA = vB
AA
Substitute for AB and AA and d B21

d
2
simplify to obtain: vA = 4
v = B vB
d A2 B
1
4 dA
Fluids 1277
Substitute numerical values and 5 cm

2
evaluate vA: vA = vB = 14 vB
10 cm
and (c) is correct.
16 A horizontal pipe narrows from a diameter of 10 cm at location A to

5.0 cm at location B. For a nonviscous incompressible fluid flowing without
turbulence from location A to location B, how do the pressures P (in N/m2) at the
two locations compare? (a) PA = PB , (b) PA = 12 PB , (c) PA = 14 PB , (d) PA = 2PB ,
(e) PA = 4PB , (f) There is not enough information to compare the pressures
quantitatively.
Determine the Concept We can use the equation of continuity to compare the
flow rates at the two locations.
Apply Bernoullis equation for PA + 12 vA2 = PB + 12 vB2 (1)

constant elevations at locations A
and B to obtain:
Apply the equation of continuity at AB

locations A and B to obtain: AA vA = AB vB vA = vB
AA
Substitute for AB and AA and d B2

1
d
2
simplify to obtain: vA = 4
v = B vB
d A
1
4
2 B
dA
Substituting for vA in equation (1) d 2 2

yields: PA + 12 B vB = PB + 12 vB2
dA

While the values of dB, dA, and are known to us, we need a value for vB (or vA)
in order to compare PA and PB. Hence ( f ) is correct.
17 [SSM] Figure 13-30 is a diagram of a prairie dog tunnel. The

geometry of the two entrances are such that entrance 1 is surrounded by a mound
and entrance 2 is surrounded by flat ground. Explain how the tunnel remains
ventilated, and indicate in which direction air will flow through the tunnel.
1278 Chapter 13
Determine the Concept The mounding around entrance 1 will cause the
streamlines to curve concave downward over the entrance. An upward pressure
gradient produces the downward centripetal force. This means there is a lowering
of the pressure at entrance 1. No such lowering occurs aver entrance 2, so the
pressure there is higher than the pressure at entrance 1. The air circulates in
entrance 2 and out entrance 1. It has been demonstrated that enough air will
circulate inside the tunnel even with slightest breeze outside.
Estimation and Approximation

18 Your undergraduate research project involves atmospheric sampling.
The sampling device has a mass of 25.0 kg. Estimate the diameter of a helium-
filled balloon required to lift the device off the ground. Neglect the mass of the
balloon skin and the small buoyancy force on the device itself.
Picture the Problem We can use Archimedes principle and the condition for
vertical equilibrium to estimate the diameter of the helium-filled balloon that
would just lift the sampling device.
Express the equilibrium condition Fbouyant = B = Fgravitational = mg (1)

that must be satisfied if the balloon-
payload is to just lift off:
Using Archimedes principle, B = wdisplaced fluid = mdisplaced fluid g

express the buoyant force B:
= airVballoon g
Substituting for B in equation (1) airVballoon g = mg

yields: or
airVballoon = m (2)
The total mass m to be lifted is the m = mp + mHe = mp + HeVballoon

sum of the mass of the payload mp
and the mass of the helium mHe:
Substitute for m in equation (2) to airVballoon = mp + HeVballoon

obtain:
Solving for Vballoon yields: mp

Vballoon =
air He
The volume of the balloon is given Vballoon = 43 r 3 = 16 d 3

by:
Fluids 1279
Substituting for Vballoon yields: mp 6mp

1
d3 = d = 3
6
air He ( air He )
Substitute numerical values and 6(25.0 kg )

d =3
evaluate d:
(
1.293 kg/m 3 0.179 kg/m 3 )
= 3.50 m
19 Your friend wants to start a business giving hot-air balloon rides. The
empty balloon, the basket and the occupants have a total maximum mass of
1000 kg. If the balloon has a diameter of 22.0 m when fully inflated with hot air,
estimate the required density of the hot air. Neglect the buoyancy force on the
basket and people.
Picture the Problem We can use Archimedes principle and the condition for
vertical equilibrium to estimate the density of the hot air that would enable the
balloon and its payload to lift off.
Express the equilibrium condition Fbouyant = B = Fgravitational = mg (1)

that must be satisfied if the balloon-
payload is to just lift off:
Using Archimedes principle, B = wdisplaced fluid = mdisplaced fluid g

express the buoyant force B:
= airVballoon g
Substituting for B in equation (1) airVballoon g = mg airVballoon = m (2)

yields:
The total mass m to be lifted is the m = mp + mhot air = mp + hot airVballoon

sum of the mass of the payload mp
and the mass of the hot air:
Substitute for m in equation (2) to airVballoon = mp + hot airVballoon

obtain:
Solving for hot air and simplifying airVballoon mp mp

yields: hot air = = air
Vballoon Vballoon
The volume of the balloon is given Vballoon = 43 r 3 = 16 d 3

by:
Substituting for Vballoon yields: mp 6mp

hot air = air = air
1
6 d 3
d3
1280 Chapter 13
Substitute numerical values and 6(1000 kg )

evaluate hot air:
hot air = 1.293 kg/m 3
(22.0 m )3
= 1.11 kg/m 3
Remarks: As expected, the density of the hot air is considerably less than the
density of the surrounding cooler air.
Density
20 Find the mass of a solid lead sphere with a radius equal to 2.00 cm.
Picture the Problem The mass of the sphere is the product of its density and
volume. The density of lead can be found in Figure 13-1.
Using the definition of density, (

m = V = 43 R 3 )
express the mass of the sphere:
Substitute numerical values and ( )(

m = 43 11.3 10 3 kg/m 3 2.00 10 2 m ) 3
evaluate m:
= 0.379 kg
21 [SSM] Consider a room measuring 4.0 m 5.0 m 4.0 m. Under

normal atmospheric conditions at Earths surface, what would be the mass of the
air in the room?
Picture the Problem The mass of the air in the room is the product of its density
and volume. The density of air can be found in Figure 13-1.
Use the definition of density to m = V = LWH

express the mass of the air in the
room:
Substitute numerical values and m = (1.293 kg/m 3 )(4.0 m )(5.0 m )(4.0 m )

evaluate m: = 1.0 10 2 kg
22 An average neutron star has approximately the same mass as the Sun,
but is compressed into a sphere of radius roughly 10 km. What would be the
approximate mass of a teaspoonful of matter that dense?
Picture the Problem We can use the definition of density to find the approximate
mass of a teaspoonful of matter from a neutron star. Assume that the volume of a
teaspoon is about 5 mL.
Fluids 1281
Use the definition of density to m = Vteaspoon (1)

express the mass of a teaspoonful of
matter whose density is :
The density of the neutron star is mNS

NS =
given by: VNS
Substituting for mNS and VNS yields: mSun

NS =
3 rNS
4 3
Let = NS in equation (1) to obtain: 3mSunVteaspoon

m=
4 rNS
3
Substitute numerical values and

m=
( )(
3 1.99 10 30 kg 5 10 6 m 3 )
evaluate m: (
4 10 10 3 m )
3
2 Tg
23 A 50.0-g ball consists of a plastic spherical shell and a water-filled

core. The shell has an outside diameter equal to 50.0 mm and an inside diameter
equal to 20.0 mm. What is the density of the plastic?
Picture the Problem We can use the definition of density to find the density of
the plastic of which the spherical shell is constructed.
The density of the plastic is given mplastic

plastic = (1)
by: Vplastic
The mass of the plastic is the mplastic = mball mwater

difference between the mass of the
ball and the mass of its water-filled
core:
Use the definition of density to mwater = waterVwater

express the mass of the water:
Substituting for mwater yields: mplastic = mball waterVwater
Substitute for mplastic in equation (1) mball waterVwater

plastic =
to obtain: Vplastic
1282 Chapter 13
Because Vwater = 43 Rinside

3
and mball water ( 43 Rinside
3
)
plastic =
( ) 3 (Routside Rinside )
3 3
Vball = 43 Routside
3
Rinside
3
: 4
Substitute numerical values and evaluate plsstic:

50.0 g 1.00
cm
(
g 4
3 3
(10.0 mm )3 )
plastic = = 0.748 g/cm3
4
3 ( (
25 . 0 mm )3
(10 . 0 mm )3
)
24 A 60.0-mL flask is filled with mercury at 0C (Figure 13-31). When
the temperature rises to 80C, 1.47 g of mercury spills out of the flask. Assuming
that the volume of the flask stays constant, find the change in density of mercury
at 80C if its density at 0C is 13 645 kg/m3.
Picture the Problem We can use the definition of density to relate the change in
the density of the mercury to the amount spilled during the heating process.
The change in the density of the = 0 (1)

mercury as it is warmed is given by: where 0 is the density of the mercury
before it is warmed.
The density of the mercury before it m0

0 = (2)
is warmed is the ratio of its mass to V0
the volume it occupies:
The volume of the mercury that mspilled

Vspilled =
spills is the ratio of its mass to its
density at the higher temperature:
The density of the mercury at the m0 m0

= =
higher temperature is given by: V0 + Vspilled mspilled
V0 +

Solving for yields: m0 mspilled mspilled

= = 0 (3)
V0 V0
Substituting equations (2) and (3) in mspilled mspilled

= 0 0 =
equation (1) yields:
V0 V0
Fluids 1283
Substitute numerical values and 1.47 10 3 kg

= = 24.5 kg/m 3
evaluate : 60.0 10 6 m 3
25 One sphere is made of gold and has a radius rAu and another sphere is
made of copper and has a radius rCu. If the spheres have equal mass, what is the
ratio of the radii, rAu/ rCu?
Picture the Problem We can use the definition of density to find the ratio of the
radii of the two spheres. See Table 13-1 for the densities of gold and copper.
Use the definition of density to mAu = AuVAu = 43 Au rAu

3
express the mass of the gold sphere:
The mass of the copper sphere is mCu = CuVCu = 43 Cu rCu

3
given by:
3
Dividing the first of these equations mAu 43 Au rAu
3
rAu
by the second and simplifying yields: = 4 = Au
mCu 3 Cu rCu Cu
3
rCu
Solve for rAu/rCu to obtain: rAu m

= 3 Au Cu
rCu mCu Au
Because the spheres have the same rAu

= 3 Cu
mass: rCu Au
Substitute numerical values and rAu 8.93 kg/m 3

evaluate rAu/rCu: =3 = 0.773
rCu 19.3 kg/m 3
26 Since 1983, the US Mint has coined pennies that are made out of zinc
with a copper cladding. The mass of this type of penny is 2.50 g. Model the penny
as a uniform cylinder of height 1.23 mm and radius 9.50 mm. Assume the copper
cladding is uniformly thick on all surfaces. If the density of zinc is 7140 kg/m3
and that of copper is 8930 kg/m3, what is the thickness of the copper cladding?
Picture the Problem The pictorial representation shows a zinc penny with its
copper cladding. We can use the definition of density to relate the difference
between the mass of an all-copper penny and the mass of a copper-zinc penny to
the thickness d of the copper cladding.
1284 Chapter 13
Cu d
h
Zn
2r
Express the mass 0f the cladded m = mCu + mZn

penny:
In terms of the densities of copper m = CuVCu + Zn VZn

and zinc, our equation becomes:
Substituting for the volumes of zinc and copper gives:
[ ]
m = Cu 2r 2 d + 2r (h 2d )d + Zn (r d ) (h 2d )
2
Factor h and r from (h 2d) and (r d)2 to obtain:
2
2d 2 d 2d
m = Cu 2r 2 d + 2rh1 d + Zn r 1 h1
h r h
Assuming that d << h and d << r: [ ]

m Cu 2r 2 d + 2rhd + Zn r 2 h
Solving for d yields: m Znr 2 h

d=
2r Cu (r + h )
Substitute numerical values and evaluate d:
2.50 103 kg (7140 kg/m3 )(9.50 mm) (1.23 mm)

2
d= 1.7 m
2 (9.50 mm) (8930 kg/m3 )(9.50 mm + 1.23 mm)
Remarks: This small value for d (approximately 2 m) justifies our

assumptions that d is much smaller than both r and h.
Pressure
27 Barometer readings are commonly given in inches of mercury (inHg).
Find the pressure in inches of mercury equal to 101 kPa.
Picture the Problem The pressure due to a column of height h of a liquid of

density is given by P = gh.
Fluids 1285
Letting h represent the height of 101 kPa

Hg gh = 101 kPa h =
the column of mercury, express Hg g
the pressure at its base:
Substitute numerical values and 101 kPa

h=
evaluate h: (13.6 10 kg/m 3 )(9.81m/s 2 )
3
1in
= 0.7570 m
2.54 10 2 m
= 29.8 inHg
28 The pressure on the surface of a lake is Pat = 101 kPa. (a) At what
depth is the pressure 2Pat? (b) If the pressure at the top of a deep pool of mercury
is Pat, at what depth is the pressure 2Pat?
Picture the Problem The pressure due to a column of height h of a liquid of

density is given by P = gh. The pressure at any depth in a liquid is the sum of
the pressure at the surface of the liquid and the pressure due to the liquid at a
given depth in the liquid.
(a) Express the pressure as a function P Pat

P = Pat + water gh h =
of depth in the lake: water g
Substitute for P and simplify to 2 Pat Pat Pat

h= =
obtain: water g water g
Substitute numerical values and 101kPa

h=
evaluate h: ( )(
1.00 10 kg/m 3 9.81m/s 2
3
)
= 10.3 m
(b) Proceed as in (a) with water 2 Pat Pat P

h= = at
replaced by Hg to obtain: Hg g Hg g
Substitute numerical values and 101kPa

h=
evaluate h: ( )(
13.6 10 kg/m 3 9.81m/s 2
3
)
= 75.7 cm
29 When at cruising altitude, a typical airplane cabin will have an air

pressure equivalent to an altitude of about 2400 m. During the flight, ears often
equilibrate, so that the air pressure inside the inner ear equalizes with the air
1286 Chapter 13
pressure outside the plane. The Eustachian tubes allow for this equalization, but
can become clogged. If an Eustachian tube is clogged, pressure equalization may
not occur on descent and the air pressure inside an inner ear may remain equal to
the pressure at 2400 m. In that case, by the time the plane lands and the cabin is
repressurized to sea-level air pressure, what is the net force on one ear drum, due
to this pressure difference, assuming the ear drum has an area of 0.50 cm2?
Picture the Problem Assuming the density of the air to be constant, we can use
the definition of pressure and the expression for the variation of pressure with
depth in a fluid to find the net force on ones ear drums.
The net force acting on one ear drum F = PA

is given by: where A is the area of an ear drum.
Relate the pressure difference to the P = Psea level P2400 m = gh

pressure at 2400 m and the pressure
at sea level:
Substituting for P in the expression F = ghA

for F yields:
Substitute numerical values and evaluate F:
( )( ) ( )
F = 1.293 kg/m 3 9.81 m/s 2 (2400 m ) 0.50 cm 2 = 1.5 N
30 The axis of a cylindrical container is vertical. The container is filled

with equal masses of water and oil. The oil floats on top of the water, and the
open surface of the oil is at a height h above the bottom of the container. What is
the height h, if the pressure at the bottom of the water is 10 kPa greater than the
pressure at the top of the oil? Assume the oil density is 875 kg/m3.
Fluids 1287
Picture the Problem The pictorial Pat

representation represents oil floating on
water in a cylindrical container that is
open to the atmosphere. We can
express the height of the cylinder as the hoil
sum of the heights of the cylinders of
oil and water and then use the fact that h
oil
the masses of oil and water are equal to
water
obtain a relationship between hoil and
hwater. This relationship, together with
hwater
the equation for the pressure as
function of depth in a liquid will lead
Pbottom
us to expressions for hoil and hwater.
Express h as the sum of the heights h = hoil + hwater (1)

of the cylinders of oil and water:
The difference in pressure between mwater g + moil g

P = Pbottom Pat =
the bottom of the water and the top A
of oil is: where A is the cross-sectional area of
the cylinder.
Substituting for mwater and moil and P

= water hwater + oil hoil (2)
simplifying gives: g
Because the masses of oil and water mwater water hwater A water hwater
= = =1
are equal: moil oil hoil A oil hoil
and
water hwater = oil hoil
Substituting for oil hoil in equation P

= water hwater + water hwater
(2) yields: g
= 2 water hwater
and
P
hwater =
2 water g
Proceed similarly to obtain: P

hoil =
2 oil g
1288 Chapter 13
Substituting for hwater and hoil in P P

h= +
equation (1) gives: 2 oil g 2 water g
P 1 1
= +
2 g oil water
Substitute numerical values and evaluate h:
10 kPa 1 1
h= + = 1.1 m
(
2 9.81 m/s 2 ) 3
875 kg/m 1.00 10 kg/m
3 3
31 [SSM] A hydraulic lift is used to raise a 1500-kg automobile. The

radius of the shaft of the lift is 8.00 cm and the radius of the compressors piston
is 1.00 cm. How much force must be applied to the piston to raise the automobile?
Hint: The shaft of the lift is the other piston.
Picture the Problem The pressure applied to an enclosed liquid is transmitted

undiminished to every point in the fluid and to the walls of the container. Hence
we can equate the pressure produced by the force applied to the piston to the
pressure due to the weight of the automobile and solve for F.
Express the pressure the weight of wauto

Pauto =
the automobile exerts on the shaft of Ashaft
the lift:
Express the pressure the force F

P=
applied to the piston produces: Apiston
Because the pressures are the same, wauto F

=
we can equate them to obtain: Ashaft Apiston
Solving for F yields: Apiston Apiston

F = wauto = mauto g
Ashaft Ashaft
2
Substitute numerical values and 1.00 cm
evaluate F: (
F = (1500 kg ) 9.81 m/s 2
)
8.00 cm
= 230 N
Fluids 1289
32 A 1500-kg car rests on four tires, each of which is inflated to a gauge

pressure of 200 kPa. If the four tires support the cars weight equally, what is the
area of contact of each tire with the road?
Picture the Problem The area of contact of each tire with the road is related to
the weight on each tire and the pressure in the tire through the definition of
pressure.
Using the definition of gauge pressure, 1

w mg
A= 4
=
relate the area of contact to the Pgauge 4 Pgauge
pressure and the weight of the car:

A=
(1500 kg )(9.81m/s 2 ) = 184 cm 2
evaluate A: 4(200 kPa )
33 What pressure increase is required to compress the volume of 1.00 kg

of water from 1.00 L to 0.99 L? Could this compression occur in our oceans
where the maximum depth is about 11 km? Explain.
Picture the Problem The required pressure P is related to the change in volume
V and the initial volume V through the definition of the bulk modulus B;
P
B= .
V V
Using the definition of the bulk P V

B= P = B
modulus, relate the change in volume V V V
to the initial volume and the required
pressure:
Substitute numerical values and 0.01 L

P = 2.00 10 9 Pa
evaluate P: 1.00 L
1atm
= 2.00 10 7 Pa
101.325 kPa
= 197.4 atm = 197 atm
Express the pressure at a depth h P(h ) = Pat + seawater gh

in the ocean: or
P
P = seawater gh h =
seawater g
1290 Chapter 13
Substitute numerical values and 101.325 kPa

197.4 atm
evaluate h: h= atm 2.0 km
( )(
1025 kg/m 3 9.81 m/s 2 )
Because a depth of only 2 km is required to produce a one-percent compression,
this does not occur in our oceans.
34 When a woman in high-heeled shoes takes a step, she momentarily

places her entire weight on one heel of her shoe. If her mass is 56.0 kg and if the
area of the heel is 1.00 cm2, what is the pressure exerted on the floor by the heel?
Compare your answer to the pressure exerted by the one foot of an elephant on a
flat floor. Assume the elephants mass is 5000 kg, that he has all four feet equally
distributed on the floor, and that each foot has an area of 400 cm2.
Picture the Problem The pressure exerted by the womans heel on the floor is
her weight divided by the area of her heel.
Using its definition, express the F w mg

P= = =
pressure exerted on the floor by the A A A
womans heel:

Pwoman =
(56.0 kg )(9.81m/s 2 )
evaluate Pwoman: 1.00 10 4 m 2
1atm
= 5.49 10 6 N/m 2
101.325 kPa
= 54.2 atm
Express the pressure exerted by one of the elephants feet:
1
(5000 kg )(9.81m/s 2 ) 1atm
Pelephant = 4
4
= 3.066 10 5 N/m 2 = 3.03 atm
400 10 m 2
101.325 kPa
Express the ratio of the pressure Pwoman 54.2 atm

= 18
exerted by the womans heel to the Pelephant 3.03 atm
pressure exerted by the elephants
Thus Pwoman 18 Pelephant .
foot:
35 In the seventeenth century, Blaise Pascal performed the experiment

shown in Figure 13-32. A wine barrel filled with water was coupled to a long
tube. Water was added to the tube until the barrel burst. The radius of the lid was
20 cm and the height of the water in the tube was 12 m. (a) Calculate the force
exerted on the lid due to the pressure increase. (b) If the tube had an inner radius
Fluids 1291
of 3.0 mm, what mass of water in the tube caused the pressure that burst the
barrel?
Picture the Problem The force on the lid is related to pressure exerted by the
water and the cross-sectional area of the column of water through the definition of
density. We can find the mass of the water from the product of its density and
volume.
(a) Using the definition of pressure, F = PA

express the force exerted on the lid:
Express the pressure due to a column P = water gh

of water of height h:
Substitute for P and A to obtain: F = water gh r 2
Substitute numerical values and ( )(

F = 1.00 10 3 kg/m 3 9.81m/s 2 )
evaluate F: (12 m ) (0.20 m )
2
= 15 kN
(b) Relate the mass of the water to m = waterV = water h r 2
its density and volume:
Substitute numerical values and evaluate m:
( ) ( )
m = 1.00 10 3 kg/m 3 (12 m ) 3.0 10 3 m = 0.34 kg
2
36 Blood plasma flows from a bag through a tube into a patients vein,
where the blood pressure is 12 mmHg. The specific gravity of blood plasma at
37C is 1.03. What is the minimum elevation of the bag so that the plasma flows
into the vein?
Picture the Problem The minimum elevation of the bag h that will produce a
pressure of at least 12 mmHg is related to this pressure and the density of the
blood plasma through P = blood gh .
Using the definition of the pressure P

P = blood gh h =
due to a column of liquid, relate the blood g
pressure at its base to its height:
1292 Chapter 13
Substitute numerical values and 133.32 Pa

12 mmHg
evaluate h: 1 mmHg
h=
(
1.03 10 kg/m 3 9.81 m/s 2
3
)( )
= 16 cm
37 Many people have imagined that if they were to float the top of a
flexible snorkel tube out of the water, they would be able to breathe through it
while walking underwater (Figure 13-33). However, they generally do not take
into account just how much water pressure opposes the expansion of the chest and
the inflation of the lungs. Suppose you can just breathe while lying on the floor
with a 400-N (90-lb) weight on your chest. How far below the surface of the
water could your chest be for you still to be able to breathe, assuming your chest
has a frontal area of 0.090 m2?
Picture the Problem The depth h below the surface at which you would be able
to breath is related to the pressure at that depth and the density of water w
through P = w gh .
Express the pressure due to a column P

P = w gh h =
of water of height h: w g
Express the pressure at depth h in won your chest

P=
terms of the weight on your chest: Aof your chest
Substituting for P yields: won your chest

h=
Aof your chest w g
Substitute numerical values and evaluate h:
400 N
h= = 45 cm
0.090 m 2 1.00 10 3 kg/m 3 9.81 m/s 2

38 In Example 13-3 a 150-N force is applied to a small piston to lift a car

that weighs 15 000 N. Demonstrate that this does not violate the law of
conservation of energy by showing that, when the car is lifted some distance h,
the work done by the 150-N force acting on the small piston equals the work done
on the car by the large piston.
Picture the Problem Let A1 and A2 represent the cross-sectional areas of the large
piston and the small piston, and F1 and F2 the forces exerted by the large and on
the small piston, respectively. The work done by the large piston is W1 = F1h1 and
Fluids 1293
that done on the small piston is W2 = F2h2. Well use Pascals principle and the
equality of the volume of the displaced liquid in both pistons to show that W1 and
W2 are equal.
Express the work done in lifting the W1 = F1h1

car a distance h: where F1 is the weight of the car.
Using the definition of pressure, F1 F2 A

= F1 = F2 1
relate the forces F1 (= w) and F2 to A1 A2 A2
the areas A1 and A2:
Equate the volumes of the displaced A2

h1 A1 = h2 A2 h1 = h2
fluid in the two pistons: A1
Substitute in the expression for W1 A1 A2

W1 = F2 h2 = F2 h2 = W2
and simplify to obtain: A2 A1
39 A 5.00-kg lead sinker is accidentally dropped overboard by fishermen

in a boat directly above the deepest portion of the Marianas trench, near the
Philippines. By what percentage does the volume of the sinker change by the time
it settles to the trench bottom, which is 10.9 km below the surface?
Picture the Problem This problem is an application of the definition of the bulk
modulus. The change in volume of the sinker is related to the pressure change and
P
the bulk modulus by B = .
V V
From the definition of bulk modulus: V P

= (1)
V B
Express the pressure at a depth h in P(h ) = Pat + gh

the ocean:
The difference in pressure between P = P(h ) Pat = gh

the pressure at depth h and the
surface of the water is:
Substitute for P in equation (1) to V gh

=
obtain: V B
1294 Chapter 13
Substitute numerical values and evaluate the fractional change in volume of the
sinker:
V
=
( )( )
1025 kg/m 3 9.81 m/s 2 (10.9 km )
= 1.4%
V 7.7 GPa
40 The volume of a cone of height h and base radius r is V = r2h/3. A jar

in the shape of a cone of height 25 cm has a base with a radius equal to 15 cm.
The jar is filled with water. Then its lid (the base of the cone) is screwed on and
the jar is turned over so its lid is horizontal. (a) Find the volume and weight of the
water in the jar. (b) Assuming the pressure inside the jar at the top of the cone is
equal to 1 atm, find the excess force exerted by the water on the base of the jar.
Explain how this force can be greater than the weight of the water in the jar.
Picture the Problem The weight of the water in the jar is the product of its mass
and the gravitational field. Its mass, in turn, is related to its volume through the
definition of density. The force the water exerts on the base of the jar can be
determined from the product of the pressure it creates and the area of the base.
(a) The volume of the water is:
V = 13 (15 10 2 m ) (25 10 2 m ) = 5.890 10 3 m 3 = 5.9 L

2
Using the definition of density, relate w = mg = Vg

the weight of the water to the volume
it occupies:
kg
(
) m
w = 1.00 10 3 3 5.890 10 3 m 3 9.81 2 = 57.79 N = 58 N
m s
(b) Using the definition of pressure, F = PA = gh r 2

relate the force exerted by the water
on the base of the jar to the pressure
it exerts and the area of the base:
Substitute numerical values and evaluate F:
F = (1.00 10 3 kg/m 3 ) (9.81m/s 2 )(25 10 2 m ) (15 10 2 m ) = 0.17 kN

2
Fluids 1295
This occurs in the same way that the force on Pascals barrel is much greater than
the weight of the water in the tube. The downward force on the base is also the
result of the downward component of the force exerted by the slanting walls of
the cone on the water.
Buoyancy
41 A 500-g piece of copper with specific gravity 8.96, is suspended from

a spring scale and is submerged in water (Figure 13-34). What force does the
spring scale read?
Picture the Problem The scales reading is the difference between the weight of
the piece of copper in air and the buoyant force acting on it.
Express the apparent weight w of w' = w B

the piece of copper:
Using the definition of density and w' = CuVg wVg

Archimedes principle, substitute for = ( Cu w )Vg
w and B to obtain:
Express w in terms of Cu and V w

w = CuVg Vg =
and solve for Vg: Cu
Substitute for Vg in the expression w

w' = ( Cu w ) = 1 w w
for w to obtain: Cu Cu

evaluate w:

w' = 1
1
(0.500 kg ) 9.81m/s
2
( )
8.96
= 4.36 N
42 When a certain rock is suspended from a spring scale the scale-display

reads 60 N. However, when the suspended rock is submerged in water, the display
reads 40 N. What is the density of the rock?
Picture the Problem We can use the definition of density and Archimedes
principle to find the density of the rock. The difference between the weight of the
rock in air and the weight of the rock in water is the buoyant force acting on the
rock.
1296 Chapter 13
Using its definition, express the mrock

rock = (1)
density of the rock: Vrock
Apply Archimedes principle to B = wdisplaced = mdisplaced g

fluid fluid
obtain:
= displacedVdisplaced g
fluid fluid
Solve for Vdisplaced : B

Vdisplaced =
displaced g
fluid
fluid
fluid
Because Vdisplaced = Vrock and B

Vrock =
water g
fluid
displaced = water :
fluid
Substituting in equation (1) and mrock g w

rock = water = rock water
simplifying yields: B B

evaluate rock:
rock =
60 N
60 N 40 N
(
1.00 103 kg/m 3 )
= 3.0 103 kg/m 3
43 [SSM] A block of an unknown material weighs 5.00 N in air and

4.55 N when submerged in water. (a) What is the density of the material?
(b) From what material is the block likely to have been made?
principle to find the density of the unknown object. The difference between the
weight of the object in air and in water is the buoyant force acting on the object.
(a) Using its definition, express the mobject

object = (1)
density of the object: Vobject

fluid fluid
obtain:
fluid fluid

Vdisplaced =
fluid
fluid displaced g
fluid
Fluids 1297
Because Vdisplaced = Vobject and B

Vobject =
fluid
water g
displaced = water :
fluid
Substitute in equation (1) and mobject g wobject

object = water = water
simplify to obtain: B B
Substitute numerical values and evaluate object:
object =
5.00 N
5.00 N 4.55 N
( )
1.00 10 3 kg/m 3 = 1110 3 kg/m 3
(b) From Table 13-1, we see that the density of the unknown material is close to
that of lead.
44 A solid piece of metal weighs 90.0 N in air and 56.6 N when

submerged in water. Determine the density of this metal.
principle to find the density of the unknown object. The difference between the
weight of the object in air and the weight of the object in water is the buoyant
force acting on the object.
Using its definition, express the mmetal

metal = (1)
density of the metal: Vmetal

fluid fluid
obtain:
fluid fluid

Vdisplaced =
displaced g
fluid
fluid
fluid
Because Vdisplaced = Vmetal and B

Vmetal =
fluid
water g
displaced = water :
fluid
Substitute in equation (1) and mmetal g w

metal = water = metal water
simplify to obtain: B B
1298 Chapter 13
Substitute numerical values and evaluate metal:
metal =
90.0N
90.0 N 56.6 N
( )
1.00 10 3 kg/m 3 = 2.69 10 3 kg/m 3
45 A homogeneous solid object floats on water, with 80.0 percent of its

volume below the surface. When placed in a second liquid, the same object floats
on that liquid with 72.0 percent of its volume below the surface. Determine the
density of the object and the specific gravity of the liquid.
Picture the Problem Let V be the volume of the object and V be the volume that
is submerged when it floats. The weight of the object is Vg and the buoyant
force due to the water is wVg. Because the floating object is in translational
equilibrium, we can use Fy = 0 to relate the buoyant forces acting on the
object in the two liquids to its weight.
Apply F y = 0 to the object wV'g mg = wV'g Vg = 0 (1)

floating in water:
Solving for yields: V'

= w
V
= (1.00 10 3 kg/m 3 )
Substitute numerical values and 0.800V
evaluate : V
= 800 kg/m 3
Apply F y = 0 to the object mg = 0.720V L g

floating in the second liquid and
solve for mg:
Solve equation (1) for mg: mg = 0.800 wVg
Equate these two expressions to 0.720 L = 0.800 w

obtain:
Substitute in the definition of L 0.800

specific gravity = = = 1.11
specific gravity to obtain: w 0.720
46 A 5.00-kg iron block is suspended from a spring scale and is

submerged in a fluid of unknown density. The spring scale reads 6.16 N. What is
the density of the fluid?
Fluids 1299
Picture the Problem We can use Archimedes principle to find the density of the
unknown fluid. The difference between the weight of the block in air and the
weight of the block in the fluid is the buoyant force acting on the block.

fluid fluid
obtain:
fluid fluid
Solve for displaced : B

fluid displaced =
fluid Vdisplaced g
fluid
Because Vdisplaced = VFe block : B B

fluid f = = Fe
VFe block g mFe block g
Substitute numerical values and evaluate f:
f =
(5.00 kg )(9.81m/s 2 ) 6.16 N (7.96 10 3 kg/m 3 ) = 7.0 10 3 kg/m 3
(5.00 kg )(9.81m/s 2 )
47 A large piece of cork weighs 0.285 N in air. When held submerged

underwater by a spring scale as shown in Figure 13-35, the spring scale reads
0.855 N. Find the density of the cork.
Picture the Problem The forces acting on the cork are B, the upward force due to
the displacement of water, mg, the weight of the piece of cork, and Fs, the force
exerted by the spring. The piece of cork is in equilibrium under the influence of
these forces.
Apply F y = 0 to the piece of cork: B w Fs = 0 (1)

or
B corkVg Fs = 0 (2)
Express the buoyant force as a B

B = wdisplaced = wVg Vg =
function of the density of water: fluid w
Substitute for Vg in equation (2) to B

B cork Fs = 0 (3)
obtain: w
Solve equation (1) for B: B = w + Fs

1300 Chapter 13
Substitute in equation (3) to obtain: w + Fs

w + Fs cork Fs = 0
w
or
w + Fs
w cork =0
w
Solving for cork yields: w

cork = w
w + Fs
Substitute numerical values and evaluate cork:
cork = (1.00 10 3 kg/m 3 )

0.285 N
= 250 kg/m 3
0.285 N + 0.855 N
48 A helium balloon lifts a basket and cargo of total weight 2000 N under
standard conditions, at which the density of air is 1.29 kg/m3 and the density of
helium is 0.178 kg/m3. What is the minimum volume of the balloon?
Picture the Problem Under minimum-volume conditions, the balloon will be in

equilibrium. Let B represent the buoyant force acting on the balloon, wtot represent
its total weight, and V its volume. The total weight is the sum of the weights of its
basket, cargo, and helium in its balloon.
Apply F y = 0 to the balloon: B wtot = 0
Express the total weight of the wtot = 2000 N + HeVg

balloon:
Express the buoyant force due to the B = wdisplaced = airVg

fluid
displaced air:
Substitute for B and wtot to obtain: airVg 2000 N HeVg = 0
Solving for V yields: 2000 N

V=
( air He )g
Substitute numerical values and evaluate V:
2000 N
V = = 183 m 3
(
1.29 kg/m 0.178 kg/m 9.81 m/s
3 3 2
)( )
Fluids 1301
49 [SSM] An object has neutral buoyancy when its density equals that
of the liquid in which it is submerged, which means that it neither floats nor sinks.
If the average density of an 85-kg diver is 0.96 kg/L, what mass of lead should the
dive master suggest be added to give the diver neutral buoyancy?
Picture the Problem Let V = volume of diver, D the density of the diver, VPb the
volume of added lead, and mPb the mass of lead. The diver is in equilibrium under
the influence of his weight, the weight of the lead, and the buoyant force of the
water.
Apply F y = 0 to the diver: B wD wPb = 0
Substitute to obtain: wVD + Pb g DVD g mPb g = 0

or
wVD + wVPb DVD mPb = 0
Rewrite this expression in terms mD mPb mD

w + w D mPb = 0
of masses and densities: D Pb D
Solving for mPb yields: Pb ( w D ) mD

mPb =
D ( Pb w )
Substitute numerical values and evaluate mPb:
mPb =
(11.3 10 kg/m )(1.00 10 kg/m 0.96 10 kg/m )(85 kg ) =
3 3 3 3 3 3
3.9 kg
(0.96 10 kg/m )(11.3 10 kg/m 1.00 10 kg/m )
3 3 3 3 3 3
50 A 1.00-kg beaker containing 2.00 kg of water rests on a scale. A

2.00-kg block of aluminum (density 2.70 103 kg/m3) suspended from a spring
scale is submerged in the water, as in Figure 13-36. Find the readings of both
scales.
Picture the Problem The hanging scales reading w is the difference between
the weight of the aluminum block in air w and the buoyant force acting on it. The
buoyant force is equal to the weight of the displaced fluid, which, in turn, is the
product of its density and mass. We can apply a condition for equilibrium to relate
the reading of the bottom scale to the weight of the beaker and its contents and the
buoyant force acting on the block.
1302 Chapter 13
Express the apparent weight w of w' = w B (1)

the aluminum block. This apparent
weight is the reading on the hanging
scale and is equal to the tension in
the string:
Letting Fs be the reading of the Fs (M b + M w )g B = 0

bottom scale and choosing upward or
to be the +y direction, apply Fs = (M b + M w )g + B
(2)
Fy = 0 to the system consisting of = (M b + M w )g + w w'
the beaker and the water to obtain:
Using Archimedes principle, w' = w wVg (3)

substitute for B in equation (1) to
obtain:
Express w in terms of Al and V w

w = AlVg Vg =
and solve for Vg: Al
Substitute for Vg in equation (3) and w

w' = w w = 1 w w
simplify to obtain: Al Al
Substitute numerical values and evaluate w:
1.00 10 3 kg/m 3
w' = 1 (
(2.00 kg ) 9.81 m/s 2 = 12.4 N
3
)
2.70 10 kg/m
3
Substitute numerical values in equation (2) and evaluate Fs:
( ) (
Fs = (1.00 kg + 2.00 kg ) 9.81 m/s 2 + (2.00 kg ) 9.81 m/s 2 12.4 N )
= 36.7 N
51 When cracks form at the base of a dam, the water seeping into the
cracks exerts a buoyant force that tends to lift the dam. As a result, the dam can
topple. Estimate the buoyant force exerted on a 2.0-m thick by 5.0-m wide dam
wall by water seeping into cracks at its base. The water level in the lake is 5.0 m
above the cracks.
Fluids 1303
Picture the Problem We can apply Archimedes principle to estimate the

buoyant force exerted by the water on the dam. We can determine whether the
buoyant force is likely to lift the dam by comparing the buoyant and gravitational
forces acting on the dam.
The buoyant force acting on the dam B = wdisplaced = mdisplaced g

water water
is given by Archimedes principle:
= waterVdisplaced g
water
The volume of the displaced water is B = waterVdam g = water LWHg

the same as the volume of the dam: where L, W, and H are the length and
width of the dam, and H is the height of
the water above the cracks.
Substitute numerical values and evaluate B:
B = (1.00 103 kg/m3 )(2.0 m )(5.0 m )(5.0 m ) (9.81 m/s 2 ) = 4.9 105 N
52 Your team is in charge of launching a large helium weather balloon

that is spherical in shape, and whose radius is 2.5 m and total mass is 15 kg
(balloon plus helium plus equipment). (a) What is the initial upward acceleration
of the balloon when it is released from sea level? (b) If the drag force on the
balloon is given by FD = 12 r v , where r is the balloon radius, is the density of
2 2
air, and v the balloons ascension speed, calculate the terminal speed of the
ascending balloon.
Picture the Problem The forces acting yr

on the balloon are the buoyant force B, B
its weight mg, and a drag force FD. We
can find the initial upward acceleration
of the balloon by applying Newtons
second law at the instant it is released.
We can find the terminal speed of the
balloon by recognizing that when r
mg
ay = 0, the net force acting on the
balloon will be zero. r
FD
(a) Apply F y = ma y to the balloon B mballoon g = mballoon a y (1)

at the instant of its release to obtain:
1304 Chapter 13
Using Archimedes principle, express B = wdisplaced = mdisplaced g

the buoyant force B acting on the fluid fluid
balloon: = displacedVdisplaced g
fluid fluid
= airVballoon g = 43 air r 3 g
Substitute in equation (1) to obtain: 4

3 air r 3 g mballoon g = mballoon a y
Solving for ay yields: 4 r 3

a y = 3 air 1 g
mballoon
Substitute numerical values and evaluate ay:
ay =
( )
43 1.29 kg/m 3 (2.5 m )3
(
1 9.81m/s 2 = 45 m/s 2 )
15 kg
(b) Apply F y = ma y to the balloon B mg 12 r 2 vt2 = 0

under terminal-speed conditions to
obtain:
Substitute for B: 4
3 air r 3 g mg 12 r 2 vt2 = 0
Solving for vt yields:

vt =
(
2 43 air r 3 m g )
r 2
Substitute numerical values and evaluate v:
vt =
[ 3
]
2 43 (1.29 kg/m 3 )(2.5 m ) 15 kg (9.81 m/s 2 )
= 7.33 m/s = 7.3 m/s
(2.5 m ) (1.29 kg/m
2 3
)
53 [SSM] A ship sails from seawater (specific gravity 1.025) into
freshwater, and therefore sinks slightly. When its 600,000-kg load is removed, it
returns to its original level. Assuming that the sides of the ship are vertical at the
water line, find the mass of the ship before it was unloaded.
Picture the Problem Let V = displacement of ship in the two cases, m be the
mass of ship without load, and m be the load. The ship is in equilibrium under
the influence of the buoyant force exerted by the water and its weight. Well
apply the condition for floating in the two cases and solve the equations
simultaneously to determine the loaded mass of the ship.
Fluids 1305
Apply F y = 0 to the ship in fresh wVg mg = 0 (1)

water:
Apply F y = 0 to the ship in salt swVg (m + m )g = 0 (2)

water:
Solve equation (1) for Vg: mg

Vg =
w
Substitute in equation (2) to obtain: mg

sw (m + m )g = 0
w
Solving for m yields: w m

m=
sw w
Add m to both sides of the equation w m

m + m = + m
and simplify to obtain: sw w
w
= m + 1
sw w
m sw
=
sw w

m + m =
(6.00 10 5
)
kg (1.025 w )
evaluate m + m: 1.025 w w
=
(6.00 10 )
kg (1.025)
5
1.025 1
= 2.5 10 7 kg
Continuity and Bernoulli's Equation

54 Water flows at 0.65 m/s through a 3.0-cm-diameter hose that
terminates in a 0.30-cm-diameter nozzle. Assume laminar nonviscous steady-state
flow. (a) At what speed does the water pass through the nozzle? (b) If the pump at
one end of the hose and the nozzle at the other end are at the same height, and if
the pressure at the nozzle is 1.0 atm, what is the pressure at the pump outlet?
Picture the Problem Let A1 represent the cross-sectional area of the hose, A2 the
cross-sectional area of the nozzle, v1 the speed of the water in the hose, and v2 the
speed of the water as it passes through the nozzle. We can use the continuity
1306 Chapter 13
equation to find v2 and Bernoullis equation for constant elevation to find the
pressure at the pump outlet.
(a) Using the continuity equation, A1v1 = A2 v2

relate the speeds of the water to the or
diameter of the hose and the d12 d 2 d2
diameter of the nozzle: v1 = 2 v2 v2 = 12 v1
4 4 d2
2
Substitute numerical values and 3.0 cm
evaluate v2: v2 = (0.65 m/s ) = 65.0 m/s
0.30 cm
= 65 m/s
(b) Using Bernoullis equation for PP + 12 v12 = Pat + 12 v22

constant elevation, relate the
pressure at the pump PP to the
atmospheric pressure and the
velocities of the water in the hose
and the nozzle:
Solve for the pressure at the pump: (

PP = Pat + 12 v22 v12 )
Substitute numerical values and evaluate PP:
( )[
PP = 101.325 kPa + 12 1.00 10 3 kg/m 3 (65.0 m/s ) (0.65 m/s )
2 2
]
1atm
= 2.21 10 6 Pa = 22 atm
101.325 kPa
55 [SSM] Water is flowing at 3.00 m/s in a horizontal pipe under a

pressure of 200 kPa. The pipe narrows to half its original diameter. (a) What is
the speed of flow in the narrow section? (b) What is the pressure in the narrow
section? (c) How do the volume flow rates in the two sections compare?
Picture the Problem Let A1 represent the cross-sectional area of the larger-
diameter pipe, A2 the cross-sectional area of the smaller-diameter pipe, v1 the
speed of the water in the larger-diameter pipe, and v2 the velocity of the water in
the smaller-diameter pipe. We can use the continuity equation to find v2 and
Bernoullis equation for constant elevation to find the pressure in the smaller-
diameter pipe.
Fluids 1307
(a) Using the continuity equation, A1v1 = A2 v2

relate the velocities of the water to or
the diameters of the pipe: d12 d 2 d2
v1 = 2 v2 v2 = 12 v1
4 4 d2
2
Substitute numerical values and d
evaluate v2: v2 = 1 1 (3.00 m/s ) = 12.0 m/s
2 d1
(b) Using Bernoullis equation for P1 + 12 w v12 = P2 + 12 w v22

pressures in the two segments of the
pipe to the velocities of the water in
these segments:
Solving for P2 yields: P2 = P1 + 12 w v12 12 w v22

(
= P1 + 12 w v12 v22 )
Substitute numerical values and evaluate P2:
[ ]
P2 = 200 kPa + 12 (1.00 10 3 kg/m 3 ) (3.00 m/s ) (12.0 m/s ) = 133 kPa
2 2
(c) From the continuity equation; I V1 = I V2 .
56 The pressure in a section of horizontal pipe with a diameter of 2.00 cm

is 142 kPa. Water flows through the pipe at 2.80 L/s. If the pressure at a certain
point is to be reduced to 101 kPa by constricting a section of the pipe, what
should the diameter of the constricted section be?
Picture the Problem Let A1 represent the cross-sectional area of the 2.00-cm
diameter pipe, A2 the cross-sectional area of the constricted pipe, v1 the speed of
the water in the 2.00-cm diameter pipe, and v2 the speed of the water in the
constricted pipe. We can use the continuity equation to express d2 in terms of d1
and to find v1 and Bernoullis equation for constant elevation to find the speed of
the water in the constricted pipe.
Using the continuity equation, relate A1v1 = A2 v2

the volume flow rate in the 2.00-cm or
diameter pipe to the volume flow d12 d 2 v
rate in the constricted pipe: v1 = 2 v2 d 2 = d1 1 (1)
4 4 v2
1308 Chapter 13
Using the continuity equation, IV I 4I

v1 = = 1 V 2 = V2
relate v1 to the volume flow rate IV: A1 4 d1 d1
Using Bernoullis equation for P1 + 12 w v12 = P2 + 12 w v22

pressures in the two segments of the
pipe to the velocities of the water in
these segments:
Solve for v2 to obtain: 2(P1 P )

v2 = + v12
w
Substituting for v2 in equation (1) and simplifying yields:
v1 1 d1
d 2 = d1 = d1 =
2(P1 P ) 2(P1 P ) 2(P1 P )
+ v12 +1 4 +1
w v12 w v12 w
Substitute for v1 and simplify to obtain:
d1 d1
d2 = =
2(P1 P ) d (P1 P )
2 4
2
+1 4
1
+1
4 4I V 8 I V2 w
2 w
d1
Substitute numerical values and evaluate d2:
2.00 cm
d2 = = 1.68 cm
2 (0.0200 m )4 (142 kPa 101.325 kPa )
+1
( )
4
8(2.80 L/s ) 1.00 10 3 kg/m 3
2
57 [SSM] Blood flows at at 30 cm/s in an aorta of radius 9.0 mm.

(a) Calculate the volume flow rate in liters per minute. (b) Although the cross-
sectional area of a capillary is much smaller than that of the aorta, there are many
capillaries, so their total cross-sectional area is much larger. If all the blood from
the aorta flows into the capillaries and the speed of flow through the capillaries is
1.0 mm/s, calculate the total cross-sectional area of the capillaries. Assume
laminar nonviscous, steady-state flow.
Fluids 1309
Picture the Problem We can use the definition of the volume flow rate to find
the volume flow rate of blood in an aorta and to find the total cross-sectional area
of the capillaries.
(a) Use the definition of the volume I V = Av

flow rate to find the volume flow
rate through an aorta:
Substitute numerical values and (

I V = 9.0 10 3 m ) (0.30 m/s)
2
evaluate IV:
m 3 60 s
5 1L
= 7.634 10 3 3
s min 10 m
= 4.58 L/min = 4.6 L/min
(b) Use the definition of the volume IV

I V = Acap vcap Acap =
flow rate to express the volume vcap
flow rate through the capillaries:
Substitute numerical values and 7.63 10 5 m 3 /s

Acap = = 7.6 10 2 m 2
evaluate Acap: 0.0010 m/s
58 Water flows through a 1.0 m-long conical section of pipe that joins a
cylindrical pipe of radius 0.45 m, on the left, to a cylindrical pipe of radius
0.25 m, on the right. If the water is flowing into the 0.45 m pipe with a speed of
1.50 m/s, and if we assume laminar nonviscous steady-state flow, (a) what is the
speed of flow in the 0.25 m pipe? (b) What is the speed of flow at a position x in
the conical section, if x is the distance measured from the left-hand end of the
conical section of pipe?
Picture the Problem The pictorial representation summarizes what we know

about the two pipes and the connecting conical section. We can apply the
continuity equation to find v2. We can also use the continuity equation in (b)
provided we first express the cross-sectional area of the transitional conical
section as a function of x.
v1 = 1.50 m/s v2 = ?
v =?
d1 = 0.90 m d 2 = 0.50 m
0 x L
(a) Apply the continuity equation to v1 A1 = v2 A2

the flow in the two sections of
cylindrical pipes:
1310 Chapter 13
Solving for v2, expressing the cross- 2

4 d1
A1 1 2
d
sectional areas in terms of their v2 = v1 = v1 1 2 = v1 1
diameters, and simplifying yields: A2 4 d 2 d2
Substitute numerical values and 0.90 m

2
evaluate v2: v2 = (1.50 m/s ) = 4.9 m/s

0.50 m
(b) Continuity of flow requires that: v(0 )A(0 ) = v( x )A( x )
Solve for v(x) to obtain: A(0)

v( x ) = v(0) (1)
A( x )
The diagram to the right is an

enlargement of the upper half of the (0, 0.45 m )
transitional conical section. Use the
coordinates shown on the line to (x, r (x ))
establish the following proportion:
(L,0.25 m )
r ( x ) 0.45 m 0.25 m 0.45 m
=
x0 L0 0 x L
Solving the proportion for r(x) x

yields: r ( x ) = 0.45 m (0.20 m )
L
where L is the length of the conical
section.
The cross-sectional area of the A( x ) = (r ( x ))

2
conical section varies with x 2

x
according to: = 0.45 m (0.20 m )
L
Substituting for A(x) in equation (1) r12

and simplifying yields: v(x ) = v(0) 2
x
0.45 m (0.20 m )
L
v(0)r12
= 2
x
0.45 m (0.20 m )
L
Fluids 1311

v( x ) =
(1.50 m/s)(0.45 m )2
simplify further to obtain: 2
x
0.45 m (0.20 m )
1.0 m
0.304 m 3 / s
=
(0.45 m 0.20 x )2
To confirm the correctness of this 0.304 m 3 / s
equation, evaluate v(0) and v(1.0 m): v(0) = = 1.5 m/s
(0.45 m )2
and
0.304 m 3 / s
v(1.0 m ) =
(0.45 m 0.20(1.0 m ))2
= 4.9 m/s
59 The $8-billion, 800-mile-long Alaskan Pipeline has a maximum

volume flow rate of 240,000 m3 of oil per day. Most of the pipeline has a radius
of60.0 cm. Find the pressure P at a point where the pipe has a 30.0-cm radius.
Take the pressure in the 60.0-cm-radius sections to be P = 180 kPa and the
density of oil to be 800 kg/m3. Assume laminar nonviscous steady-state flow.
Picture the Problem Let the subscript 60 denote the 60.0-cm-radius pipe and the
subscript 30 denote the 30.0-cm-radius pipe. We can use Bernoullis equation for
constant elevation to express P in terms of v60 and v30, the definition of volume
flow rate to find v60, and the continuity equation to find v30.
P
P'
r60 = 60.0 cm
r30 = 30.0 cm
v 60 v30
Using Bernoullis equation for P + 12 v60

2
= P' + 12 v30
2

pressures in the two pipes to the
velocities of the oil:
Solving for P yields: P' = P + 12 (v60

2
v30
2
) (1)
Use the definition of volume flow IV I

v60 = = V2
rate to express v60: A60 r60
1312 Chapter 13
Using the continuity equation, relate A60

A60v60 = A30v30 v30 = v60
the speed of the oil in the half- A30
standard pipe to its speed in the
standard pipe:
Substituting for v60 and A30 yields: A60 I V I I

v30 = = V = V2
A30 A60 A30 r30
Substitute for v60 and v30 and simplify to obtain:
I 2 I 2 I 2 1 1
P' = P + V2 V2 = P + V2 4 4
1
2
r60 r30 2 r60 r30

Substitute numerical values in equation (1) and evaluate P:
2
1h
( 3
)
800 kg/m 2.40 10 5
m3 1 d

d 24 h 3600 s
P' = 180 kPa +
2 2
1 1

4
(0 . 600 m )4
(0 .300 m )
= 144 kPa
60 Water flows through a Venturi meter like that in Example 13-11 with a
pipe diameter of 9.50 cm and a constriction diameter of 5.60 cm. The U-tube
manometer is partially filled with mercury. Find the volume flow rate of the water
if the difference in the mercury level in the U-tube is 2.40 cm.
Picture the Problem Well use its definition to relate the volume flow rate in the
pipe to the speed of the water and the result of Example 13-11 to find the speed of
the water.
Using its definition, express the I V = A1v1 = r 2v1

volume flow rate:
Using the result of Example 13-11, 2 Hg gh

find the speed of the water upstream v1 =
R12
from the Venturi meter: w 2
1
R2
Fluids 1313
Substituting for v1 yields: 2 Hg gh

IV = r 2
R12
w 2
1
R2
Substitute numerical values and evaluate IV:
IV =

(0.0950 m ) 2 ( )( )
2 13.6 10 3 kg/m 3 9.81 m/s 2 (0.0240 m )
= 13.1L/s
4 0.0950 m 2
( )
1.00 10 3 kg/m 3 1
0.0560 m
61 [SSM] Horizontal flexible tubing for carrying cooling water extends

through a large electromagnet used in your physics experiment at Fermi National
Accelerator Laboratory. A minimum volume flow rate of 0.050 L/s through the
tubing is necessary in order to keep your magnet cool. Within the magnet volume,
the tubing has a circular cross section of radius 0.500 cm. In regions outside the
magnet, the tubing widens to a radius of 1.25 cm. You have attached pressure
sensors to measure differences in pressure between the 0.500 cm and 1.25 cm
sections. The lab technicians tell you that if the flow rate in the system drops
below 0.050 L/s, the magnet is in danger of overheating and that you should
install an alarm to sound a warning when the flow rate drops below that level.
What is the critical pressure difference at which you should program the sensors
to send the alarm signal (and is this a minimum, or maximum, pressure
difference)? Assume laminar nonviscous steady-state flow.
Picture the Problem The pictorial representation shows the narrowing of the
cold-water supply tubes as they enter the magnet. We can apply Bernoullis
equation and the continuity equation to derive an expression for the pressure
difference P1 P2.
P1
P2
v1 v2
d1 = 2.50 cm d 2 = 1.000 cm
Apply Bernoullis equation to the P1 + 12 v12 = P2 + 12 v22

two sections of tubing to obtain:
Solving for the pressure difference P = P1 P2 = 12 v22 12 v12

P1 P2 yields:
(
= 12 v22 v12 )
1314 Chapter 13
Factor v12 from the parentheses to v 22 1 2 v2

2
obtain: P = v 2 1 = 2 v1 1
1 2
2
v1
1
v1

From the continuity equation we A1v1 = A2 v2

have:
Solving for the ratio of v2 to v1, v2 A1 14 d12 d1

2
expressing the areas in terms of the = = =

diameters, and simplifying yields: v1 A2 14 d 22 d 2
Use the expression for the volume IV I 4I

flow rate to express v1: v1 = = 1 V 2 = V2
A1 4 d1 d1
Substituting for v1 and v2/v1 in the 4I

2
d 4
expression for P yields: P = 12 V2 1 1
d1 d 2

Substitute numerical values and evaluate P:
2
3 3

4 0.050 L 10 m
L 2.50 cm 4
3
(
P = 2 1.00 10 kg/m
1 3
) s

1.000 cm
1 = 0.20 kPa
(0.0250 m )2

Because P I V2 (P as a function of IV is a parabola that opens upward), this

pressure difference is the minimum pressure difference.
62 Figure 13-37 shows a Pitot-static tube, a device used for measuring the
speed of a gas. The inner pipe faces the incoming fluid, while the ring of holes in
the outer tube is parallel to the gas flow. Show that the speed of the gas is given
2 gh( L g )
by v = , where L is the density of the liquid used in the
g
manometer and g is the density of the gas.
Picture the Problem Let the numeral 1 denote the opening in the end of the inner
pipe and the numeral 2 to one of the holes in the outer tube. We can apply
Bernoullis principle at these locations and solve for the pressure difference
between them. By equating this pressure difference to the pressure difference due
to the height h of the liquid column we can express the speed of the gas as a
function of L, g, g, and h.
Fluids 1315
Apply Bernoullis principle at P1 + 12 g v12 = P2 + 12 g v22

locations 1 and 2 to obtain:
where weve ignored the difference in
elevation between the two openings.
Solve for the pressure difference P = P1 P2 = 12 g v22 12 g v12

P = P1 P2:
Express the speed of the gas at 1: Because the gas is brought to a halt
(that is, is stagnant) at the opening to
the inner pipe, v1 = 0 .
Express the speed of the gas at 2: Because the gas flows freely past the
holes in the outer ring, v2 = v .
Substitute to obtain: P = 12 g v 2
Letting A be the cross-sectional area wdisplaced liquid

B
of the tube, express the pressure at a P1 = P2 +
A A
depth h in the column of liquid
where B = g Ahg is the buoyant force
whose density is 1:
acting on the column of liquid of
height h.
Substitute to obtain: L ghA g ghA

P1 = P2 +
A A
= P2 + ( L g )gh
or
P = P1 P2 = ( L g )gh
Equate these two expressions for P: 1

2 g v 2 = ( L g )gh
Solving for v yields: 2 gh( L g )

v=
g
Note that the correction for buoyant force due to the displaced gas is very small
2 gh L
and that, to a good approximation, v = .
g
Remarks: Pitot tubes are used to measure the airspeed of airplanes.

1316 Chapter 13
63 [SSM] Derive the Bernoulli Equation in more generality than done

in the text, that is, allow for the fluid to change elevation during its movement.
Using the work-energy theorem, show that when changes in elevation are
allowed, Equation 13-16 becomes P1 + gh1 + 12 v12 = P2 + gh2 + 12 v22 (Equation
13-17).
Picture the Problem Consider a fluid flowing in a tube that varies in elevation as
well as in cross-sectional area, as shown in the pictorial representation below. We
can apply the work-energy theorem to a parcel of fluid that initially is contained
between points 1 and 2. During time t this parcel moves along the tube to the
region between point 1 and 2. Let V be the volume of fluid passing point 1
during time t. The same volume passes point 2 during the same time. Also, let
m = V be the mass of the fluid with volume V. The net effect on the parcel
during time t is that mass m initially at height h1 moving with speed v1 is
transferred to height h2 with speed v2.
v2
A2
F2 = P2 A2
x2
v1
2 2'
A1 F1 = P1 A1 h2
h1
x1
1 1' Ug = 0
Express the work-energy theorem: Wtotal = U + K (1)
The change in the potential energy of U = (m )gh2 (m )gh1

the parcel is given by: = (m )g (h2 h )
= Vg (h2 h1 )
The change in the kinetic energy of K = 1

2 (m )v22 12 (m )v12
= 12 (m )(v22 v12 )
the parcel is given by:
(
= 12 V v22 v12 )
Express the work done by the fluid W1 = F1x1 = P1 A1x1 = P1V
behind the parcel (to the parcels left
in the diagram) as it pushes on the
parcel with a force of magnitude
F1 = P1 A1 , where P1 is the pressure at
point 1:
Fluids 1317
Express the work done by the fluid W2 = F2 x2 = P2 A2 x2 = P2 V

in front of the parcel (to the parcels where the work is negative because the
right in the diagram) as it pushes on applied force and the displacement are
the parcel with a force of magnitude in opposite directions.
F2 = P2 A2 , where P2 is the pressure
at point 2:
The total work done on the parcel is: Wtotal = P1V P2 V = (P1 P2 )V
Substitute for U, K, and Wtotal in equation (1) to obtain:
(P1 P2 )V = Vg (h2 h1 ) + 12 V (v22 v12 )

Simplifying this expression by (
P1 P2 = g (h2 h1 ) + 12 v22 v12 )
dividing out V yields:
Collect all the quantities having a P1 + gh1 + 12 v12 = P2 + gh2 + 12 v22

subscript 1 on one side and those
having a subscript 2 on the other to
obtain:
Remarks: This equation is known as Bernoullis equation for the steady,

nonviscous flow of an incompressible fluid.
64 A large keg of height H and cross-sectional area A1 is filled with root

beer. The top is open to the atmosphere. There is a spigot opening of area A2,
which is much smaller than A1, at the bottom of the keg. (a) Show that when the
height of the root beer is h, the speed of the root beer leaving the spigot is
approximately 2 gh . (b) Show that if A2 << A1, the rate of change of the height h
of the root beer is given by dh dt = ( A2 A1 )(2gh ) . (c) Find h as a function of
12
time if h = H at t = 0. (d) Find the total time needed to drain the keg if
H = 2.00 m, A1 = 0.800 m2, and A2 = 1.00 104 A1. Assume laminar nonviscous
flow.
Picture the Problem We can apply Bernoullis equation to the top of the keg and
to the spigot opening to determine the rate at which the root beer exits the tank.
Because the area of the spigot is much smaller than that of the keg, we can neglect
the speed of the root beer at the top of the keg. Well use the continuity equation
to obtain an expression for the rate of change of the height of the root beer in the
keg as a function of the height and integrate this function to find h as a function of
time.
1318 Chapter 13
(a) Apply Bernoullis equation to the P1 + beer gh1 + 12 beer v12 = P2 + beer gh2
beer at the top of the keg and at the + 12 beer v22
spigot:
or, because v1 0, h2 = 0, P1 = P2 = Pat,
and h1 = h,
gh = 12 v22 v2 = 2 gh
(b) Use the continuity equation to A1v1 = A2v2

relate v1 and v2:
Substitute dh/dt for v1 and 2 gh dh

A1 = A2 2 gh
for v2 to obtain: dt
Solving for dh/dt yields: dh A

= 2 2 gh
dt A1
(c) Separate the variables in the A1 A2 dh

= dt
differential equation to obtain: 2g h
h t
Express the integral from H to h and A1 A2 dh
0 to t:

2g

H
= dt
h 0
Evaluate the integral to obtain:

2 A1 A2
2g
( H h =t)
Solving for h gives: A

2
h = H 2 2 g t
2 A1
(d) Solve h(t) for the time-to-drain A1 2H

t' =
t: A2 g
Substitute numerical values and A1 2(2.00 m )

t' =
evaluate t 1.00 10 4 A1 9.81m/s 2
= 6.39 10 3 s = 1h 46 min
65 A siphon is a device for transferring a liquid from container to

container. The tube shown in Figure 13-38 must be filled to start the siphon, but
once this has been done, fluid will flow through the tube until the liquid surfaces
in the containers are at the same level. (a) Using Bernoullis equation, show that
Fluids 1319
the speed of water in the tube is v = 2 gd . (b) What is the pressure at the highest
part of the tube?
Picture the Problem Let the letter a denote the entrance to the siphon tube and
the letter b denote its exit and assume that b in at the surface of the liquid in
the container to the right. Assuming streamline flow between these points, we can
apply Bernoullis equation to relate the entrance and exit speeds of the water
flowing in the siphon to the pressures at either end, the density of the water, and
the difference in elevation between the entrance and exit points. Well also use
the equation of continuity to argue that, provided the surface area of the beaker is
large compared to the area of the opening of the tube, the entrance speed of the
water is approximately zero.
(a) Assuming that the height of the containers is H, apply Bernoullis equation
at the surface of the left container and at point b:
Pat + 12 vsurface
2
+ g (H h ) = Pat + 12 vb2 + g (H h d ) (1)
Apply the continuity equation to a Ab

point at the surface of the liquid in vb Ab = vsurface Asurface vsurface = vb
Asurface
the container to the left and to point
or, because Asurface >>Ab ,
b:
vsurface = 0
With va = 0, equation (1) becomes: g (H h ) = 12 vb2 + g (H h d )
Solving for vb gives: vb = 2 gd
(b) Relate the pressure at the highest part of the tube Ptop to the pressure at
point b:
Ptop + g (H h ) + 12 vtop
2
= Pat + g (H h d ) + 12 vb2
The equation of continuity requires that vtop = vb = va:
Ptop + g (H h ) + 12 vtop
2
= Pat + g (H h d ) + 12 vtop
2
or, simplifying,
Ptop + g (H h ) = Pat + g (H h d )
Solve for Ptop to obtain: Ptop = Pat gd
Remarks: If we let Ptop = 0, we can use this result to find the maximum
theoretical height a siphon can lift water.
1320 Chapter 13
66 A fountain designed to spray a column of water 12 m into the air has a

1.0-cm-diameter nozzle at ground level. The water pump is 3.0 m below the
ground. The pipe to the nozzle has a diameter of 2.0 cm. Find pump pressure
necessary if the fountain is to operate as designed. (Assume laminar nonviscous
steady-state flow.)
Picture the Problem Let the letter P denote the pump and the 2.0-cm diameter
pipe and the letter N the 1-cm diameter nozzle. Well use Bernoullis equation to
express the necessary pump pressure, the continuity equation to relate the speed
of the water coming out of the pump to its speed at the nozzle, and a constant-
acceleration equation to relate its speed at the nozzle to the height to which the
water rises.
Using Bernoullis equation, relate PP + w ghP + 12 w vP2

the pressures, areas, and velocities in = PN + w ghN + 12 w v N2
the pipe and nozzle:
or, because PN = Pat and hP = 0,
PP + 12 w vP2 = PN + w ghN + 12 w vN2
Solve for the pump pressure: (

PP = Pat + w ghN + 12 w vN2 vP2 ) (1)
Use the continuity equation to relate AP vP = AN vN

vP and vN to the cross-sectional areas and
of the pipe from the pump and the A 1
d 2 1.0 cm
2
nozzle: vP = N v N = 41 N2 v N = v N
AP 4 d P 2.0 cm
= 14 v N
Use a constant-acceleration equation v 2 = v 2N 2 gh

to express the speed of the water at or, because v = 0,
the nozzle in terms of the desired v 2N = 2 gh
height h:
Substitute for vN and vP in equation (1) and simplify to obtain:
PP = Pat + w ghN + 12 w [2 gh 161 (2 gh )] = Pat + w ghN + 12 w (158 gh )

= Pat + w g (hN + 16
15
h )
Substitute numerical values and evaluate PP:
PP = 101.325 kPa + (1.00 10 3 kg/m 3 )(9.81 m/s 2 )[3.0 m + 15

16 (12 m )] = 2.4 10 Pa
5
Fluids 1321
67 Water at 20C exits a circular tap moving straight down with a flow
rate of 10.5 cm3/s. (a) If the diameter of the tap is 1.20 cm, what is the speed of
the water? (b) As the fluid falls from the tap, the stream of water narrows. Find
the new diameter of the stream at a point 7.50 cm below the tap. Assume that the
stream still has a circular cross section and neglect any effects of drag forces
acting on the water. (c) If turbulent flows are characterized by Reynolds numbers
above 2300 or so, how far does the water have to fall before it becomes turbulent?
Does this match your everyday observations?
Picture the Problem Let I represent the flow rate of the water. Then we can use
I = Av to relate the flow rate to the cross-sectional area of the circular tap and the
speed of the water. In (b) we can use the equation of continuity to express the
diameter of the stream 7.50 cm below the tap and a constant-acceleration equation
to find the speed of the water at this distance. In (c) we can use a constant-
acceleration equation to express the distance-to-turbulence in terms of the speed
of the water at turbulence vt and the definition of Reynolds number NR to relate vt
to NR.
(a) Express the flow rate of the water I = Avi = r 2 vi = 14 d 2 vi (1)

in terms of the cross-sectional area A
of the circular tap and the speed vi of
the water:
Solving for vi yields: I

vi =
4 d
1 2
Substitute numerical values and 10.5 cm 3 / s

evaluate vi: vi = = 9.28 cm/s
4 (1.20 cm )
1 2
(b) Apply the equation of continuity vf Af = vi Ai

to the stream of water: or
vi
vf d f2 = vi d i2 d f = d i (2)
4 4 vf
Use a constant-acceleration equation vf2 = vi2 + 2 gh vf = vi2 + 2 gh

to relate vf and vi to the distance h
fallen by the water:
Substitute numerical values and evaluate vf:
vf = (9.28 cm/s)2 + 2(981cm/s 2 )(7.50 cm ) = 122 cm/s

Substitute numerical values in 9.28 cm/s
equation (2) and evaluate df: d f = (1.20 cm ) = 0.331cm
122 cm/s
1322 Chapter 13
(c) Use a constant-acceleration vf2 vi2

equation to relate the fall-distance-to- vt2 = vi2 + 2 gd d = (3)
2g
turbulence d to its initial speed vi
and its speed vt when its flow
becomes turbulent:
Express Reynolds number NR for 2rvt

turbulent flow: NR = (4)

The volume flow rate equals Av. I = r 2 vt (5)

Express the volume flow rate at the
speed vt:
Eliminate r from equations (4) and N R2 2

(5) and solve for vt (see Table 13-1 vt =
4 2 I
for the coefficient of viscosity for
water):
Substitute numerical values (see (2300)2 (1.00 10 3 Pa s )

2
Figure 13-1 for the density of water vt =

4(1.00 10 3 kg/m 3 ) (10.5 cm 3 /s )
2
and Table 13-3 for the coefficient of
viscosity for water) and evaluate vt: = 0.396 m/s
Substitute numerical values in

d =
(39.6 cm/s)2 (9.28 cm/s)2
equation (3) and evaluate the fall- 2(9.81 m/s 2 )
distance-to turbulence:
0.76 cm
This result seems to be too small.
68 To better fight fires in your seaside community, the local fire brigade
has asked you to set up a pump system to draw seawater from the ocean to the top
of a steep cliff adjacent to the water where most of the homes are. If the cliff is
12.0 m high, and the pump is capable of producing a gauge pressure of
150 kPa, how much water (in L/s) can be pumped using a hose with a radius of
4.00 cm?
Picture the Problem The water being drawn from the ocean is at rest initially and
is pumped upward to a height of 12.0 m. Let the variables subscripted 1
correspond to the intake and those subscripted 2 to the outflow and use the
volume flow rate equation and Bernoullis equation.
Express the volume flow rate in the I V = Av = r 2 v2 (1)

hose:
Apply Bernoullis equation to the P1 + gh1 + 12 v12 = P2 + gh2 + 12 v22

intake and outflow to obtain:
Fluids 1323
Rewriting this equation to isolate the 1

2 (v22 v12 ) = P1 P2 + gh1 gh2
speed terms yields:
Because v1 = 0 and h1 = 0 and 1

2 v22 = P gh2
P1 P2 = P:
Solving for v2 yields: 2(P gh2 )
v2 =

Substitute for v2 in equation (1) to 2(P gh2 )

obtain: IV = r2

2(150 kPa (1.00 10 3 kg/m 3 )(9.81 m/s 2 )(12.0 m ))

I V = (0.0400 m )
2
1.00 10 3 kg/m 3
m3 1L
= 4.039 10 2 3 3 = 40.4 L/s
s 10 m
69 In Figure 13-39, H is the depth of the liquid and h is the distance from
the surface of the liquid to the pipe inserted in the tanks side. (a) Find the
distance x at which the water strikes the ground as a function of h and H.
(b) Show that, for a given value of H, there are two values of h (whose average
value is 12 H ) that give the same distance x. (c) Show that, for a given value of H,
x is a maximum when h = 12 H . Find the maximum value for x as a function of H.
Picture the Problem We can apply Bernoullis equation to points a and b to

determine the rate at which the water exits the tank. Because the diameter of the
small pipe is much smaller than the diameter of the tank, we can neglect the speed
of the water at the point a. The distance the water travels once it exits the pipe is
the product of its speed and the time required to fall the distance H h. That there
are two values of h that are equidistant from the point h = 12 H can be shown by
solving the quadratic equation that relates x to h and H. That x is a maximum for
this value of h can be established by treating x = f(h) as an extreme-value
problem.
(a) Express the distance x as a x = vb t (1)

function of the exit speed of the
water and the time to fall the
distance H h:
1324 Chapter 13
Apply Bernoullis equation to the Pa + w gH + 12 w va2

water at points a and b: = Pb + w g (H h ) + 12 w vb2
or, because va 0 and Pa = Pb = Pat,
gH = g (H h ) + 12 vb2 vb = 2 gh
y = v0y t + 12 a(t )
2
Using a constant-acceleration
equation, relate the time of fall to the or, because v0y = 0,
distance of fall:
2(H h )
H h = 12 g (t ) t =
2
Substitute for t in equation (1) to 2(H h )

x = 2 gh = 2 h(H h )
obtain: g
(b) Square both sides of this equation x 2 = 4hH 4h 2 or 4h 2 4 Hh + x 2 = 0

and simplify to obtain:
Solving this quadratic equation h= 1

H 12 H 2 x 2
2
yields:
Find the average of these two values for h:
1
H + H 2 x 2 + 12 H H 2 x 2
hav = 2
= 1
2 H
2
(c) Differentiate x = 2 h(H h ) dx

= 2( 12 )[h(H h )] 2 (H 2h )
1
with respect to h: dh
H 2h
=
h(H h )
Set dx/dh equal to zero for extrema: H 2h

=0
h(H h )
Solve for h to obtain: h= 1

2
H
Evaluate x = 2 h(H h ) with xmax = 2 1

2 H (H 12 H ) = H
h = 12 H :
Fluids 1325
Remarks: To show that this value for h corresponds to a maximum, one can
d2x
either show that < 0 at h = 12 H or confirm that the graph of f(h) at
dh 2
h = 12 H is concave downward.
*Viscous Flow
70 Water flows through a horizontal 25.0-cm-long tube with an inside

diameter of 1.20 mm at 0.300 mL/s. Find the pressure difference required to drive
this flow if the viscosity of water is 1.00 mPas. Assume laminar flow.
Picture the Problem The required pressure difference can be found by applying
Poiseuilles law to the viscous flow of water through the horizontal tube.
Using Poiseuilles law, relate the 8L

P = IV
pressure difference between the two r4
ends of the tube to its length, radius,
and the volume flow rate of the
water:
Substitute numerical values and evaluate P:
8(1.00 mPa s )(0.250 m )

P = 4
(0.300 mL/s) = 1.47 kPa
1.20 10 3 m

2
71 Find the diameter of a tube that would give double the flow rate for the
pressure difference in Problem 70.
Picture the Problem Because the pressure difference is unchanged, we can

equate the expressions of Poiseuilles law for the two tubes and solve for the
diameter of the tube that would double the flow rate.
Using Poiseuilles law, express the 8L

P = IV
pressure difference required for the r4
radius and volume flow rate of
Problem 70:
Express the pressure difference 8L

P = (2 I )
required for the radius r that would r' 4 V
double the volume flow rate of
Problem 70:
1326 Chapter 13
8L
Equate these equations and simplify
(2 I V ) = 8L4 I V
to obtain: r' 4
r
or
2 1
4
= 4 r' = 4 2r
r' r
Because d is two times r : d' = 2r' = 24 2r = 4 2d
Substitute numerical values and d' = 4 2 (1.20 mm ) = 1.43 mm

evaluate d :
72 Blood takes about 1.00 s to pass through a 1.00-mm-long capillary in

the human circulatory system. If the diameter of the capillary is 7.00 m and the
pressure drop is 2.60 kPa, find the viscosity of blood. Assume laminar flow.
Picture the Problem We can apply Poiseuilles law to relate the pressure drop
across the capillary tube to the radius and length of the tube, the rate at which
blood is flowing through it, and the viscosity of blood.
Using Poiseuilles law, relate the 8L r 4 P

P = I V =
pressure drop to the length and r4 8LI V
diameter of the capillary tube, the
volume flow rate of the blood, and
the viscosity of the blood:
Using its definition, express the I V = Acap v = r 2 v

volume flow rate of the blood:
Substitute for IV and simplify to r 2 P

=
obtain: 8Lv
Substitute numerical values to

=
(3.50 10 6
)
m (2.60 kPa )
2
obtain: 1.00 10 3 m
(
8 1.00 10 3 m )
1.00 s

= 3.98 mPa s
73 [SSM] An abrupt transition occurs at Reynolds numbers of about

5
3 10 , where the drag on a sphere moving through a fluid abruptly decreases.
Estimate the speed at which this transition occurs for a baseball, and comment on
whether it should play a role in the physics of the game.
Fluids 1327
Picture the Problem We can use the definition of Reynolds number to find the
speed of a baseball at which the drag crisis occurs.
Using its definition, relate Reynolds 2rv N R

number to the speed v of the NR = v =
2 r
baseball:
Substitute numerical values (see

v=
(0.018 mPa s )(3 105 )
Figure 13-1 for the density of air and 2(0.05 m )(1.293 kg/m 3 )
Table 13-3 for the coefficient of
viscosity for air) and evaluate v: 1mi/h
= 41.8 m/s 90 mi/h
0.447 m/s
Because most major league pitchers can throw a fastball in the low-to-mid-90s,
this drag crisis may very well play a role in the game.
Remarks: This is a topic that has been fiercely debated by people who study
the physics of baseball.
74 A horizontal pipe of radius 1.5 cm and length 25 m is connected to the

output that can sustain an output gauge pressure of 10 kPa. What is the speed of
20C water flowing through the pipe? If the temperature of the water is 60C,
what is the speed of the water in the pipe?
Picture the Problem Assuming laminar flow of the water, we can apply
Poiseuilles law to find the speed of the water coming out the outflow end of the
pipe.
Use Poiseuilles law to relate the 8L

pressure difference to the volume P = IV
r4
flow rate in the pipe:
Substituting for IV yields: 8L 8L

P = I = Av
r 4 V
r4
Substitute for the cross-sectional area 8L 8L

A of the pipe and simplify to obtain: P = r 2v = 2 v
r 4
r
Solving for v yields: r 2 P

v=
8L

v(20C ) =
(0.015 m )2 (10 kPa )
evaluate v(20C): 8(1.00 mPa s )(25 m )
= 11 m/s
1328 Chapter 13

v(60C ) =
(0.015 m )2 (10 kPa )
evaluate v(60C): 8(0.65 mPa s )(25 m )
= 17 m/s
75 A very large tank is filled to a depth of 250 cm with oil that has a
density of 860 kg/m3 and a viscosity of 180 mPas. If the container walls are
5.00 cm thick, and a cylindrical hole of radius 0.750 cm is bored through the base
of the container, what is the initial volume flow rate (in L/s) of the oil through the
hole?
Picture the Problem Assuming laminar flow, we can apply Poiseuilles law to
relate the pressure difference between the inside and the outside of the container
at its base to the volume flow rate of oil out of the hole. We can find the pressure
difference from the expression for the pressure as a function of depth in a fluid.
Use Poiseuilles law to relate the 8L r 4 P

pressure difference to the volume P = IV IV = (1)
r4 8L
flow rate of oil out of the hole:
The pressure at the bottom of the P = P0 + oil gh

container of oil is given by:
The pressure difference between the P = P P0 = oil gh

inside and outside of the container is:
Substituting for P in equation (1) r 4 oil gh

yields: IV =
8L
(0.0075 m )4 (860 kg/m 3 )(9.81 m/s 2 )(2.50 m )

IV = = 2.91 10 3 m 3 / s = 2.91 L/s
8(180 mPa s )(0.0500 m )
76 The drag force on a moving sphere at very low Reynolds number is

given by FD = 6 av , where is the viscosity of the surrounding fluid and a is
the radius of the sphere. (This relation is called Stokes law.) Using this
information, find the terminal speed of ascent for a spherical 1.0-mm diameter
carbon dioxide bubble of 1.0-mm diameter rising in a carbonated beverage
( = 1.1 kg/L and = 1.8 mPas ). How long should it take for this bubble to rise
20 cm (the height of a drinking glass)? Is this length of time consistent with your
observations?
Fluids 1329
Picture the Problem Let the y

subscripts f refer to displaced
fluid, s to soda, and g to the r
B
gas in the bubble. The free-body
diagram shows the forces acting on
the bubble prior to reaching its
terminal speed. We can apply r
mg
Newtons second law, Stokes law,
and Archimedes principle to express r
the terminal speed of the bubble in Fd
terms of its radius, and the viscosity
and density of water.
Apply Fy = ma y to the bubble to B mg g FD = ma y

obtain:
Under terminal speed conditions: B mg g FD = 0
Using Archimedes principle, express B = wf = mf g

the buoyant force B acting on the = f Vf g = sVbubble g
bubble:
Express the mass of the gas bubble: mg = gVg = gVbubble
Substitute to obtain: sVbubble g gVbubble g 6avt = 0
Solving for vt gives: Vbubble g ( s g )

vt =
6a
Substitute for Vbubble and simplify: a 3 g ( s g ) 2a 2 g ( s g )

4
vt = 3
=
6a 9
2a 2 g s
, since s >> g .
9
Substitute numerical values and evaluate vt:
2(0.50 10 3 m ) (9.81 m/s 2 )(1.1 10 3 kg/m 3 )

2
vt = = 0.333 m/s = 0.33 m/s

9(1.8 10 3 Pa s )
Express the rise time t in terms of h

t =
the height of the soda glass h and the vt
terminal speed of the bubble:
1330 Chapter 13
Assuming that a "typical" soda 0.15 m

glass has a height of about 15 cm, t = = 0.45 s
0.333 m/s
evaluate t:
Remarks: About half a second seems reasonable for the rise time of the
bubble.
General Problems
77 [SSM] Several teenagers swim toward a rectangular, wooden raft
that is 3.00 m wide and 2.00 m long. If the raft is 9.00 cm thick, how many
75.0-kg teenage boys can stand on top of the raft without the raft becoming
submerged? Assume the wood density is 650 kg/m3.
Picture the Problem If the raft is to be just barely submerged, then the buoyant
force on it will be equal in magnitude to the weight of the raft plus the weight of
the boys. We can apply Archimedes principle to find the buoyant force on the
raft.
The buoyant force acting on the raft B = wraft + wboys (1)

is the sum of the weights of the raft
and the boys:
Express the buoyant force acting on B = wdisplaced water = mdisplaced water g

the raft:
= waterVdisplaced water g
= waterVraft g
Express the weight of the raft: wraft = mraft g = raftVraft g
Express the weight of the boys: wboys = mboys g = Nm1 boy g
Substituting for B, wraft, and wboys in waterVraft g = raftVraft g + Nm1 boy g

equation (1) yields:
Solve for N and simplify to obtain: waterVraft g raftVraft g

N=
m1 boy g
=
( water raft )Vraft
m1 boy
Substitute numerical values and evaluate N:
N=
(1.00 10 3
)
kg/m 3 650 kg/m 3 (3.00 m )(2.00 m )(0.0900 m )
= 2.52
75.0 kg
Fluids 1331
Hence, a maximum of 2 boys can be on the raft under these circumstances.
78 A thread attaches a 2.7-g Ping-Pong ball to the bottom of a beaker.

When the beaker is filled with water so that the ball is totally submerged, the
tension in the thread is 7.0 mN. Determine the diameter of the ball.
Picture the Problem The forces acting y

r
on the ball, shown in the free-body B
diagram, are the buoyant force, the
weight of the ball, and the tension in
the string. Because the ball is in r
equilibrium under the influence of these
forces, we can apply the condition for
translational equilibrium to establish r
the relationship between them. We can mg
also apply Archimedes principle to
relate the buoyant force on the ball to r
T
its diameter.
Apply F y = 0 to the ball: B mg T = 0
Using Archimedes principle, relate B = wdisplaced = mdisplaced g

water water
the buoyant force on the ball to its
diameter: = waterVball g = 43 water gr 3
Substituting for B yields: 4

3 water gr 3 mg T = 0
Solve for r: 3(T + mg ) 3(T + mg )

r =3 d = 2 3

4 water g 4 water g
Substitute numerical values and evaluate d:
[
3 7.0 mN + (0.0027 kg )(9.81m/s 2 )
d = 2 3
] = 1.9 cm

4 (1.00 10 3 kg/m 3 )(9.81m/s 2 )

79 Seawater has a bulk modulus of 2.30 109 N/m2. Find the difference
in density of seawater at a depth where the pressure is 800 atm as compared to the
density at the surface which is 1025 kg/m3. Neglect any effects due to either
temperature or salinity.
1332 Chapter 13
Picture the Problem Let 0 represent the density of seawater at the surface. We
can use the definition of density and the fact that mass is constant to relate the
fractional change in the density of water to its fractional change in volume. We
can also use the definition of bulk modulus to relate the fractional change in
density to the increase in pressure with depth and solve the resulting equation for
the change in density at the depth at which the pressure is 800 atm.
Using the definition of density, relate m = V

the mass of a given volume of
seawater to its volume:
Noting that the mass does not vary dV + Vd = 0

with depth, evaluate its differential:
Solve for d/: d dV V

= or
V V
Using the definition of the bulk P P

B= =
modulus, relate P to /0: V V 0
Solving for yields: 0 P

= 0 =
B
Substitute numerical values and evaluate :
(1025 kg/m ) 799 atm 101.325

3
1atm
kPa

= = 36.1 kg/m 3
2.30 10 9 N/m 2
80 A solid cube with 0.60-m edge length is suspended from a spring

balance. When the cube is submerged in water, the spring balance reads 80
percent of the reading when the cube is in air. Determine the density of the cube.
Fluids 1333
Picture the Problem When it is y

r
submerged, the block is in equilibrium B
under the influence of the buoyant force
due to the water, the force exerted by
the spring balance, and its weight. We r
0.80m g
can use the condition for translational
equilibrium to relate the buoyant force
to the weight of the block and the
definition of density to express the r
weight of the block in terms of its mg
density.
Apply F y = 0 to the block: B + 0.80mg mg = 0 B = 0.20mg
Substitute for B and m to obtain: wVblock g = 0.20 blockVblock g
Solve for and evaluate block: w

block = = 5.0(1.00 10 3 kg/m 3 )
0.20
= 5.0 10 3 kg/m 3
81 [SSM] A 1.5-kg block of wood floats on water with 68 percent of its

volume submerged. A lead block is placed on the wood, fully submerging the
wood to a depth where the lead remains entirely out of the water. Find the mass of
the lead block.
Picture the Problem Let m and V represent the mass and volume of the block of
wood. Because the block is in equilibrium when it is floating, we can apply the
condition for translational equilibrium and Archimedes principle to express the
dependence of the volume of water it displaces when it is fully submerged on its
weight. Well repeat this process for the situation in which the lead block is
resting on the wood block with the latter fully submerged. Let the upward
direction be the +y direction.
Apply F y = 0 to floating block: B mg = 0 (1)
Use Archimedes principle to B = wdisplaced = mdisplaced g

water water
relate the density of water to the
volume of the block of wood: = waterVdisplaced g = water (0.68V )g
water
Using the definition of density, mg = woodVg

express the weight of the block in
terms of its density:
1334 Chapter 13
Substitute for B and mg in equation water (0.68V )g woodVg = 0

(1) to obtain:
Solving for wood yields: wood = 0.68 water
Use the definition of density to m

V=
express the volume of the wood: wood
Apply F y = 0 to the floating block B' m'g = 0 , where B is the new

when the lead block is placed on it: buoyant force on the block and m is the
combined mass of the wood block and
the lead block.
Use Archimedes principle and waterVg (mPb + m )g = 0

the definition of density to obtain:
Solve for the mass of the lead block mPb = waterV m

to obtain:
Substituting for V and water yields: wood m

mPb = m
0.68 wood
1
= 1m
0.68
Substitute numerical values and 1

mPb = 1(1.5 kg ) = 0.71 kg
evaluate mPb: 0.68
82 A Styrofoam cube, 25 cm on an edge, is placed on one pan of a

balance. The balance is in equilibrium when a 20-g mass of brass is placed on the
other pan. Find the mass of the Styrofoam cube. Neglect the buoyant force of the
air on the brass mass, but do not neglect the buoyant force of the air on the
Styrofoam cube.
Picture the Problem The true mass of the Styrofoam cube is greater than that
indicated by the balance due to the buoyant force acting on it. The balance is in
rotational equilibrium under the influence of the buoyant and gravitational forces
acting on the Styrofoam cube and the brass masses. Let m and V represent the
mass and volume of the cube and L the lever arm of the balance.
r
Apply = 0 to the balance: (mg B )L mbrass gL = 0 (1)
Fluids 1335
Use Archimedes principle to B = wdisplaced = mdisplaced g

fluid fluid
express the buoyant force on the
Styrofoam cube as a function of = displaced Vdisplaced g = airVg
fluid fluid
volume and density of the air it
displaces:
Substitute for B in equation (1) and m airV mbrass = 0

simplify to obtain:
Solving for m yields: m = airV + mbrass
Substitute numerical values and ( )

m = 1.293 kg/m 3 (0.25 m ) + 20 10 3 kg
3
evaluate m: = 40 g
83 A spherical shell of copper with an outer diameter of 12.0 cm floats on

water with half its volume above the waters surface. Determine the inner
diameter of the shell. The cavity inside the spherical shell is empty.
Picture the Problem Let din and dout represent the inner and outer diameters of
the copper shell and V the volume of the spherical shell that is submerged.
Because the spherical shell is floating, it is in equilibrium and we can apply a
condition for translational equilibrium to relate the buoyant force B due to the
displaced water and its weight w.
Apply F y = 0 to the spherical Bw=0

shell:
Using Archimedes principle and wV'g mg = 0 wV' m = 0 (1)

the definition of w, substitute to
obtain:
Express V as a function dout: 1 3 3

V' = d out = d out
26 12
Express m in terms of din and dout: 3 3

m = Cu (Vout Vin ) = Cu d out d in
6 6
Substitute in equation (1) to obtain: 3 3

w 3
d out Cu d out d in = 0
12 6 6
1336 Chapter 13
Simplifying yields: 1
2
w d out
3
(
Cu d out
3
)
d in3 = 0
Solve for din to obtain: w

d in = d out 3 1
2 Cu

d in = (12.0 cm ) 3 1
evaluate din: 2(8.93)
= 11.8 cm
84 A 200-mL beaker that is half-filled with water is on the left pan of a

balance, and a sufficient amount of sand is placed on the right pan to bring the
balance to equilibrium. A cube 4.0 cm on an edge that is attached to a string is
then lowered into the water so that it is completely submerged, but not touching
the bottom of the beaker. A piece of brass of mass m is then added to the right pan
to restore equilibrium. What is m?
Determine the Concept Taking the water in the beaker and the beaker as the
system, the additional weight on the right pan is needed to balance the reaction
force to the buoyant force the water in the beaker exerts on the cube.
The buoyant force exerted on the cube B = wdisplaced water = mwater g = waterVcube g
by the water is given by:
The weight of the piece of brass is the w = mg

product of its mass and the
gravitational field:
Equating these forces yields: waterVcube g = mg m = waterVcube
Substitute numerical values and ( )

m = 1.00 g/cm 3 (4 cm ) = 64 g
3
evaluate m:
85 [SSM] Crude oil has a viscosity of about 0.800 Pas at normal

temperature. You are the chief design engineer in charge of constructing a
50.0-km horizontal pipeline that connects an oil field to a tanker terminal. The
pipeline is to deliver oil at the terminal at a rate of 500 L/s and the flow through
the pipeline is to be laminar. Assuming that the density of crude oil is 700 kg/m3,
estimate the diameter of the pipeline that should be used.
Fluids 1337
Picture the Problem We can use the definition of Reynolds number and assume
a value for NR of 1000 (well within the laminar-flow range) to obtain a trial value
for the radius of the pipe. Well then use Poiseuilles law to determine the
pressure difference between the ends of the pipe that would be required to
maintain a volume flow rate of 500 L/s.
Use the definition of Reynolds 2rv

NR =
number to relate NR to the radius of
the pipe:
Use the definition of IV to relate the IV

I V = Av = r 2v v =
volume flow rate of the pipe to its r2
radius:
Substitute to obtain: 2 I V 2 I V
NR = r =
r N R
Substitute numerical values and 2(700 kg/m 3 )(0.500 m 3 /s )

r= = 27.9 cm
evaluate r: (0.800 Pa s )(1000)
Using Poiseuilles law, relate the 8L

P = I
pressure difference between the ends r4 V
of the pipe to its radius:
8(0.800 Pa s )(50 km )
P = (0.500m 3 /s )
evaluate P: (0.279 m ) 4
= 8.4110 6 Pa = 83.0 atm
8(0.800 Pa s )(50 km )
This pressure is too large to maintain
P = (0.500 m 3 /s )
in the pipe. Evaluate P for a pipe of (0.50 m ) 4
50 cm radius: = 8.15 10 5 Pa = 8.04 atm
1 m is a reasonable diameter for the pipeline. This larger diameter makes the
Reynolds number still smaller, so the flow is still laminar.
86 Water flows through the pipe in Figure 13-40 and exits to the
atmosphere at the right end of section C. The diameter of the pipe is 2.00 cm at
A, 1.00 cm at B, and 0.800 cm at C. The gauge pressure in the pipe at the center
of section A is 1.22 atm and the flow rate is 0.800 L/s. The vertical pipes are
open to the air. Find the level (above the flow mid-line as shown) of the liquidair
interfaces in the two vertical pipes. Assume laminar nonviscous flow.
1338 Chapter 13
Picture the Problem Well measure the height of the liquidair interfaces
relative to the centerline of the pipe. We can use the definition of the volume flow
rate in a pipe to find the speed of the water at point A and the relationship
between the gauge pressures at points A and C to determine the level of the
liquid-air interface at A. We can use the continuity equation to express the speed
of the water at B in terms of its speed at A and Bernoullis equation for constant
elevation to find the gauge pressure at B. Finally, we can use the relationship
between the gauge pressures at points A and B to find the level of the liquid-air
interface at B.
Relate the gauge pressure in the pipe Pgauge,A

Pgauge,A = ghA hA =
at A to the height of the liquid-air g
interface at A: where hA is measured from the center
of the pipe.

hA =
(1.22 atm )(1.01 10 5 Pa/atm )
evaluate hA: (1.00 10 3
)(
kg/m 3 9.81 m/s 2 )
= 12.6 m
Determine the speed of the water I V 0.800 10 3 m 3 /s

vA = = = 2.55 m/s
at A: AA
(0.0200 m ) 2
Apply Bernoullis equation for PA + 12 vA2 = PB + 12 vB2 (1)

constant elevation to relate PB and
PA:
Use the continuity equation to relate AA

AA vA = ABvB vB = vA
vB and vA: AB

vB =
(2.00 cm )
2
v = 4v A
evaluate vB: (1.00 cm )2 A
Substitute in equation (1) to obtain: PA + 12 vA2 = PB + 8vA2
Solving for PB yields: PB = PA 152 vA2 = Pgauge, A + Pat 152 vA2

Fluids 1339
Substitute numerical values and evaluate PB:
(
PB = (1.22 atm + 1.00 atm )(101.325 kPa/atm ) 152 1.00 10 3 kg/m 3 (2.55 m/s ) ) 2
1atm
= 1.762 10 5 Pa = 1.739 atm
101.325 kPa
Relate the gauge pressure in the pipe Pgauge,B = ghB

at B to the height of the liquid-air
interface at B:
Solve for hB: Pgauge,B PB Pat

hB = =
g g
Substitute numerical values and evaluate hB:
(1.739 atm 1.00 atm ) 101.325 kPa

atm
hB = = 7.63 m
( )(
1.00 10 kg/m 9.81m/s
3 3 2
)
87 [SSM] You are employed as a tanker truck driver for the summer.
Heating oil is delivered to customers for winter usage by your large tanker truck.
The delivery hose has a radius 1.00 cm. The specific gravity of the oil is 0.875,
and its coefficient of viscosity is 200 mPas. What is the minimum time it will
take you fill a customers 55-gal oil drum if laminar flow through the hose must
be maintained?
Picture the Problem We can use the volume of the drum and the volume flow
rate equation to express the time to fill the customers oil drum. The Reynolds
number equation relates Reynolds number to the speed with which oil flows
through the hose to the volume flow rate. Because the upper limit on the Reynolds
number for laminar flow is approximately 2000, well use this value in our
calculation of the fill time.
The time tfill is related to the volume V V

flow rate in the hose: t fill = = (1)
I V Av
where A is the cross-sectional area of
the hose and V is the volume of the oil
drum.
Reynolds number is defined by the 2rv N R

equation: NR = v =
2 r
1340 Chapter 13
Substitute for v and A in equation (1) V 2 V

to obtain: t fill = =
N r N R
r 2 R
2 r
Substitute numerical values and 3.785 L

2(875 kg/m 3 ) 55 gal
gal
evaluate tfill:
t fill =
(0.010 m )(200 mPa s )(2000)
= 29 s
88 A U-tube is filled with water until the liquid level is 28 cm above the
bottom of the tube (Figure 13-41a). Oil, which has a specific gravity 0.78, is now
poured into one arm of the U-tube until the level of the water in the other arm of
the tube is 34 cm above the bottom of the tube (Figure 13-41b). Find the levels of
the oilwater and oilair interfaces in the other arm of the tube.
Picture the Problem We can use the

equality of the pressure at the bottom of
the U-tube due to the water on one side
and that due to the oil and water on the
other to relate the various heights. Let h
represent the height of the oil above the
water. Then ho = h1w + h.
Using the constancy of the amount h1w + h2w = 56 cm

of water, express the relationship
between h1w and h2w:
Find the height of the oil-water h1w = 56 cm 34 cm = 22 cm

interface:
Express the equality of the pressure w g (34 cm ) = w g (22 cm ) + 0.78 w ghoil
at the bottom of the two arms of the
U tube:
Solve for and evaluate hoil: w g (34 cm ) w g (22 cm )

hoil =
0.78 w g
=
(34 cm ) (22 cm ) = 15.4 cm
0.78
The height of the air-oil interface ho = 22cm + 15.4 cm = 37 cm

ho is:
Fluids 1341
89 [SSM] A helium balloon can just lift a load that weighs 750 N and
has a negligible volume. The skin of the balloon has a mass of 1.5 kg. (a) What is
the volume of the balloon? (b) If the volume of the balloon were twice that found
in Part (a), what would be the initial acceleration of the balloon when released at
sea level carrying a load weighing 900 N?
Picture the Problem The balloon is in equilibrium under the influence of the
buoyant force exerted by the air, the weight of its basket and load w, the weight of
the skin of the balloon, and the weight of the helium. Choose upward to be the +y
direction and apply the condition for translational equilibrium to relate these
forces. Archimedes principle relates the buoyant force on the balloon to the
density of the air it displaces and the volume of the balloon.
(a) Apply F y = 0 to the balloon: B mskin g mHe g w = 0
Letting V represent the volume of the airVg mskin g mHe g w = 0

balloon, use Archimedes principle to
express the buoyant force:
Substituting for mHe yields: airVg mskin g HeVg w = 0
Solve for V to obtain: mskin g + w

V=
( air He )g
Substitute numerical values and evaluate V:
V=
(1.5 kg )(9.81m/s 2 ) + 750 N = 70 m 3
(1.293 kg/m 3
0.1786 kg/m 3 )(9.81m/s 2 )
(b) Apply F y = ma to the balloon:

B mtot g = mtot a a =
B
g (1)
mtot
Assuming that the mass of the skin mtot = mload + mHe + mskin
has not changed and letting V wload
= + HeV '+ mskin
represent the doubled volume of the g
balloon, express mtot:
Express the buoyant force acting on B = wdisplaced fluid = airV ' g

the balloon:
1342 Chapter 13
Substituting for mtot and B in equation airV ' g

a= g
(1) yields: wload
+ HeV '+ mskin
g
Substitute numerical values and evaluate a:
a=
(1.293 kg/m )(140 m )(9.81m/s ) 9.81m/s
3 3 2
2
= 5.2 m/s 2
+ (0.1786 kg/m )(140 m ) + 1.5 kg
900 N 3 3
2
9.81m/s
90 A hollow sphere with an inner radius R and an outer radius 2R. It is

made of material of density 0 and is floating in a liquid of density 20. The
interior is now completely filled with material of density such that that the
sphere just floats completely submerged. Find .
Picture the Problem When the hollow sphere is completely submerged but
floating, it is in translational equilibrium under the influence of a buoyant force
and its weight. The buoyant force is given by Archimedes principle and the
weight of the sphere is the sum of the weights of the hollow sphere and the
material filling its center.
Apply F y = 0 to the hollow sphere: Bw=0 (1)
Express the buoyant force acting [

B = 2 0Vsphere g = 2 0 43 (2 R ) g
3
]
on the completely submerged
= 64
3 0 R 3 g
sphere:
Express the weight of the sphere w = 0Vhollow sphere g + 'Vhollow g

when the hollow in it is filled with a
material of density :
[ { }]
= 0 43 (2 R ) R 3 g + ' 43 R 3 g
3
[ ]
= 28
3 0 R g + 43 ' R g
3 3
Substitute for B and w in equation 64

3 0 R 3 g 283 0 R 3 g 43 ' R 3 g = 0
(1) to obtain:
Solving for yields: ' = 9 0
91 According to the law of atmospheres, the fractional decrease in

atmospheric pressure is proportional to the change in altitude. This law can be
expressed as the differential equation dP/P = Cdh, where C is a positive
constant. (a) Show that P(h) = P0eCh where P0 is the pressure at h = 0, is a
Fluids 1343
solution of the differential equation. (b) Given that the pressure 5.5 km above sea
level is half that at sea level, find the constant C.
Picture the Problem We can differentiate the function P(h) to show that it
satisfies the differential equation dP/P = C dh and in Part (b) we can use the
approximation ex 1 x and h << h0 to establish the given result.
(a) Differentiate P(h) = P0 eCh: dP

= CP0e Ch = CP
dh
Separating variables yields: dP

= Cdh
P
(b) Take the logarithm of both ( )

ln P = ln P0e Ch = ln P0 + ln e Ch
sides of the function P(h): = ln (P0 ) Ch
Solving for C yields: 1 P0

C= ln
h P
Substitute numerical values and 1 P 1

C= ln 1 0 = ln 2
evaluate C: 5.5 km 2 P0 5.5 km
= 0.13 km 1
92 A submarine has a total mass of 2.40 106 kg, including crew and
equipment. The vessel consists of two parts, the pressure hull, which has a volume
of 2.00 103 m3, and the ballast tanks, which have a volume of 4.00 102 m3.
When the boat cruises on the surface, the ballast tanks are filled with air at
atmospheric pressure; to cruise below the surface, seawater must be admitted into
the tanks. (a) What fraction of the submarines volume is above the water surface
when the tanks are filled with air? (b) How much water must be admitted into the
tanks to give the submarine neutral buoyancy? Neglect the mass of any air in the
tanks and use 1.025 as the specific gravity of seawater.
Picture the Problem Let V represent the volume of the submarine and V the
volume of seawater it displaces when it is on the surface. The submarine is in
equilibrium in both parts of the problem. Hence we can apply the condition for
translational equilibrium (neutral buoyancy) to the submarine to relate its weight
to the buoyant force acting on it. Well also use Archimedes principle to connect
the buoyant forces to the volume of seawater the submarine displaces. Let upward
be the +y direction.
1344 Chapter 13
(a) Express f, the fraction of the V V' V'

f = = 1 (1)
submarines volume above the V V
surface when the tanks are filled with
air:
Apply F y = 0 to the submarine Bw=0

when its tanks are full of air:
Use Archimedes principle to B = swV'g

submarine in terms of the volume of
the displaced water:
Substituting for B and w yields: m

swV'g mg = 0 V' =
sw
Substitute in equation (1) to obtain: m

f =1
swV

f = 1
evaluate f: (1.025 103 kg/m 3 )(2.40 103 m 3 )
= 2.44 %
(b) Express the volume of seawater msw

Vsw = (2)
in terms of its mass and density: sw
Apply F y = 0 , the condition for B wsub wsw = 0

neutral buoyancy, to the submarine:
Use Archimedes principle to B = swVg

submarine in terms of the volume of
the displaced water:
Substituting for B, wsub, and wsw yields: swVg msub g msw g = 0
Solve for msw to obtain: msw = swV msub

Fluids 1345
Substituting for Vsw in equation (2) swV msub m

Vsw = = V sub
yields: sw sw

Vsw = 2.40 10 3 m 3
evaluate Vsw: 1025 kg/m 3
= 60 m 3
93 Most species of fish have expandable sacs, commonly known as

"swim bladders," that enable fish to rise in the water by filling the bladders with
oxygen collected by their gills and to sink by emptying the bladders into the
surrounding water. A freshwater fish has an average density equal to 1.05 kg/L
when its swim bladder is empty. How large must the volume of oxygen in the
fishs swim bladder be if the fish is to have neutral buoyancy? The fish has a mass
of 0.825 kg. Assume the density of oxygen in the bladder is equal to air density at
standard temperature and pressure.
Picture the Problem For the fish to achieve neutral buoyancy, its overall density
must be lowered to 1.00 kg/L. In order to lower its density, the buoyant force
acting on the fish needs to be increased by increasing the fishs volume. It can
accomplish this by filling its swim bladder.
Apply the condition for translational F y = B Fg = 0

equilibrium to the fish:
Substitute for B and Fg to obtain: water (V + V )g mg = 0

where V is the fishs volume and V is
the increase in the fishs volume
resulting from the additional oxygen in
its swim bladder.
Solving for V yields: m

V = V
water
Express the density of the fish: m m

= V =
V
Substitute for V to obtain: m m 1 1

V = = m
water water
1346 Chapter 13
The volume of oxygen transferred to

the fish bladders is: 1 1
V = (0.825 kg )
1.00 kg 1.05 kg

L L
= 39 cm 3
Remarks: In this solution, weve neglected the additional mass of oxygen that
should be added to the fishs mass. Consider how small that mass is for a
( )( )
volume of 39 cm3: moxygen = airV = 1.293 kg/m 3 39 10 6 m 3 = 50 g.
Chapter 16
Superposition and Standing Waves
Conceptual Problems
1 [SSM] Two rectangular wave pulses are traveling in opposite

directions along a string. At t = 0, the two pulses are as shown in Figure 16-29.
Sketch the wave functions for t = 1.0, 2.0, and 3.0 s.
Picture the Problem We can use the speeds of the pulses to determine their
positions at the given times.
2 Repeat Problem 1 for the case in which the pulse on the right is
inverted.
Picture the Problem We can use the speeds of the pulses to determine their
positions at the given times.
3 Beats are produced by the superposition of two harmonic waves if

(a) their amplitudes and frequencies are equal, (b) their amplitudes are the same
but their frequencies differ slightly, (c) their frequencies differ slightly even if
their amplitudes are not equal, (d) their frequencies are equal but their amplitudes
differ slightly.
1537
1538 Chapter 16
Determine the Concept Beats are a consequence of the alternating constructive

and destructive interference of waves due to slightly different frequencies. The
amplitudes of the waves play no role in producing the beats. (b ) and (c) are
correct.
4 Two tuning forks are struck and the sounds from each reach your ears
at the same time. One sound has a frequency of 256 Hz, and the second sound has
a frequency of 258 Hz. The underlying hum frequency that you hear is
(a) 2.0 Hz, (b) 256 Hz, (c) 258 Hz, (d) 257 Hz.
Determine the Concept The tone you hear is the average of the frequencies
emitted by the vibrating tuning forks; f av = 12 ( f1 + f 2 ) = 12 (256 Hz + 258 Hz ) or
257 Hz. Hence (d ) is correct.
5 In Problem 4, the beat frequency is (a) 2.0 Hz, (b) 256 Hz, (c) 258 Hz,
(d) 257 Hz.
Determine the Concept The beat frequency is the difference between the two
frequencies; f beat = f = 258 Hz 256 Hz = 2 Hz . Hence (a ) is correct.
6 As a graduate student, you are teaching your first physics lecture while
the professor is away. To demonstrate interference of sound waves, you have set
up two speakers that are driven coherently and in phase by the same frequency
generator on the front desk. Each speaker generates sound with a 2.4m
wavelength. One student in the front row says she hears a very low volume
(loudness) of the sound from the speakers compared to the volume of the sound
she hears when only one speaker is generating sound. What could be the
difference in the distance between her and each of the two speakers? (a) 1.2 m,
(b) 2.4 m, (c) 4.8 m, (d) You cannot determine the difference in distances from
the data given.
Determine the Concept Because the sound reaching her from the two speakers is
very low, the sound waves must be interfering destructively (or nearly
destructively) and the difference in distance between her position and the two
speakers must be an odd multiple of a half wavelength. That is, it must be 1.2 m,
3.6 m, 6.0 m, etc. Hence (a ) is correct.
7 In Problem 6, determine the longest wavelength for which a student

would hear extra loud sound due to constructive interference, assuming this
student is located so that one speaker is 3.0 m further from her than the other
speaker.
Superposition and Standing Waves 1539
Determine the Concept Because the sound reaching the student from the two
speakers is extra loud, the sound waves must be interfering constructively (or
nearly constructively) and the difference in distance between the students
position and the two speakers must be an integer multiple of a wavelength. Hence
the wavelength of the sound is 3.0 m .
8 Consider standing waves in an organ pipe. True or False:
(a) In a pipe open at both ends, the frequency of the third harmonic is three
times that of the first harmonic.
(b) In a pipe open at both ends, the frequency of the fifth harmonic is five times
that of the fundamental.
(c) In a pipe that is open at one end and stopped at the other, the even harmonics
are not excited.
Explain your choices.
(a) True. If l is the length of the pipe and v the speed of sound, the excited
v
harmonics are given by f n = n , where n = 1, 2, 3 Hence the frequency of the
2l
third harmonic is three times that of the first harmonic.
(b) True. If l is the length of the pipe and v the speed of sound, the excited
v
harmonics are given by f n = n , where n = 1, 2, 3 Hence the frequency of the
2l
fifth harmonic is five times that of the first harmonic.
(c) True. If l is the length of the pipe and v the speed of sound, the excited
v
harmonics are given by f n = n , where n = 1, 3, 5
4l
9 Standing waves result from the superposition of two waves that have
(a) the same amplitude, frequency, and direction of propagation, (b) the same
amplitude and frequency and opposite directions of propagation, (c) the same
amplitude, slightly different frequencies, and the same direction of propagation,
(d) the same amplitude, slightly different frequencies, and opposite directions of
propagation.
Determine the Concept Standing waves are the consequence of the constructive
interference of waves that have the same amplitude and frequency but are
traveling in opposite directions. (b) is correct.
1540 Chapter 16
10 If you blow air over the top of a fairly large drinking straw you can
hear a fundamental frequency due to a standing wave being set up in the straw.
What happens to the fundamental frequency, (a) if while blowing, you cover the
bottom of the straw with your fingertip? (b) if while blowing you cut the straw in
half with a pair of scissors? (c) Explain your answers to Parts (a) and (b).

(a) The fundamental frequency decreases.
(b) The fundamental frequency increases.
(c) Part (a): The fundamental frequency in a closed-open pipe is half that of an
open-open pipe, so the frequency you hear with the bottom covered is half that
you hear before you cover the bottom. Part (b): The fundamental frequencies of
all pipes, independently of whether they are open-open or open-closed, varies
inversely with the length of the pipe. Hence halving the length of the pipe doubles
the fundamental frequency.
11 [SSM] An organ pipe that is open at both ends has a fundamental

frequency of 400 Hz. If one end of this pipe is now stopped, the fundamental
frequency is (a) 200 Hz, (b) 400 Hz, (c) 546 Hz, (d) 800 Hz.
Picture the Problem The first

harmonic displacement-wave pattern L
in an organ pipe open at both ends
(open-open) and vibrating in its
fundamental mode is represented in
part (a) of the diagram. Part (b) of
the diagram shows the wave pattern
corresponding to the fundamental (a)
frequency for a pipe of the same
length L that is stopped. Letting
unprimed quantities refer to the open
pipe and primed quantities refer to
the stopped pipe, we can relate the
wavelength and, hence, the
frequency of the fundamental modes (b)
using v = f.
Express the frequency of the first v

f1 =
harmonic in the open-open pipe in 1
terms of the speed and wavelength
of the waves:
Relate the length of the open pipe to 1 = 2 L

the wavelength of the fundamental
mode:
Substitute for 1 to obtain: v

f1 =
2L
Express the frequency of the first v

f 1' =
harmonic in the closed pipe in terms 1'
of the speed and wavelength of the
waves:
Relate the length of the open-closed 1' = 4 L

pipe to the wavelength of its
fundamental mode:
Substitute for 1' to obtain: v 1 v 1

f 1' = = = f1
4L 2 2L 2

(400 Hz ) = 200 Hz
f 1' =
evaluate f 1' : 2
and (a ) is correct.
12 A string fixed at both ends resonates at a fundamental frequency of

180 Hz. Which of the following will reduce the fundamental frequency to 90 Hz?
(a) Double the tension and double the length. (b) Halve the tension and keep the
length and the mass per unit length fixed. (c) Keep the tension and the mass per
unit length fixed and double the length. (d) Keep the tension and the mass per unit
length fixed and halve the length.
Picture the Problem The frequency of the fundamental mode of vibration is

directly proportional to the speed of waves on the string and inversely
proportional to the wavelength which, in turn, is directly proportional to the
length of the string. By expressing the fundamental frequency in terms of the
length L of the string and the tension F in it we can examine the various changes
in lengths and tension to determine which would halve it.
Express the dependence of the v

f1 =
frequency of the fundamental mode 1
of vibration of the string on its
wavelength:
1542 Chapter 16
Relate the length of the string to the 1 = 2 L

wavelength of the fundamental
mode:
Substitute for 1 to obtain: v

f1 =
2L
Express the dependence of the speed FT

v=
of waves on the string on the tension
in the string:
Substitute for v in the expression for 1 FT

f1 =
f1 to obtain: 2L
(a) Doubling the tension and the length would increase the frequency by a factor
of 2 2 .
(b) Halving the tension and keeping the length and the mass per unit length fixed
would decrease the frequency by a factor of 1 2 .
(c) Keeping the tension and the mass per unit length fixed and doubling the length
will have the fundamental frequency. (c) is correct.
(d) Keeping the tension and the mass per unit length fixed and halving the length
would double the frequency.
13 [SSM] Explain how you might use the resonance frequencies of an

organ pipe to estimate the temperature of the air in the pipe.
Determine the Concept You could measure the lowest resonant frequency f and
the length L of the pipe. Assuming the end corrections are negligible, the
wavelength equals 4L if the pipe is stopped at one end, and is 2L if the pipe is
open at both ends. Then use v = f to find the speed of sound at the ambient
temperature. Finally, use v = RT M (Equation 15-5), where = 1.4 for a
diatomic gas such as air, M is the molar mass of air, R is the universal gas
constant, and T is the absolute temperature, to estimate the temperature of the air.
14 In the fundamental standing-wave pattern of a organ pipe stopped at

one end, what happens to the wavelength, frequency, and speed of the sound
needed to create the pattern if the air in the pipe becomes significantly colder?
Explain your reasoning.
Determine the Concept The pipe will contract as the air in it becomes
significantly colder, and so the wavelength (equal to 4L) will decrease as well.
This effect, however, is negligible compared to the decrease in the speed of sound
(recall that the speed of sound in a gas depends on the square root of the absolute
temperature). Because v = f and v decreases with remaining approximately
constant, f must decrease.
15 [SSM] (a) When a guitar string is vibrating in its fundamental mode,

is the wavelength of the sound it produces in air typically the same as the
wavelength of the standing wave on the string? Explain. (b) When an organ pipe
is in any one of its standing wave modes, is the wavelength of the traveling sound
wave it produces in air typically the same as the wavelength of the standing sound
wave in the pipe? Explain.

(a) No; the wavelength of a wave is related to its frequency and speed of
propagation ( = v/f). The frequency of the plucked string will be the same as the
frequency of the wave it produces in air, but the speeds of the waves depend on
the media in which they are propagating. Because the velocities of propagation
differ, the wavelengths will not be the same.
(b) Yes. Because both the standing waves in the pipe and the traveling waves
have the same speed and frequency, they must have the same wavelength.
16 Figure 16-30 is a photograph of two pieces of very finely woven silk

placed one on top of the other. Where the pieces overlap, a series of light and dark
lines are seen. This moir pattern can also be seen when a scanner is used to copy
photos from a book or newspaper. What causes the moir pattern, and how is it
similar to the phenomenon of interference?
Determine the Concept The light is being projected up from underneath the silk,
so you will see light where there is a gap and darkness where two threads overlap.
Because the two weaves have almost the same spatial period but not exactly
identical (because the two are stretched unequally), there will be places where, for
large sections of the cloth, the two weaves overlap in phase, leading to brightness,
and large sections where the two overlap 90 out of phase (that is, thread on gap
and vice versa) leading to darkness. This is exactly the same idea as in the
interference of two waves.
1544 Chapter 16
17 When a musical instrument consisting of drinking glasses, each

partially filled to a different height with water, is struck with a small mallet, each
glass produces a different frequency of sound wave. Explain how this instrument
works.
Determine the Concept Standing sound waves are produced in the air columns
above the water. The resonance frequency of the air columns depends on the
length of the air column, which depends on how much water is in the glass.
18 During an organ recital, the air compressor that drives the organ pipes
suddenly fails. An enterprising physics student in the audience tries to help by
replacing the compressor with a tank of a pressurized tank of nitrogen gas. What
effect, if any, will the nitrogen gas have on the frequency output of the organ
pipes? What effect, if any, would helium gas have on the frequency output of the
organ pipes?
Picture the Problem We can use v = f to relate the frequency of the sound
waves in the organ pipes to the speed of sound in air, nitrogen, and helium. We
can use v = RT M to relate the speed of sound, and hence its frequency, to the
properties of the three gases.
Express the frequency of a given v

f =
note as a function of its wavelength
and the speed of sound:
Relate the speed of sound to the RT

v=
absolute temperature and the molar M
mass of the gas used in the organ: where depends on the kind of gas, R
is a constant, T is the absolute
temperature, and M is the molar mass.
Substitute for v to obtain: 1 RT

f =
M
For air in the organ pipes we have: 1 air RT

f air = (1)
M air
When nitrogen is in the organ pipes: 1 N2 RT

f N2 = (2)
M N2
Express the ratio of equation (2) to f N2 N M air

equation (1) and solve for f N2 : = 2
f air air M N 2
and
N M air
f N2 = f air 2
air M N 2
Because N2 = air and M air > M N2 : f N2 > f air

That is,
f will increase for each organ pipe.
Note, however, that because M air is not
very much greater than M N 2 , the
change in frequency will not be very
great.
If helium were used, wed have: He M air

f He = f air
air M He
Because He > air and M air >> M He , f He >> f air and the effect will be even more
pronounced.
19 The constant for helium (and all monatomic gases) is 1.67. If a man
inhales helium and then speaks, his voice has a high-pitch and becomes cartoon-
like. Why?
Determine the Concept The wavelength is determined mostly by the resonant

cavity of the mouth; the frequency of sounds he makes is equal to the wave speed
divided by the wavelength. Because vHe > vair (see Equation 15-5), the resonance
frequency is higher if helium is the gas in the cavity.
Estimation and Approximation

20 It is said that a powerful opera singer can hit a high note with
sufficient intensity to shatter an empty wine glass by causing the air in it to
resonate at the frequency of her voice. Estimate the frequency necessary to obtain
a standing wave in an 8.0-cm-high glass. (The 8.0 cm does not include the height
of the stem.) Approximately how many octaves above middle C (262 Hz) is this?
Hint: To go up one octave means to double the frequency.
Picture the Problem If you model the wine glass as a half-open (closed-open)
cylinder (shown below on its side), then, knowing the speed of sound in air and
1546 Chapter 16
the relationship between the height of the wine glass and the wavelength of its
fundamental (1st harmonic) frequency, you can find the fundamental frequency
with which it resonates using the relationship v = f. The diagram shows the
displacement-amplitude pattern for the 1st harmonic wave pattern. Note that there
is a displacement node at the bottom of the wine glass and a displacement
antinode at the top of the wine glass. Note further that, in reality, the displacement
antinode is a short distance to the right of the open end of the wine glass.
L
The fundamental frequency is v

related to the wavelength of the f1 =
1
sound in the wine glass according to:
Using the diagram, determine the L = 14 1 1 = 4 L

wavelength of the fundamental
mode:
Substituting for 1 yields: v

f1 =
4L
Substitute numerical values and 343 m/s

f1 = = 1.072 kHz = 1.1 kHz
evaluate f1: 4(8.0 cm )
Because the frequencies 262 Hz, 524 Hz, and 1024 Hz are 20, 21, and 22 times
262 Hz, 1.1 kHz is approximately 2 octaves above 262 Hz.
21 Estimate how accurately you can tune a piano string to a tuning fork of
known frequency using only your ears, the tuning fork and a wrench. Explain
your answer.
Determine the Concept If you do not hear beats for the entire time the string and
the tuning fork are vibrating, you can be sure that their frequencies, while not
exactly the same, are very close. If the sounds of the vibrating string and the
tuning fork last for 10 s, it follows that the beat frequency is less than 0.1 Hz.
Hence, the frequencies of the vibrating string and the tuning fork are within 0.1
Hz of each other.
22 The shortest pipes used in organs are about 7.5 cm long. (a) Estimate
the fundamental frequency of a pipe this long that is open at both ends. (b) For
such a pipe, estimate the harmonic number n of the highest-frequency harmonic
that is within the audible range. (The audible range of human hearing is about 20
to 20,000 Hz.)
Picture the Problem We can use v = f11 to express the resonance frequencies in
n
the organ pipes in terms of their wavelengths and L = n , n = 1, 2, 3, ... to relate
2
the length of the pipes to the resonance wavelengths.
(a) Relate the fundamental frequency v

f1 =
of the pipe to its wavelength and the 1
speed of sound:
Express the condition for n

L=n , n = 1, 2, 3, ... (1)
constructive interference in a pipe 2
that is open at both ends:
Solve for 1: v
1 = 2 L f1 =
2L

f1 = = 2.29 kHz
evaluate f1: (
2 7.5 10 2 m )
= 2.3 kHz
(b) Relate the resonance frequencies v

fn =
of the pipe to their wavelengths and n
the speed of sound:
Solve equation (1) for n: 2L v

n = fn = n
n 2L
Substitute numerical values to 343 m/s

fn = n
obtain: (
2 7.5 10 2 m )
= n(2.29 kHz )
Set fn = 20 kHz and evaluate n: 20 kHz

n= = 8.7
2.29 kHz
1548 Chapter 16
The eighth harmonic is within the range defined as audible. The ninth harmonic
might be heard by a person with very good hearing.
23 Estimate the resonant frequencies that are in the audible range of

human hearing of the human ear canal. Treat the canal as an air column open at
one end, stopped at the other end, and with a length of 1.00 in. How many
resonant frequencies lie in this range? Human hearing has been found
experimentally to be the most sensitive at frequencies of about 3, 9 and 15 kHz.
How do these frequencies compare to your calculations?
Picture the Problem If you model the human ear canal as an open-stopped
column, then, knowing the speed of sound in air and the relationship between the
depth of the ear canal and the wavelength of its fundamental (1st harmonic)
frequency, you can find the fundamental frequency with which it resonates using
the relationship v = f. The diagram shows the displacement-amplitude pattern
for the 1st harmonic wave pattern.
L
The frequencies at which our model v

ear will resonate are given by: fn = n , n = 1, 3, 5, ...
4L
Solving for n yields: 4 Lf n

n=
v
The approximate upper limit for a 2.54 cm

human ear is 20 kHz. Setting fn equal 41.00 in (20 kHz )
in
to 20 kHz and assuming that the n=
343 m/s
temperature of the air in the ear canal
is 20C yields : = 5.92 5
and
3 resonant frequencies lie within the
range of normal human hearing.
The frequencies that lie within the 343 m/s

f1 = 3.38 kHz ,
range of human hearing correspond 4(2.54 cm )
to n = 1, 3, and 5 are:
343 m/s
f 3 = 3 10.1 kHz ,
4(2.54 cm )
and
343 m/s
f 5 = 5 16.9 kHz
4(2.54 cm )
The calculated frequencies agree with the observed frequencies to within 14%.
Superposition and Interference
24 Two harmonic waves traveling on a string in the same direction both

have a frequency of 100 Hz, a wavelength of 2.0 cm, and an amplitude of
0.020 m. In addition, they overlap each other. What is the amplitude of the
resultant wave if the original waves differ in phase by (a) /6 and (b) /3?
Picture the Problem We can use A = 2 y0 cos 12 to find the amplitude of the
resultant wave.
(a) Evaluate the amplitude of the 1

A = 2 y0 cos 12 = 2(0.020 m ) cos
resultant wave when = /6: 2 6
= 3.9 cm
(b) Proceed as in (a) with = /3: 1

A = 2 y0 cos 12 = 2(0.020 m ) cos
2 3
= 3.5 cm
25 [SSM] Two harmonic waves having the same frequency, wave speed
and amplitude are traveling in the same direction and in the same propagating
medium. In addition, they overlap each other. If they differ in phase by /2 and
each has an amplitude of 0.050 m, what is the amplitude of the resultant wave?
Picture the Problem We can use A = 2 y0 cos 12 to find the amplitude of the
resultant wave.
Evaluate the amplitude of the 1

A = 2 y0 cos 12 = 2(0.050 m ) cos
resultant wave when = /2: 2 2
= 7.1cm
1550 Chapter 16
26 Two audio speakers facing in the same direction oscillate in phase at

the same frequency. They are separated by a distance equal to one-third of a
wavelength. Point P is in front of both speakers, on the line that passes through
their centers. The amplitude of the sound at P due to either speaker acting alone
is A. What is the amplitude (in terms of A) of the resultant wave at that point?
Picture the Problem The phase shift in the waves generated by these two sources
is due to their separation of /3. We can find the phase difference due to the path
x
difference from = 2 and then the amplitude of the resultant wave using

A = 2 y0 cos .
1
2
Evaluate the phase difference : x 3 2

= 2 = 2 =
3
Find the amplitude of the 12

Ares = 2 y0 cos 12 = 2 A cos
resultant wave: 23

= 2 A cos = A
3
27 Two compact sources of sound oscillate in phase with a frequency of

100 Hz. At a point 5.00 m from one source and 5.85 m from the other, the
amplitude of the sound from each source separately is A. (a) What is the phase
difference of the two waves at that point? (b) What is the amplitude (in terms of
A) of the resultant wave at that point?
Picture the Problem The phase shift in the waves generated by these two sources
is due to a path difference x = 5.85 m 5.00 m = 0.85 m. We can find the phase
x
difference due to this path difference from = 2 and then the amplitude of

the resultant wave using A = 2 y 0 cos 12 .
(a) Find the phase difference due to x

= 2
the path difference:
Use v = f to eliminate : x x
= 2 = 2f
v v
f
= 2 (100 s 1 )
Substitute numerical values and 0.85 m
= 1.557 rad
evaluate : 343 m/s
= 89
(b) Relate the amplitude of the A = 2 y0 cos 12 = 2 A cos 12 (1.557 )

resultant wave to the amplitudes of = 1.4 A
the interfering waves and the phase
difference between them:
28 With a drawing program or a compass, draw circular arcs of radius

1 cm, 2 cm, 3 cm, 4 cm, 5 cm, 6 cm and 7 cm centered at each of two points (P1
and P2) a distance d = 3.0 cm apart. Draw smooth curves through the intersections
corresponding to points N centimeters farther from P1 than from P2 for N = +2,
+1, 0, 1 and 2, and label each curve with the corresponding value of N. There
are two additional such curves you can draw, one for N = +3 and one for N = 3.
If identical sources of coherent in-phase 1.0-cm wavelength waves were placed at
points P1 and P2, the waves would interfere constructively along each of the
smooth curves.
Picture the Problem The following diagram was constructed using a spreadsheet
program.
N =0
N = +1 N = 1
N = +2 N = 2
P1 P2
29 [SSM] Two speakers separated by some distance emit sound waves

of the same frequency. At some point P, the intensity due to each speaker
separately is I0. The distance from P to one of the speakers is 12 longer than that
from P to the other speaker. What is the intensity at P if (a) the speakers are
coherent and in phase, (b) the speakers are incoherent, and (c) the speakers are
coherent and 180 out of phase?
Picture the Problem The intensity at the point of interest is dependent on

whether the speakers are coherent and on the total phase difference in the waves
x
arriving at the given point. We can use = 2 to determine the phase

1552 Chapter 16
difference , A = 2 p0 cos 12 to find the amplitude of the resultant wave, and the
fact that the intensity I is proportional to the square of the amplitude to find the
intensity at P for the given conditions.
(a) Find the phase difference : 1

= 2 2
=

Find the amplitude of the resultant A = 2 p0 cos 12 = 0

wave:
Because the intensity is proportional I= 0

to A2:
(b) The sources are incoherent and I = 2I0

the intensities add:
(c) The total phase difference is the tot = sources + path difference
sum of the phase difference of the x 1
sources and the phase difference due = + 2 = + 2
2
to the path difference:
= 2
Find the amplitude of the resultant A = 2 p0 cos 12 (2 ) = 2 p0

wave:
Because the intensity is proportional A2

I = 2 I0 =
(2 p0 ) I = 4 I 2
to A2: p0 p02
0 0
30 Two speakers separated by some distance emit sound waves of the

same frequency. At some point P, the intensity due to each speaker separately is
I0. The distance from P to one of the speakers is one wavelength longer than that
from P to the other speaker. What is the intensity at P if (a) the speakers are
coherent and in phase, (b) the speakers are incoherent, and (c) the speakers are
coherent and out of phase?
Picture the Problem The intensity at the point of interest is dependent on

whether the speakers are coherent and on the total phase difference in the waves
x
arriving at the given point. We can use = 2 to determine the phase

difference , A = 2 p0 cos to find the amplitude of the resultant wave, and the
1
2
fact that the intensity is proportional to the square of the amplitude to find the
intensity at P for the given conditions.
(a) Find the phase difference :

= 2 = 2

Find the amplitude of the resultant A = 2 p0 cos 12 (2 ) = 2 p0

wave:
Because the intensity is proportional A2

I = 2 I0 =
(2 p0 ) I = 4 I2
to A2: p0 p02
0 0
(b) The sources are incoherent I = 2I0

and the intensities add:
(c) The total phase difference is the tot = sources + path difference
sum of the phase difference of the x
sources and the phase difference due = + 2 = + 2

to the path difference:
= 3
Find the amplitude of the resultant A = 2 p0 cos 12 (3 ) = 0

wave:
Because the intensity is proportional I= 0

to A2:
31 A transverse harmonic wave with a frequency equal to 40.0 Hz

propagates along a taut string. Two points 5.00 cm apart are out of phase by /6.
(a) What is the wavelength of the wave? (b) At a given point on the string, how
much does the phase change in 5.00 ms? (c) What is the wave speed?
1554 Chapter 16
Picture the Problem (a) Let the +x direction be the direction of propagation of
the wave. We can express the phase difference in terms of the separation of the
two points and the wavelength of the wave and solve for . (b) We can find the
phase difference by relating the time between displacements to the period of the
wave. (c) We can use the relationship between the speed, frequency, and
wavelength of a wave to find its velocity.
(a) Relate the phase difference to the x

= 2
wavelength of the wave:
Solve for and evaluate : x 5.00 cm

= 2 = 2 = 60.0 cm
1
6
(b) The period of the wave is given 1 1

T= = = 25.0 ms
by: f 40.0 s 1
Relate the time between the two 1

5.00 ms = T
displacements to the period of the 5
wave:
The phase difference corresponding 2

=
to one-fifth of a period is: 5
(c) The wave speed is the product of ( )

v = f = 40.0 s 1 (0.600 m )
its frequency and wavelength: = 24.0 m/s
32 It is thought that the brain determines the direction of the source of a

sound by sensing the phase difference between the sound waves striking the
eardrums. A distant source emits sound of frequency 680 Hz. When you are
directly facing a sound source there is no phase difference. Estimate the phase
difference between the sounds received by your ears when you are facing 90
away from the direction of the source.
Picture the Problem Assume a distance of about 20 cm between your ears. When
you rotate your head through 90, you introduce a path difference of 20 cm. We
can apply the equation for the phase difference due to a path difference to
determine the change in phase between the sounds received by your ears as you
rotate your head through 90.
Express the phase difference due to 20 cm

= 2
the rotation of your head through
90:
Because = v/f : 20 cm
= 2f
v
= 2 (680 s 1 )
Substitute numerical values and 20 cm
= 0.79 rad
evaluate : 343 m/s
33 [SSM] Sound source A is located at x = 0, y = 0, and sound source B

is located at x = 0, y = 2.4 m. The two sources radiate coherently and in phase. An
observer at x = 15 m, y = 0 notes that as he takes a few steps from y = 0 in either
the +y or y direction, the sound intensity diminishes. What is the lowest
frequency and the next to lowest frequency of the sources that can account for that
observation?
Picture the Problem Because the sound intensity diminishes as the observer
moves, parallel to a line through the sources, away from his initial position, we
can conclude that his initial position is one at which there is constructive
interference of the sound coming from the two sources. We can apply the
condition for constructive interference to relate the wavelength of the sound to the
path difference at his initial position and the relationship between the velocity,
frequency, and wavelength of the waves to express this path difference in terms of
the frequency of the sources.
Express the condition for constructive r = n , n = 1, 2, 3, ... (1)

interference at (15 m, 0):
The path difference r is given r = rB rA

by:
Using the Pythagorean theorem, rB = (15 m )2 + (2.4 m )2

express rB:
Substitute for rB to obtain: r = (15 m )2 + (2.4 m )2 15 m
Using v = f and equation (1), v

fn = n , n = 1,2,3,...
express fn in terms of r and n: r
1556 Chapter 16
Substituting numerical values 343 m/s

fn = n
yields: (15 m ) + (2.4 m )2 15 m
2
= (1.798 kHz )n = (2 kHz )n
Evaluate f1 and f2 to obtain: f1 = 2 kHz and f 2 = 4 kHz
34 Suppose that the observer in Problem 33 finds himself at a point of

minimum intensity at x = 15 m, y = 0. What is then the lowest frequency and the
next to lowest frequency of the sources consistent with this observation?
Picture the Problem Because the sound intensity increases as the observer
moves, parallel to a line through the sources, away from his initial position, we
can conclude that his initial position is one at which there is destructive
interference of the sound coming from the two sources. We can apply the
condition for destructive interference to relate the wavelength of the sound to the
path difference at his initial position and the relationship between the velocity,
frequency, and wavelength of the waves to express this path difference in terms of
the frequency of the sources.
Express the condition for destructive

r = n , n = 1, 3, 5, ... (1)
interference at (15.0 m, 0): 2
Express the path difference r: r = rB rA
Using the Pythagorean theorem, find rB = (15 m )2 + (2.4 m )2

rB :
Substitute for rB to obtain: r = (15 m )2 + (2.4 m )2 15 m
Using v = f and equation (1), v

fn = n , n = 1,3,5,...
express fn in terms of r and n: 2r
Substituting numerical values 343 m/s

fn = n
yields: 2 (15 m ) + (2.4 m ) 15 m
2 2

= (0.8989 kHz )n = (1 kHz )n
Evaluate f1 and f3 to obtain: f1 = 1kHz and f 3 = 3 kHz

35 [SSM] Two harmonic water waves of equal amplitudes but different

frequencies, wave numbers, and speeds are traveling in the same direction. In
addition, they are superposed on each other. The total displacement of the wave
can be written as y(x,t) = A[cos(k1x 1t) + cos(k2x 2t)], where 1/k1 = v1 (the
speed of the first wave) and 2/k2 = v2 (the speed of the second wave). (a) Show
that y(x,t) can be written in the form y(x,t) = Y(x, t)cos(kavx avt), where
av = (1 + 2)/2, kav = (k1 + k2)/2, Y(x, t) = 2A cos[(k/2)x (/2)t],
= 1 2, and k = k1 k2. The factor Y(x, t) is called the envelope of the
wave. (b) Let A = 1.00 cm, 1 = 1.00 rad/s, k1 = 1.00 m1, 2 = 0.900 rad/s, and
k2 = 0.800m1. Using a spreadsheet program or graphing calculator, make a
plot of y(x,t) versus x at t = 0.00 s for 0 < x < 5.00 m. (c) Using a spreadsheet
program or graphing calculator, make three plots of Y(x,t) versus x for
5.00 m < x < 5.00 m on the same graph. Make one plot for t = 0.00 s, the second
for t = 5.00 s, and the third for t = 10.00 s. Estimate the speed at which the
envelope moves from the three plots, and compare this estimate with the speed
obtained using venvelope = /k.
Picture the Problem We can use the trigonometric identity

A+ B A B
cos A + cos B = 2 cos cos
2 2
to derive the expression given in (a) and the speed of the envelope can be found
from the second factor in this expression; i.e., from cos[(k / 2)x ( / 2) t ] .
(a) Express the amplitude of the resultant wave function y(x,t):
y ( x, t ) = A(cos(k1 x 1t )+ cos(k 2 x 2t ))
A+ B A B
Use the trigonometric identity cos A + cos B = 2 cos cos to obtain:
2 2
k x 1t + k 2 x 2 t k x 1t k 2 x + 2 t
y ( x,t ) = 2 Acos 1 cos 1
2 2
k + k2 + 2 k k2 1
= 2 Acos 1 x 1 t cos 1 x+ 2 t
2 2 2 2
1558 Chapter 16
Substitute av = (1 + 2)/2, kav = (k1 + k2)/2, = 1 2 and k = k1 k2 to

obtain:
k
y ( x,t ) = 2 A[cos(k ave x avet )cos x t
2 2
= Y (x, t )[cos(k ave x ave t )
where
k
Y ( x, t ) = 2 A cos x t
2 2
(b) A spreadsheet program to calculate y(x,t) between 0 m and 5.00 m at t = 0.00 s,

follows. The constants and cell formulas used are shown in the table.
Cell Content/Formula Algebraic Form

A15 0
A16 A15+0.25 x + x
B15 2*$B$2*COS(0.5*($B$3 $B$4)*A15 Y ( x,0.00 s )
0.5*($B$5$B$6)*$B$8)
C15 B15*COS(0.5*($B$3+$B$4)*A15 y ( x,0.00 s )
0.5*($B$5+$B$6)*$B$7)
A B C
1
2 A= 1 cm
3 k1 = 1 m1
4 k2 = 0.8 m1
5 1= 1 rad/s
6 2= 0.9 rad/s
7 t= 0.00 s
8
9
10
11
12 x Y(x,0) y(x,0)
13 (m) (cm) (cm)
14
15 0.00 2.000 2.000
16 0.25 1.999 1.949
17 0.50 1.998 1.799
18 0.75 1.994 1.557
31 4.00 1.842 1.652

32 4.25 1.822 1.413
33 4.50 1.801 1.108

34 4.75 1.779 0.753
35 5.00 1.755 0.370
A graph of y(x,0) follows:

2.0
1.0
y (x ,0), cm
0.0
-1.0
-2.0
0 1 2 3 4 5
x, m
(c) A spreadsheet program to calculate Y(x,t) for 5.00 m < x < 5.00 m and
t = 0.00 s, t = 5.00 s and t = 10.00 s follow: The constants and cell formulas used
are shown in the table.

A15 0
A16 A15+0.25 x + x
B15 2*$B$2*COS(0.5*($B$3 $B$4)*A15 Y ( x, 0.00 s )
0.5*($B$5$B$6)*$B$7)
C15 2*$B$2*COS(0.5*($B$3 $B$4)*A15 Y ( x,5.00 s )
0.5*($B$5$B$6)*$B$8)
D15 2*$B$2*COS(0.5*($B$3 $B$4)*A15 Y ( x,10.00 s )
0.5*($B$5$B$6)*$B$9)
A B C D
1
2 A= 1 cm
3 k1 = 1 m1
4 k2 = 0.8 m1
5 1= 1 rad/s
6 2= 0.9 rad/s
7 t= 0 s
8 t= 5 s
9 t= 10 s
10
1560 Chapter 16
11
12 x Y(x,0) Y(x,5 s) Y(x,10 s)
13 (m) (cm) (cm) (cm)
14
15 5.00 1.755 1.463 1.081
16 4.75 1.779 1.497 1.122
17 4.50 1.801 1.530 1.163
18 4.25 1.822 1.561 1.204
19 4.00 1.842 1.592 1.243
51 4.00 1.842 1.978 1.990

52 4.25 1.822 1.969 1.994
53 4.50 1.801 1.960 1.998
54 4.75 1.779 1.950 1.999
55 5.00 1.755 1.938 2.000
(c) Graphs of Y(x,t) versus x for 5.00 m < x < 5.00 m and t = 0.00 s, t = 5.00 s and
t = 10.00 s follow:
2.0
1.9
Y(x ,t )
1.8
t = 0.00 s
t = 5.00 s
1.7 t = 10.00 s
1.6
-5.0 -2.5 0.0 2.5 5.0
x, m
To estimate the speed of the envelope, x

vest = (1)
we can use its horizontal displacement t
between t = 0.00 s and t = 5.00 s:
From the graph we note that the 2.50 m

vest = = 50 cm/s
wave traveled 2.5 m in 5.00 s: 5.00 s
The speed of the envelope is given 1 2

venvelope = =
by: k k1 k 2
Substitute numerical values and 1.00 rad/s 0.900 rad/s

venvelope =
evaluate venvelope: 1.00 m 1 0.800 m 1
= 50 cm/s
in agreement with our graphical
estimate.
36 Two coherent point sources are in phase and are separated by a

distance d. An interference pattern is detected along a line parallel to the line
through the sources and a large distance D from the sources, as shown in Figure
16-31. (a) Show that the path difference s from the two sources to some point
on the line at an angle is given, approximately, by s d sin . Hint: Assume
that D >> d, so the lines from the sources to P are approximately parallel (Figure
16-31b). (b) Show that the two waves interfere constructively at P if s = m,
where m = 0, 1, 2,... (That is, show there is an interference maximum at P if
s = m, where m = 0, 1, 2, ...) (c) Show that the distance ym from the central
maximum (at y = 0) to the mth interference maximum at P is given by
y m = D tan m , where d sin m = m .
Picture the Problem The following diagram shows the two sources separated by
a distance d and the path difference s between the two sources and point P.
Because the lines from the sources to the distant point are approximately parallel,
the triangle shown in the diagram is approximately a right triangle and we can use
trigonometry to express s in terms of d and . In Part (b), we can use the
relationship giving the phase difference due to a path difference to show that the
two waves interfere constructively at P if s = m. In Part (c) we use the
geometry of Figure 16-31a to relate ym to D and m.
Part (a) Part (c)

P
ym
S1 S1
m
m
d
d 0

S2 s
S2 s D
(a) Using the diagram for Part (a), s

sin s d sin
relate s to the separation of the d
sources and the angle :
(b) is related to s through the s

= s =
proportion: 2 2
1562 Chapter 16
There will be constructive = 2m, m = 0,1,2, , ...

interference at P provided:
Substituting for and simplifying

s =
(2m ) = m , m = 0,1,2, ,...
yields: 2
(c) Referring to the diagram for Part ym

tan m = y m = D tan m
(c), note that, if m << 1 (equivalently, D
d << D), then d sin m = m and:
37 Two sound sources radiating in phase at a frequency of 480 Hz

interfere such that maxima are heard at angles of 0 and 23 from a line
perpendicular to that joining the two sources. The listener is at a large distance
from the line through both sources, and no additional maxima are heard at angles
in the range 0 < < 23. Find the separation d between the two sources, and any
other angles at which intensity maxima will be heard. (Use the result of Problem
36.)
Picture the Problem Because a maximum is heard at 0 and the sources are in
phase, we can conclude that the path difference is 0. Because the next maximum
is heard at 23, the path difference to that position must be one wavelength. We
can use the result of Part (a) of Problem 36 to relate the separation of the sources
to the path difference and the angle . Well apply the condition for constructive
interference to determine the angular locations of other points of maximum
intensity in the interference pattern.
Using the result of Part (a) of s

d=
Problem 36, express the separation sin
of the sources in terms of s and :
Because s = and v = f : v
d= =
sin f sin
Evaluate d with s = and = 23: 343 m/s

d= = 1.83 m = 1.8 m
( )
480 s 1 sin23
Express the condition for additional d sin m = m

intensity maxima: where m = 1, 2, 3, , or
m
m = sin 1
d
Evaluate this expression for m = 2: 2(343 m/s )

2 = sin 1 = 51
( )
480 s (1.83 m )
1
Remarks: It is easy to show that, for m > 2, the inverse sine function is
undefined and that, therefore, there are no additional relative maxima at
angles larger than 51.
38 Two loudspeakers are driven in phase by an audio amplifier at a

frequency of 600 Hz. The speakers are on the y axis, one at y = +1.00 m and the
other at y = 1.00 m. A listener, starting at (x, y) = (D, 0), where D >> 2.00 m,
walks in the +y direction along the line x = D. (See Problem 36.) (a) At what
angle will she first hear a minimum in the sound intensity? ( is the angle
between the positive x axis and the line from the origin to the listener.) (b) At
what angle will she first hear a maximum in the sound intensity (after = 0)?
(c) How many maxima can she possibly hear if she keeps walking in the same
direction?
Picture the Problem Because the speakers are driven in phase and the path
difference is 0 at her initial position, the listener will hear a maximum at (D, 0).
As she walks along a line parallel to the y axis she will hear a minimum wherever
it is true that the path difference is an odd multiple of a half wavelength. She will
hear an intensity maximum wherever the path difference is an integral multiple of
a wavelength. Well apply the condition for destructive interference in Part (a) to
determine the angular location of the first minimum and, in Part (b), the condition
for constructive interference find the angle at which shell hear the first maximum
after the one at 0. In Part (c), we can apply the condition for constructive
interference to determine the number of maxima she can hear as keeps walking
parallel to the y axis.
(a) Express the condition for

d sin m = m
destructive interference: 2
where m = 1, 3, 5,, or
m 1 mv
m = sin 1 = sin
2d 2 fd
Evaluate this expression for m = 1: 343 m/s

1 = sin 1 = 8.22
( )
2 600 s (2.00 m )
1
1564 Chapter 16
(b) Express the condition for d sin m = m

additional intensity maxima: where m = 0, 1, 2, 3,, or
m 1 mv
m = sin 1 = sin
d fd
Evaluate this expression for m = 1: 343 m/s

1 = sin 1 = 16.6
6 (
00 s 1
()
2.00 m )
(c) Express the limiting condition on d fd

sin m = m 1 m =
sin : d v

m
(600 s )(2.00 m) = 3.50
1
evaluate m: 343 m/s
Because m must be an integer: m= 3
39 [SSM] Two sound sources driven in phase by the same amplifier are
2.00 m apart on the y axis, one at y = +1.00 m and the other at y = 1.00 m. At
points large distances from the y axis, constructive interference is heard at at
angles with the x axis of 0 = 0.000 rad, 1 = 0.140 rad and 2 = 0.283 rad, and at
no angles in between (see Figure 16-31). (a) What is the wavelength of the sound
waves from the sources? (b) What is the frequency of the sources? (c) At what
other angles is constructive interference heard? (d) What is the smallest angle for
which the sound waves cancel?
Picture the Problem (a) Let d be the separation of the two sound sources. We
can express the wavelength of the sound in terms of the d and either of the angles
at which intensity maxima are heard. (b) We can find the frequency of the sources
from its relationship to the speed of the waves and their wavelengths. (c) Using
the condition for constructive interference, we can find the angles at which
intensity maxima are heard. (d) We can use the condition for destructive
interference to find the smallest angle for which the sound waves cancel.
(a) Express the condition for d sin m

d sin m = m = (1)
constructive interference: m
where m = 0, 1, 2, 3,
Evaluate for m = 1: = (2.00 m )sin (0.140 rad ) = 0.279 m

(b) The frequency of the sound is v 343 m/s

f = = = 1.23 kHz
given by: 0.279 m
(c) Solve equation (1) for m: m 1 m(0.279 m )

m = sin 1 = sin
d 2.00 m
= sin 1 [(0.1395)m]
The table shows the values for m m

as a function of m: (rad)
3 0.432
4 0.592
5 0.772
6 0.992
7 1.35
8 undefined
(d) Express the condition for

d sin m = m
destructive interference: 2
where m = 1, 3, 5,
Solving for m yields:

m = sin 1 m
2d
Evaluate this expression for m = 1: 0.279 m

1 = sin 1 = 0.0698 rad
2(2.00 m )
40 The two sound sources from Problem 39 are now driven 90 out-of-
phase, but at the same frequency as in Problem 39. At what angles are
constructive and destructive interference heard?
Picture the Problem The total phase shift in the waves arriving at the points of
interest is the sum of the phase shift due to the difference in path lengths from the
two sources to a given point and the phase shift due to the sources being out of
phase by 90. From Problem 39 we know that = 0.279 m. Using the conditions
on the path difference x for constructive and destructive interference, we can
find the angles at which intensity maxima are heard.
1566 Chapter 16
Letting the subscript pd denote x

= pd + s = 2 +
path difference and the subscript 4
s the sources, express the total where x is the path difference between
phase shift : the two sources and the points at which
constructive or destructive interference
is heard.
Express the condition for x

= 2 + = 2, 4,6 , ...
constructive interference: 4
Solve for x to obtain:

x =
7 15 23
, , ,... =
(8m 1)
8 8 8 8
where m = 1, 2, 3,
Relate x to d to obtain:
x =
(8m 1) = d sin
c
8
where the c denotes constructive
interference.
Solving for c yields: (8m 1)

c = sin 1 , m = 1, 2, 3,
8d
The table shows the values for c m c

for m = 1 to 5: 1 7.01
2 15.2
3 23.6
4 32.7
5 42.8
Express the condition for destructive x

= 2 + = ,3,5, ...
interference: 4
Solve for x to obtain: 3 11 19

x = , , ,... =
(8m 5)
8 8 8 8
where m = 1, 2, 3,
Letting d denotes destructive

x =
(8m 5) = d sin
d
interference, relate x to d to obtain: 8
Solving for d yields: (8m 5)

d = sin 1 , m = 1, 2, 3,
8d
The table shows the values for d m d

for m = 1 to 5: 1 3.00
2 11.1
3 19.3
4 28.1
5 37.6
41 An astronomical radio telescope consists of two antennas separated by

a distance of 200 m. Both antennas are tuned to the frequency of 20 MHz. The
signals from each antenna are fed into a common amplifier, but one signal first
passes through a phase selector that delays its phase by a chosen amount so that
the telescope can look in different directions (Figure 16-32). When the phase
delay is zero, plane radio waves that are incident vertically on the antennas
produce signals that add constructively at the amplifier. What should the phase
delay be so that signals coming from an angle = 10 with the vertical (in the
plane formed by the vertical and the line joining the antennas) will add
constructively at the amplifier? Hint: Radio waves travel at 3.00 108 m/s.
Picture the Problem We can calculate the required phase shift from the path
s
difference and the wavelength of the radio waves using = 2 .

Express the phase delay as a s

= 2 (1)
function of the path difference and
the wavelength of the radio waves:
Find the wavelength of the radio v 2.998 108 m/s

= = = 15.0 m
waves: f 20 10 6 s 1
Express the path difference for the s = d sin

signals coming from an angle with
the vertical:

s = (200 m )sin10 = 34.73 m
evaluate s: 15.0 m
= 2.315 = 2 + 0.315
1568 Chapter 16
Substitute in equation (1) and 0.315

= 2 2.0 rad
evaluate :
Beats
42 When two tuning forks are struck simultaneously, 4.0 beats per second
are heard. The frequency of one fork is 500 Hz. (a) What are the possible values
for the frequency of the other fork? (b) A piece of wax is placed on the 500-Hz
fork to lower its frequency slightly. Explain how the measurement of the new beat
frequency can be used to determine which of your answers to Part (a) is the
correct frequency of the second fork.
Picture the Problem The beat frequency is the difference between the
frequencies of the two tuning forks. Let f1 = 500 Hz.
(a) Express the relationship between f 2 = f1 f

the beat frequency of the frequencies = 500 Hz 4 Hz
of the two tuning forks:
Solving for f2 yields: f 2 = 504 Hz or 496 Hz
(b) If the beat frequency increases, then f2 = 504 Hz; if it decreases, f2 = 496 Hz.
43 [SSM] A stationary police radar gun emits microwaves at 5.00 GHz.

When the gun is aimed at a car, it superimposes the transmitted and reflected
waves. Because the frequencies of these two waves differ, beats are generated,
with the speed of the car proportional to the beat frequency. The speed of the car,
83 mi/h, appears on the display of the radar gun. Assuming the car is moving
along the line-of-sight of the police officer, and using the Doppler shift equations,
(a) show that, for a fixed radar gun frequency, the beat frequency is proportional
to the speed of the car. HINT: Car speeds are tiny compared to the speed of light.
(b) What is the beat frequency in this case? (c) What is the calibration factor for
this radar gun? That is, what is the beat frequency generated per mi/h of speed?
Picture the Problem The microwaves strike the speeding car at frequency fr .This
frequency will be less than fs if the car is moving away from the radar gun and
greater than fs if the car is moving toward the radar gun. The frequency shift is
given by Equation 15-42 (the low-speed, relative to light, approximation). The car
then acts as a moving source emitting waves of frequency fr. The radar gun
detects waves of frequency fr that are either greater than or less than fr depending
on the direction the car is moving. The total frequency shift is the sum of the two
frequency shifts.
(a) Express the frequency difference f = f1 + f 2 (1)

f as the sum of the frequency
difference f1 = f r f s and the
frequency difference f 2 = f r' f r :
Using Equation 15-42, substitute for

f s f r = ( f s + f r ) (2)
u u u
f =
the frequency differences in equation c c c
(1): where u = us u r = u r is the speed of
the source relative to the receiver.
Apply Equation 15-42 to f1 to f1 f r f s u

= = r
obtain: fs fs c
where weve used the minus sign
because we know the frequency
difference is a downshift.
Solving for fr yields: u

f r = 1 r fs
c
Substitute for fr in equation (2) and ur u

f = f s + 1 r f s
simplify to obtain: c c
ur u
= 2 r fs
c c
2
u u
= 2 r f s + r f s
c c
ur ur
Because << 1 : f 2 f s f u r
c c
(b) Substitute numerical values and evaluate f :
0.4470 m / s
83 mi/h
(
f 2 5.00 10 9 Hz ) 1 mi/h
2.998 108 m/s
= 1.2 kHz
1.24 kHz
(c) The calibration factor is = 15 Hz/mi/h .
83 mi/h
1570 Chapter 16
Standing Waves
44 A string fixed at both ends is 3.00 m long. It resonates in its second

harmonic at a frequency of 60.0 Hz. What is the speed of transverse waves on the
string?
Picture the Problem The pictorial representation shows the fixed string vibrating
in its second harmonic. We can use v = f to relate the second-harmonic
frequency to the wavelength of the standing wave for the second harmonic.
Relate the speed of transverse waves v = f 2 2

on the string to their frequency and
wavelength:
Express 2 in terms of the length L 2 = L

of the string:
Substitute for 2 and evaluate v: ( )

v = f 2 L = 60.0 s 1 (3.00 m ) = 180 m/s
45 A string 3.00 m long and fixed at both ends is vibrating in its third
harmonic. The maximum displacement of any point on the string is 4.00 mm. The
speed of transverse waves on this string is 50.0 m/s. (a) What are the wavelength
and frequency of this standing wave? (b) Write the wave function for this
standing wave.
Picture the Problem The pictorial representation shows the string fixed at both
ends vibrating in its third harmonic. (a) We can find the wavelength of this
standing wave from the standing-wave condition for a string fixed at both ends
and its frequency from v = f33. (b) We can use the wave function for a standing
wave on a string fixed at both ends ( y n ( x,t ) = An sin k n x cos n t ) to write the
wave function for the standing wave.
L
(a) Using the standing-wave n 2

L=n , n = 1, 2, 3, ... 3 = L
condition for a string fixed at both 2 3
ends, relate the length of the string to
the wavelength of the harmonic
mode in which it is vibrating:
Substitute the numerical value of 2

3 = (3.00 m ) = 2.00 m
L and evaluate 3: 3
Express the frequency of the third v 50.0 m/s

f3 = = = 25.0 Hz
harmonic in terms of the speed of 3 2.00 m
transverse waves on the string and
their wavelength:
(b) Write the equation for a standing y3 ( x, t ) = A3 sin k3 x cos 3t

wave, fixed at both ends, in its third
harmonic:
Evaluate k3: 2 2
k3 = = = m 1
3 2.00 m
Evaluate 3: 3 = 2f 3 = 2 (25.0 s 1 ) = 50.0 s 1
( ) (
Substitute to obtain: y3 ( x,t ) = (4.00 mm )sin m 1 x cos 50.0 s 1 t )
46 Calculate the fundamental frequency for an organ pipe, with an
effective length equal to 10 m, that is (a) open at both ends and (b) stopped at one
end.
Picture the Problem The first L

harmonic displacement-wave pattern in
an organ pipe open at both ends and
vibrating in its fundamental mode is
represented in Part (a) of the diagram.
Part (b) of the diagram shows the wave (a )
pattern corresponding to the
fundamental frequency for a pipe of the
same length L that is stopped at one
end. We can relate the wavelength to
the frequency of the fundamental
modes using v = f. (b )
1572 Chapter 16
(a) Express the dependence of the v

f1,open =
frequency of the fundamental mode 1,open
of vibration in the open pipe on its
wavelength:
Relate the length of the open pipe to 1,open = 2 L

the wavelength of the fundamental
mode:
Substitute and evaluate f1,open: v 343 m/s

f1,open = = = 17 Hz
2 L 2(10 m )
(b) Express the dependence of the v

f1,closed =
frequency of the fundamental mode 1,closed
of vibration in the closed pipe on its
wavelength:
Relate the length of the closed pipe 1,closed = 4 L

to the wavelength of the fundamental
mode:
Substitute for 1,closed to obtain: v

f1,closed =
4L

f1,closed = = 8.6 Hz
evaluate f1,closed: 4(10 m )
47 [SSM] A 5.00-g, 1.40-m long flexible wire has a tension of 968 N

and is fixed at both ends. (a) Find the speed of transverse waves on the wire.
(b) Find the wavelength and frequency of the fundamental. (c) Find the
frequencies of the second and third harmonics.
Picture the Problem We can find the speed of transverse waves on the wire
n
using v = FT and the wavelengths of any harmonic from L = n , where
2
n = 1, 2, 3, We can use v = f to find the frequency of the fundamental. For a
wire fixed at both ends, the higher harmonics are integer multiples of the first
harmonic (fundamental).
(a) Relate the speed of transverse FT FT L

v= =
waves on the wire to the tension m
in the wire and its linear density:
Substitute numerical values and 968 N

v= = 521 m/s
evaluate v: (0.00500 kg ) (1.40 m )
(b) Using the standing-wave n
L=n , n = 1, 2, 3, ...
condition for a wire fixed at both 2
ends, relate the length of the wire to
the wavelength of the harmonic
mode in which it is vibrating:
Solve for 1: 1 = 2 L = 2(1.40 m ) = 2.80 m
Express the frequency of the first v 521m/s

f1 = = = 186 Hz
harmonic in terms of the speed 1 2.80 m
and wavelength of the waves:
(c) Because, for a wire fixed at both f 2 = 2 f1 = 2(186 Hz ) = 372 Hz

ends, the higher harmonics are
and
integer multiples of the first
harmonic: f 3 = 3 f1 = 3(186 Hz ) = 558 Hz
48 A taut, 4.00-m-long rope has one end fixed and the other end free.
(The free end is attached to a long, light string.) The speed of waves on the rope is
20.0 m/s. (a) Find the frequency of the fundamental. (b) Find the second
harmonic. (c) Find the third harmonic.
v
Picture the Problem We can use Equation 16-13, f n = n = nf1,n = 1, 3, 5, ..., to
4L
find the resonance frequencies for a rope that is fixed at one end.
(a) Using the resonance-frequency v

fn = n = nf1 , n = 1, 3, 5, ...
condition for a rope fixed at one end, 4L
relate the resonance frequencies to
the speed of the waves and the
length of the rope:
Solving for f1 yields: 20.0 m/s

f1 = = 1.25 Hz
4(4.00 m )
1574 Chapter 16
(b) Because this rope is fixed at just one end, it does not support a second
harmonic.
(c) For the third harmonic, n = 3: f 3 = 3 f1 = 3(1.25 Hz ) = 3.75 Hz
49 A steel piano wire without windings has a fundamental frequency of

200 Hz. When it is wound with copper wire, its linear mass density is doubled.
What is its new fundamental frequency, assuming that the tension is unchanged?
Picture the Problem We can find the fundamental frequency of the piano wire
using the general expression for the resonance frequencies of a wire fixed at both
v
ends, f n = n = nf1 , n = 1, 2, 3, ... , with n = 1. We can use v = FT to express
2L
the frequencies of the fundamentals of the two wires in terms of their linear
densities.
Relate the fundamental frequency of v

f1 =
the piano wire to the speed of 2L
transverse waves on it and its linear
density:
Express the dependence of the speed FT

v=
of transverse waves on the tension
and linear density:
Substituting for v yields: 1 FT

f1 =
2L
Doubling the linear density results in 1 FT 1 1 FT

f1' = =
a new fundamental frequency f 2 L 2 2 2 L
given by:
1
= f1
2
Substitute the numerical value of 1

f1' = (200 Hz ) = 141Hz
f1 to obtain: 2
50 What is the greatest length that an organ pipe can have in order that its
fundamental note be in the audible range (20 to 20,000 Hz) if (a) the pipe is
stopped at one end and (b) it is open at both ends?
Picture the Problem Because the frequency and wavelength of sound waves are
inversely proportional, the greatest length of the organ pipe corresponds to the
lowest frequency in the normal hearing range. We can relate wavelengths to the
length of the pipes using the expressions for the resonance frequencies for pipes
that are open at both ends and stopped at one end.
Find the wavelength of a 20-Hz note: v 343 m/s

max = = = 17.2 m
f lowest 20 s 1
(a) Relate the length L of a stopped- n

L=n , n = 1, 3, 5, ...
at-one-end organ pipe to the 4
wavelengths of its standing waves:
For n = 1: max 17.2 m

L= = = 4.3 m
4 4
(b) Relate the length L of an open-at- n

L=n , n = 1, 2, 3, ...
both-ends organ pipe to the 2
wavelengths of its standing waves:
For n = 2: max 17.2 m

L= = = 8.6 m
2 2
51 [SSM] The wave function y(x,t) for a certain standing wave on a

string fixed at both ends is given by y(x,t) = 4.20sin(0.200x )cos(300t), where y
and x are in centimeters and t is in seconds. (a) A standing wave can be
considered as the superposition of two traveling waves. What are the wavelength
and frequency of the two traveling waves that make up the specified standing
wave? (b) What is the speed of these waves on this string? (c) If the string is
vibrating in its fourth harmonic, how long is it?
Picture the Problem We can find and f by comparing the given wave function
to the general wave function for a string fixed at both ends. The speed of the
waves can then be found from v = f. We can find the length of the string from its
fourth harmonic wavelength.
(a) Using the wave function, relate k 2 2

k= =
and : k

= = 10 cm = 31.4 cm
evaluate : 0.200 cm 1
1576 Chapter 16
Using the wave function, relate f and

= 2f f =
: 2
Substitute numerical values and 300 s 1

f = = 47.7 Hz
evaluate f: 2
(b) The speed of the traveling waves 300 s 1

v= = = 15.0 m/s
is the ratio of their angular frequency k 0.200 cm 1
and wave number:
(c) Relate the length of the string to n

L=n , n = 1, 2, 3, ...
the wavelengths of its standing-wave 2
patterns:
Solve for L when n = 4: L = 24 = 2(31.4 cm ) = 62.8 cm
52 The wave function y(x,t) for a certain standing wave on a string that is
fixed at both ends is given by y(x,t) = (0.0500 m)sin(2.50 m1 x)cos(500 s1 t).
A standing wave can be considered as the superposition of two traveling waves.
(a) What are the speed and amplitude of the two traveling waves that result in the
specified standing wave? (b) What is the distance between successive nodes on
the string? (c) What is the shortest possible length of the string?
Picture the Problem (a) v, and k are related according to = kv . and k can
be found from the given wave function. (b) In a standing wave pattern, the nodes
are separated by one-half wavelength. (c) Because there is a standing wave on the
string, the shortest possible length is one-half the wavelength of the waves
interfering to produce the standing wave.
(a) The speed of a traveling wave is

v=
the ratio of its angular frequency and k
wave number:
Substitute numerical values and 500 s 1

v= = 200 m/s
evaluate v: 2.50 m 1
Express the amplitude of the ASW = 2 A A = 12 ASW

standing wave ASW in terms of the
amplitude of the two traveling waves
that result in the standing wave:
Substitute for ASW and evaluate A: A= 1

2 (0.0500 m ) = 2.50 cm
(b) The distance between nodes is v 2v v

d = 12 = 12 = 12 =
half the wavelength: f
Substitute numerical values and (200 m/s )

d= = 1.26 m
evaluate d: 500 s 1
(c) Because there is a standing wave Lmin = 12 = 1.26 m

on the string, the shortest possible
length is:
53 A 1.20-m-long pipe is stopped at one end. Near the open end, there is a
loudspeaker that is driven by an audio oscillator whose frequency can be varied
from 10.0 to 5000 Hz. (Neglect any end corrections.) (a) What is the lowest
frequency of the oscillator that will produce resonance within the tube? (b) What
is the highest frequency that will produce resonance? (c) How many different
frequencies of the oscillator will produce resonance?
Picture the Problem (a) The lowest resonant frequency in this closed-at-one-end
tube is its fundamental frequency. This frequency is related to its wavelength
through v = fminmax. (b) We can use the relationship between the nth harmonic
and the fundamental frequency, f n = (2n + 1) f1 , n = 1, 2, 3, ... , to find the highest
frequency less than or equal to 5000 Hz that will produce resonance.
(a) The wavelengths of the resonant 4L

n = , n = 1, 3, 5, ...
frequencies in a stopped pipe of n
length L are given by:
max corresponds to n = 1: max = 4 L
Use v = f min max to express f min : v v

f min = =
max 4L

f min = = 71.46 Hz
evaluate f min : 4(1.20 m )
= 71.5 Hz
(b) Express the nth harmonic in f n = nf1 , n = 1, 3, 5, ...

terms of the fundamental frequency
(first harmonic):
1578 Chapter 16
To find the highest harmonic below 5000 Hz = nhighest (71.46 Hz )

5000 Hz, let fn = 5000 Hz:
Solve for n (an odd integer) to obtain n = 69

(because there are only odd
harmonics for a pipe stopped at one
end):
Evaluate f69: f 69 = 69 f1 = 69(71.46 Hz )

= 4.93 kHz
(c) There are 69 odd harmonics higher than the fundamental frequency, so the
total number resonant frequencies is 35 .
54 A 460-Hz tuning fork causes resonance in the tube depicted in Figure

16-33 when the length L of the air column above the water is 18.3 and 55.8 cm.
(a) Find the speed of sound in air. (b) What is the end correction to adjust for the
fact that the antinode does not occur exactly at the end of the open tube?
Picture the Problem Sound waves of frequency 460 Hz are excited in the tube,
whose length L can be adjusted. Resonance occurs when the effective length of
the tube Leff = L + L equals 14 , 34 , 54 , and so on, where is the wavelength of
the sound. Even though the pressure node is not exactly at the end of the tube, the
wavelength can be found from the fact that the distance between water levels for
successive resonances is half the wavelength. We can find the speed from
v = f and the end correction from the fact that, for the
fundamental, Leff = 14 = L1 + L, where L1 is the distance from the top of the
tube to the location of the first resonance.
(a) Relate the speed of sound in air v = f

to its wavelength and the frequency
of the tuning fork:
Using the fact that nodes are = 2(55.8 cm 18.3 cm )

separated by one-half wavelength, = 75.0 cm
find the wavelength of the sound
waves:
Substitute numerical values and v = (460 s 1 )(0.750 m ) = 345 m/s

evaluate v:
(b) Relate the end correction L to Leff = 14 = L1 + L L = 14 L1

the wavelength of the sound and
effective length of the tube:
Substitute numerical values and L = 1

4 (75.0 cm ) 18.3 cm = 0.5 cm
evaluate L:
55 [SSM] An organ pipe has a fundamental frequency of 440.0 Hz at

16.00C. What will be the fundamental frequency of the pipe if the temperature
increases to 32.00C (assuming the length of the pipe remains constant)? Would it
be better to construct organ pipes from a material that expands substantially as the
temperature increases or, should the pipes be made of material that maintains the
same length at all normal temperatures?
Picture the Problem We can use v = f to express the fundamental frequency of

RT
the organ pipe in terms of the speed of sound and v = to relate the speed of
M
sound and the fundamental frequency to the absolute temperature.
Express the fundamental frequency v

f =
of the organ pipe in terms of the
speed of sound:
Relate the speed of sound to the RT

v=
temperature: M
where and R are constants, M is the
molar mass, and T is the absolute
temperature.
Substitute for v to obtain: 1 RT

f =
M
Using primed quantities to represent 1 RT'

f' =
the higher temperature, express the ' M
new frequency as a function of T:
As we have seen, is proportional to f' T' T'

= f' = f
the length of the pipe. For the first f T T
question, we assume the length of the
pipe does not change, so = . Then
the ratio of f to f is:
1580 Chapter 16
Evaluate f for T = 305 K and 305 K

f' = f 305 K = f 289 K
T = 289 K: 289 K
305 K
= (440.0 Hz ) = 452 Hz
289 K
Ideally, the pipe should expand so that v/L, where L is the length of the pipe, is
independent of temperature.
56 According to theory, the end correction for a pipe is approximately

L = 0.3186D, where D is the pipe diameter. Find the actual length of a pipe open
at both ends that will produce a middle C (256 Hz) as its fundamental mode for
pipes of diameter D = 1.00 cm, 10.0 cm, and 30.0 cm.
Picture the Problem We can express the wavelength of the fundamental in a pipe
open at both ends in terms of the effective length of the pipe using
= 2 Leff = 2(L + L ) , where L is the actual length of the pipe and = v/f.
Solving these equations simultaneously will lead us to an expression for L as a
function of D.
Express the wavelength of the = 2 Leff = 2(L + L )

fundamental in a pipe open at both where L is its actual length.
ends in terms of the pipes effective
length Leff:
Solve for L to obtain:

L= L = 0.3186 D
2 2
Express the wavelength of middle C v

=
in terms of its frequency f and the f
speed of sound v:
Substitute for to obtain: v

L= 0.3186 D
2f
Substitute numerical values to 343 m/s

L= 0.3186 D
express L as a function of D: (
2 256 s -1 )
= 0.670 m 0.3186 D
Evaluate L for D = 1.00 cm: L = 0.670 m 0.3186(0.0100 m )

= 66.7 cm

= 63.8 cm

= 57.4 cm
57 Assume a 40.0-cm-long violin string has a mass of 1.20 g and is

vibrating in its fundamental mode at a frequency of 500 Hz. (a) What is the
wavelength of the standing wave on the string? (b) What is the tension in the
string? (c) Where should you place your finger to increase the fundamental
frequency to 650 Hz?
Picture the Problem (a) We know that, when a string is vibrating in its
fundamental mode, its ends are one-half wavelength apart. (b) We can use v = f
to express the fundamental frequency of the violin string in terms of the speed of
waves in the string and v = FT to relate the speed of waves in the string and
the fundamental frequency to the tension in the string. (c) We can use this
relationship between f and L, the length of the string, to find the length of string
when it vibrates with a frequency of 650 Hz.
(a) Express the wavelength of the = 2 L = 2(40.0 cm ) = 80.0 cm

standing wave, vibrating in its
fundamental mode, to the length L
of the string:
(b) Relate the speed of the waves v = f

combining to form the standing
wave to its frequency and
wavelength:
Express the speed of transverse FT FT L

v= =
waves as a function of the tension in m
the string: where m is the mass of the string and L
is its length.
Substitute for v to obtain: FT L m

= f FT = f 2 2
m L
1582 Chapter 16

evaluate F:
(
F = 500 s 1 ) (0.800 m )
2 2

0.400 m
= 480 N
(c) Using v = f and assuming that v v v

f = = L=
the string is still vibrating in its 2L 2f
fundamental mode, express its
frequency in terms of its length:
Letting primed quantities refer to a v

L' =
second length and frequency, express 2 f'
L in terms of f :
Express the ratio of L to L and L' f f

= L' = L
solve for L: L f' f'
Evaluate L650 Hz: 500 Hz

L650 Hz = L500 Hz
650 Hz
500 Hz
= (40.0 cm ) = 30.77 cm
650 Hz
You should place your finger 9.2 cm from the fixed end of the string.
58 The G string on a violin is 30.0 cm long. When played without

fingering, it vibrates in its fundamental mode at a frequency of 196 Hz. The next
higher notes on its C-major scale are A (220 Hz), B (247 Hz), C (262 Hz), and D
(294 Hz). How far from the end of the string must a finger be placed to play each
of these notes?
Picture the Problem Let f represent the frequencies corresponding to the A, B,

C, and D notes and x(f ) represent the distances from the end of the string that a
finger must be placed to play each of these notes. Then, the distances at which the
finger must be placed are given by x( f ' ) = L( f G ) L( f ' ) .
Express the distances at which the x ( f ' ) = L ( f G ) L ( f ') (1)

finger must be placed in terms of the
lengths of the G string and the
frequencies f of the A, B, C, and D
notes:
Assuming that it vibrates in its v v v

fG = = LG =
fundamental mode, express the G 2LG 2 fG
frequency of the G string in terms of
its length:
Letting primed quantities refer to the v

L' =
string lengths and frequencies of the 2f'
A, B, C, and D notes, express L in
terms of f :
Express the ratio of L to L and solve L' f f

= G L' = G LG
for L: LG f' f'
Evaluate L = L(f) for the notes A, Note Frequency L(f )

B, C and D to complete the table: (Hz) (cm)
A 220 26.73
B 247 23.81
C 262 22.44
D 294 20.00
Use equation (1) to evaluate x(f ) Note Frequency L(f ) x(f )

and complete the table to the (Hz) (cm) (cm)
right: A 220 26.73 3.3
B 247 23.81 6.2
C 262 22.44 7.6
D 294 20.00 10
59 A string that has a linear mass density of 4.00 103 kg/m is under a
tension of 360 N and is fixed at both ends. One of its resonance frequencies is
375 Hz. The next higher resonance frequency is 450 Hz. (a) What is the
fundamental frequency of this string? (b) Which harmonics have the given
frequencies? (c) What is the length of the string?
Picture the Problem We can use the fact that the resonance frequencies are
multiples of the fundamental frequency to find both the fundamental frequency
and the harmonic numbers corresponding to 375 Hz and 450 Hz. We can find the
length of the string by relating it to the wavelength of the waves on it and the
wavelength to the speed and frequency of the waves. The speed of the waves is, in
turn, a function of the tension in the string and its linear density, both of which we
are given.
1584 Chapter 16
(a) Express 375 Hz as an integer nf1 = 375 Hz (1)

multiple of the fundamental
frequency of the string:
Express 450 Hz as an integer (n + 1) f1 = 450 Hz (2)

multiple of the fundamental
frequency of the string:
Solve equations (1) and (2) f1 = 75 Hz

simultaneously for f1:
(b) Substitute in equation (1) to n = 5 the harmonics are the

obtain: 5 th and 6 th .
(c) Express the length of the string v

L= =
as a function of the speed of 2 2 f1
transverse waves on it and its
fundamental frequency:
Express the speed of transverse FT

v=
waves on the string in terms of the
tension in the string and its linear
density:
Substitute for v to obtain: 1 FT

L=
2 f1
Substitute numerical values and 1 360 N

L=
evaluate L: (
2 75 s 1 ) 4.00 10 3 kg/m
= 2.0 m
60 A string fixed at both ends has successive resonances with

wavelengths of 0.54 m for the nth harmonic and 0.48 m for the (n + 1)th
harmonic. (a) Which harmonics are these? (b) What is the length of the string?
Picture the Problem (a) We can use the fact that the resonance frequencies are
multiples of the fundamental frequency and are expressible in terms of the speed
of the waves and their wavelengths to find the harmonic numbers corresponding
to wavelengths of 0.54 m and 0.48 m. (b) We can find the length of the string by
using the standing-wave condition for a string fixed at both ends.
(a) Express the frequency of the nth v v

nf1 = =
harmonic in terms of its n 0.54 m
wavelength:
Express the frequency of the

(n + 1) f1 = v
=
v
(n + 1)th harmonic in terms of its n+1 0.48 m
wavelength:
Solve these equations simultaneously n = 8 the harmonics are the

for n: 8 th and 9 th .
(b) Using the standing-wave n

L=n , n = 1, 2, 3, ...
condition, both ends fixed, relate the 2
length of the string to the wavelength
of its nth harmonic:
Evaluate L for the eighth harmonic: 0.54 m

L = 8 = 2.2 m
2
61 [SSM] The strings of a violin are tuned to the tones G, D, A, and E,

which are separated by a fifth from one another. That is, f(D) = 1.5f(G),
f(A) = 1.5f(D) = 440 Hz, and f(E) = 1.5f(A). The distance between the bridge at
the scroll and the bridge over the body, the two fixed points on each string, is
30.0 cm. The tension on the E string is 90.0 N. (a) What is the linear mass density
of the E string? (b) To prevent distortion of the instrument over time, it is
important that the tension on all strings be the same. Find the linear mass densities
of the other strings.
Picture the Problem (a) The mass densities of the strings are related to the
transverse wave speed and tension through v = FT . (b) We can use
v = f = 2fL to relate the frequencies of the violin strings to their lengths and
linear densities.
(a) Relate the speed of transverse FT FT

v= =
waves on a string to the tension in v2
the string and solve for the strings
linear density:
Express the dependence of the speed v = fE = 2 fE L

of the transverse waves on their
frequency and wavelength:
1586 Chapter 16
Substituting for v gives: FT, E

E =
4 f E2 L2
Substitute numerical values and 90.0 N

E =
evaluate E: [ (
4 1.5 440 s 1 )] (0.300 m)
2 2
= 5.74 10 4 kg/m = 0.574 g/m
(b) Evaluate A: 90.0 N

A =
(
4 440 s 1 ) (0.300 m)
2 2
= 1.29 10 3 kg/m = 1.29 g/m
Evaluate D: 90.0 N
D =
(
4 293 s 1 ) (0.300 m)
2 2
= 2.9110 3 kg/m = 2.91g/m
Evaluate G: 90.0 N
G =
4(195 s 1 ) (0.300 m )
2 2
= 6.57 g/m
62 On a cello, like most other stringed instruments, the positioning of the

fingers by the player determines the fundamental frequencies of the strings.
Suppose that one of the strings on a cello is tuned to play a middle C (262 Hz)
when played at its full length. By what fraction must that string be shortened in
order to play a note that is the interval of a third higher (namely, an E, (330 Hz)?
How about a fifth higher or a G (392 Hz)?
Picture the Problem The speed of a wave on a string is the product of its
wavelength and frequency. In this problem, the standing waves are at the
fundamental frequency; that is, the only nodes are at the ends of the strings and
the wavelength is twice the length of the string. The speed of a wave on a string is
determined by the tension in the string and its mass density. Pressing the string
against the neck of the cello does not change the tension in the string appreciably
and so we can ignore this very small increase in tension in our solution of the
problem. Because the length of the string is half the wavelength of the standing
wave on it we compare the lengths of the string for the various notes by
comparing the wavelengths corresponding to these frequencies.
The wavelength of a standing wave v 1 FT

on a string is given by:
= =
f f
Express the wavelength 1 FT

C = (1)
corresponding to middle C: fC
Express he wavelength 1 FT
E = (2)
corresponding to an E: fE
Express he wavelength 1 FT
G = (3)
corresponding to a G: fG
Divide equation (2) by equation (1) 1 FT

and simplify to obtain: E fE fC
= =
C 1 FT fE
fC
Substitute numerical values to E 262 Hz 4

= = 0.79
obtain: C 330 Hz 5
Dividing equation (3) by equation G f C

=
(1) and simplifying yields: C f G
Substitute numerical values to E 262 Hz 2

= = 0.67
obtain: C 392 Hz 3
Thus, to play and E, the string is shortened by one-fifth and, to play a G, the string
is shortened by one-third.
63 To tune your violin, you first tune the A string to the correct pitch of
440 Hz and then you bow both it and an adjoining string simultaneously, all the
while listening for beats. While bowing the A and E strings, you hear a beat
frequency of 3.00 Hz and note that the beat frequency increases as the tension on
the E string is increased. (The E string is to be tuned to 660 Hz.) (a) Why are
beats produced by these two strings when bowed simultaneously? (b) What is the
frequency of the E string vibration when the beat frequency is 3.00 Hz?
Picture the Problem (a) and (b) Beat frequencies are heard when the strings are
vibrating with slightly different frequencies. To understand the beat frequency
heard when the A and E strings are bowed simultaneously, we need to consider
the harmonics of both strings. In Part (c) well relate the tension in the string to
the frequency of its vibration and set up a proportion involving the frequencies
corresponding to the two tensions that we can solve for the tension when the E
string is perfectly tuned.
1588 Chapter 16
(a) The two sounds produce a beat because the third harmonic of the A string is
the same as the second harmonic of the E string, and the original frequency of the
E string is slightly greater than 660 Hz. If f E = (660 + f )Hz , a beat of 2f will
be heard.
(b) Because fbeat increases with f E = 660 Hz + 12 (3.00 Hz )

increasing tension, the frequency of = 661.5 Hz
the E string is greater than 660 Hz.
= 662 Hz
Thus the frequency of the E string is:
64 A 2.00-m-long string fixed at one end and free at the other (the free
end is fastened to the end of a long, light thread) is vibrating in its third harmonic
with a maximum amplitude of 3.00 cm and a frequency 100 Hz. (a) Write the
wave function for this vibration. (b) Write a function for the kinetic energy of a
segment of the string of length dx, at a point a distance x from the fixed end, as a
function of time t. At what times is this kinetic energy maximum? What is the
shape of the string at these times? (c) Find the maximum kinetic energy of the
string by integrating your expression for Part (b) over the total length of the
string.
Picture the Problem 3 and k3 can be expressed in terms of the given

information and then substituted to find the wave function for the third harmonic.
We can use the time-derivative of this expression (the transverse speed) to express
the kinetic energy of a segment of mass dm and length dx of the string. Integrating
this expression will give us the maximum kinetic energy of the string in terms of
its mass.
(a) Write the general form of the y3 ( x, t ) = A3 sin k3 x cos 3t (1)

wave function for the third harmonic:
3 is given by: 3 = 2f 3
Using the standing-wave condition 3 4

L=3 3 = L
for a string fixed at one end, relate 4 3
the length of the string to its third
harmonic wavelength:
k3 is given by: 2 2 3
k3 = = =
3 4
L 2L
3
Substituting for 3 and k3 in equation 3

y3 ( x, t ) = A3 sin x cos 2f 3t
(1) yields: 2L
Substitute numerical values to obtain:
3
y3 ( x, t ) = (0.0300 m )sin m 1 x cos(200 s 1 )t
4
where x is measured from the fixed end and 0 x 2.00 m
(b) Express the kinetic energy of a dK = 12 dmv y2

segment of string of mass dm:
Express the mass of the segment in dm = dx

terms of its length dx and the linear
density of the string:
Using our result in (a), evaluate vy:
3 1
(0.0300 m )sin m x cos(200 s ) t
1
vy =
t 4
3
= (200 s 1 )(0.03 m )sin m 1 x sin (200 s 1 ) t
4
3
= (6 m/s )sin m 1 x sin (200 s 1 ) t
4
Substitute in the expression for dK to obtain:
2
3 1
dK = 1
2 (
(6 m/s )sin m x sin 200 s
1
) t dx
4
Express the condition on the time sin (200 s 1 )t = 1

that makes dK a maximum: or
3
( )
200 s 1 t = , ,...
2 2
Solve for and evaluate t: 1 1 3

t= , ,...
200 s 2 200 s 2
1 1
= 2.50 ms,7.50 ms,...
Because the strings maximum kinetic energy occurs when y(x,t) = 0. Thus the
string is a straight line.
1590 Chapter 16
(c) Integrate dK from (b) over the L

K max = 12 [A sin kx sin t ] dx
2
length of the string to obtain:
0
L
= A sin
1 2 2 2
2 kxdx
0
1 1
= 12 2 A 2 [2 kx 14 sin 2kx] 0L
k
= 14 m 2 A 2
where m is the mass of the string.
K max = 14 m(200 s 1 ) (0.0300 m )

2
evaluate Kmax:
= (88.8 J/kg )m
65 [SSM] A commonly used physics experiment that examines

resonances of transverse waves on a string is shown in Figure 16-34. A weight is
attached to the end of a string draped over a pulley; the other end of the string is
attached to a mechanical oscillator that moves up and down at a frequency f that
remains fixed throughout the demonstration. The length L between the oscillator
and the pulley is fixed, and the tension is equal to the gravitational force on the
weight. For certain values of the tension, the string resonates. Assume the string
does not stretch or shrink as the tension is varied. You are in charge of setting up
this apparatus for a lecture demonstration. (a) Explain why only certain discrete
values of the tension result in standing waves on the string. (b) Do you need to
increase or decrease the tension to produce a standing wave with an additional
antinode? Explain. (c) Prove your reasoning in Part (b) by showing that the values
for the tension FTn for the nth standing-wave mode are given by FTn = 4L2 f 2 n 2 ,
and thus that FTn is inversely proportional to n2. (d) For your particular setup to
fit onto the lecture table, you chose L = 1.00 m, f = 80.0 Hz, and = 0.750 g/m.
Calculate how much tension is needed to produce each of the first three modes
(standing waves) of the string.
Picture the Problem (c) and (d) We can equate the expression for the velocity of
a wave on a string and the expression for the velocity of a wave in terms of its
frequency and wavelength to obtain an expression for the weight that must be
suspended from the end of the string in order to produce a given standing wave
pattern. By using the condition on the wavelength that must be satisfied at
resonance, we can express the weight on the end of the string in terms of , f, L,
and an integer n and then evaluate this expression for n = 1, 2, and 3 for the first
three standing wave patterns.
(a) Because the frequency is fixed, the wavelength depends only on the tension on
the string. This is true because the only parameter that can affect the wave speed
on the string is the tension on the string. The tension on the string is provided by
the weight hanging from its end. Given that the length of the string is fixed, only
certain wavelengths can resonate on the string. Thus, because only certain
wavelengths are allowed, only certain wave speeds will work. This, in turn, means
that only certain tensions, and therefore weights, will work.
(b) Higher frequency modes on the same length of string results in shorter
wavelengths. To accomplish this without changing frequency, you need to reduce
the wave speed. This is accomplished by reducing the tension in the string.
Because the tension is provided by the weight on the end of the string, you must
reduce the weight.
(c) Express the velocity of a wave on FT w

the string in terms of the tension FT v= =

in the string and its linear density :
where w is the weight of the object
suspended from the end of the string.
Express the wave speed in terms of v = f

its wavelength and frequency f:
Equate these expressions for v to w

obtain: f = w = f 2 2

Express the condition on that 2L

= , n = 1, 2, 3, ...
corresponds to resonance: n
Substitute to obtain: 2L
2
wn = f , n = 1, 2, 3, ...
2
n
or
4 f 2 L2
wn = , n = 1, 2, 3, ...
n2
(d) Substitute numerical values for L,

wn =
4(0.750 g/m ) 80.0 s -1( ) (1.00 m)
2 2
f, and to obtain:
n2
19.20 N
=
n2
Evaluate wn for n = 1: 19.20 N

w1 = = 19.2 N
(1)2
w2 = = 4.80 N
(2)2
1592 Chapter 16

w3 = = 2.13 N
(3)2
*Harmonic Analysis
66 A guitar string is given a light pluck at its midpoint. A microphone on

your computer detects the sound and a program on the computer determines that
most of the subsequent sound consists of a 100-Hz tone accompanied by a bit of
sound with a 300-Hz tone. What are the two dominant standing-wave modes on
the string?.
Picture the Problem Plucking a string that is fixed at both ends in the middle
results in an antinode at the midpoint of the string. Thus the primary modes of
vibration will be those that have an antinode at the midpoint of the string. These
v
modes are the odd harmonics and are given by f n = n = nf1 where n = 1, 3, 5,
2L
The odd harmonics of a string that is v

f n = n = nf1 where n = 1, 3, 5,
plucked in the middle are given by: 2L
From the information given in the n= 1

problem statement f1 = 100 Hz .
Hence the first dominant standing
wave mode is:
Noting that 300 Hz = 3(100 Hz), it n= 3

follows that the second dominant
standing wave mode is:
*Wave Packets
67 [SSM] A tuning fork with natural frequency f0 begins vibrating at
time t = 0 and is stopped after a time interval t. The waveform of the sound at
some later time is shown (Figure 16-35) as a function of x. Let N be an estimate of
the number of cycles in this waveform. (a) If x is the length in space of this
wave packet, what is the range in wave numbers k of the packet? (b) Estimate
the average value of the wavelength in terms of N and x. (c) Estimate the
average wave number k in terms of N and x. (d) If t is the time it takes the
wave packet to pass a point in space, what is the range in angular frequencies
of the packet? (e) Express f0 in terms of N and t. (f) The number N is uncertain
by about 1 cycle. Use Figure 16-35 to explain why. (g) Show that the uncertainty
in the wave number due to the uncertainty in N is 2/x.
Picture the Problem We can approximate the duration of the pulse from the
product of the number of cycles in the interval and the period of each cycle and
the wavelength from the number of complete wavelengths in x. We can use its
definition to find the average wave number from the average wavelength.
(a) Relate the duration of the pulse N

t NT =
to the number of cycles in the f0
interval and the period of each cycle:
(b) There are about N complete x

wavelengths in x; hence: N
(c) Use its definition to express the 2 2N

k= =
wave number k: x
(d) N is uncertain because the waveform dies out gradually rather than stopping
abruptly at some time; hence, where the pulse starts and stops is not well defined.
(e) Using our result in part (c), 2N 2

k = =
express the uncertainty in k: x x
because N = 1.
General Problems
68 A 35-m-long string has a linear mass density of 0.0085 kg/m and is

under a tension of 18 N. Find the frequencies of the lowest four harmonics if (a)
the string is fixed at both ends, and if (b) the string is fixed at one end and free at
the other. (That is, if the free end is attached to a long string of negligible mass.)
Picture the Problem We can use v = fnn to express the resonance frequencies of
n
the string in terms of their wavelengths and L = n , n = 1, 2, 3, ... to relate the
2
length of the string to the resonance wavelengths for a string fixed at both ends.
Our strategy for part (b) will be the same except that well use the standing-
n
wave condition L = n , n = 1, 3, 5, ... for strings with one end free.
4
1594 Chapter 16
(a) Relate the frequencies of the v

fn =
harmonics to their wavelengths n
and the speed of transverse waves
on the string:
Express the standing-wave n 2L

L=n , n = 1, 2, 3, ... n =
condition for a string with both 2 n
ends fixed:
Substitute for n to obtain: v

fn = n
2L
Express the speed of the transverse FT

v=
waves as a function of the tension in
the string:
Substituting for v in the expression 1 FT

fn = n
for fn yields: 2L
Substitute numerical values and 1 18 N

fn = n
simplify to obtain: 2(35 m ) 0.0085 kg/m
= n(0.657 Hz )
Use this equation to calculate the f1 = 0.66 Hz

1st four harmonics:
f 2 = 2(0.657 Hz ) = 1.3 Hz
f 3 = 3(0.657 Hz ) = 2.0 Hz
and
f 4 = 4(0.657 Hz ) = 2.6 Hz
(b) Express the standing-wave n 4L

L=n , n = 1, 3, 5, ... n =
condition for a string fixed at one 4 n
end:
The resonance frequencies equation 1 FT

fn = n
becomes: 4L
1 18 N
=n
4(35 m ) 0.0085 kg/m
= n(0.3287 Hz )
Calculate the 1st four harmonics: f1 = 0.33 Hz

f 3 = 3(0.3287 Hz ) = 0.99 Hz
f 5 = 5(0.3287 Hz ) = 1.6 Hz
and
f 7 = 7(0.3287 Hz ) = 2.3 Hz
69 Working for a small gold mining company, you stumble across an

abandoned mine shaft that, because of decaying wood shoring, looks too
dangerous to explore in person. To measure its depth, you employ an audio
oscillator of variable frequency. You determine that successive resonances are
produced at frequencies of 63.58 and 89.25 Hz. Estimate the depth of the shaft.
Picture the Problem Well model the shaft as a pipe of length L with one end
open. We can relate the frequencies of the harmonics to their wavelengths and the
speed of sound using v = fnn and the depth of the mine shaft to the resonance
wavelengths using the standing-wave condition for a pipe with one end open;
n
L=n , n = 1, 3, 5, ... .
4
Relate the frequencies of the v

fn =
harmonics to their wavelengths and n
the speed of sound:
Express the standing-wave condition n 4L

L=n , n = 1, 3, 5, ... n =
for a pipe with one end open: 4 n

fn = n
4L
For fn = 63.58 Hz: v

63.58 Hz = n
4L
For fn+2 = 89.25 Hz:

89.25 Hz = (n + 2 )
v
4L
Divide either of these equations by n = 4.95 5

the other and solve for n to obtain:
Substitute in the equation for 5v

f5 =
fn = f5 = 63.58 Hz: 4L
1596 Chapter 16
Solve for and evaluate L: 5v 5(343 m/s)

L= = = 6.74 m
(
4 f 5 4 63.58 s 1 )
70 A 5.00-m-long string that is fixed at one end and attached to a long
string of negligible mass at the other end is vibrating in its fifth harmonic, which
has a frequency of 400 Hz. The amplitude of the motion at each antinode is
3.00 cm. (a) What is the wavelength of this wave? (b) What is the wave number?
(c) What is the angular frequency? (d) Write the wave function for this standing
wave.
Picture the Problem We can use the standing-wave condition for a string with
one end free to find the wavelength of the 5th harmonic and the definitions of the
wave number and angular frequency to calculate these quantitities. We can then
substitute in the wave function for a wave in the nth harmonic to find the wave
function for this standing wave.
(a) Express the standing-wave n

L=n , n = 1, 3, 5, ...
condition for a string with one end 4
free:
Solve for and evaluate 5: 4 L 4(5.00 m )

5 = = = 4.00 m
5 5
(b) Use its definition to calculate the 2 2 1

k5 = = = m
wave number: 5 4.00 m 2
(c) Using its definition, calculate 5 = 2f 5 = 2 (400 s 1 ) = 800 s 1

the angular frequency:
(d) Write the wave function for a yn (x, t ) = A sin k n x cos nt

standing wave in the nth harmonic:
Substitute for A, k5, and 5 to obtain:
y5 (x, t ) = A sin (k 5 x )cos(5t ) = (0.0300 m )sin m 1 x cos(800 s 1 ) t

2
71 [SSM] The wave function for a standing wave on a string is

described by y(x,t) = (0.020 ) sin (4x ) cos (60t), where y and x are in meters
and t is in seconds. Determine the maximum displacement and maximum speed of
a point on the string at (a) x = 0.10 m, (b) x = 0.25 m, (c) x = 0.30 m, and
(d) x = 0.50 m.
Picture the Problem The coefficient of the factor containing the time
dependence in the wave function is the maximum displacement of any point on
the string. The time derivative of the wave function is the instantaneous speed of
any point on the string and the coefficient of the factor containing the time
dependence is the maximum speed of any point on the string.
Differentiate the wave function with

vy = [(0.020)sin 4 x cos 60 t ]
respect to t to find the speed of any t
point on the string: = (0.020 )(60 )sin 4 x sin 60 t
= 1.2 sin 4 x sin 60 t
(a) Referring to the wave function, [(

y max ( x ) = (0.020 m )sin 4 m 1 x )] (1)
express the maximum displacement
of the standing wave:
Evaluate equation (1) at x = 0.10 m: y max (0.10 m ) = (0.020 m )

[( )
sin 4 m 1 (0.10 m ) ]
= 1.9 cm
Referring to the derivative of the [(

v y ,max (x ) = (1.2 m/s )sin 4 m 1 x )] (2)
wave function with respect to t,
express the maximum speed of
the standing wave:
Evaluate equation (2) at x = 0.10 m: v y ,max (0.10 m ) = (1.2 m/s )

[(
sin 4 m 1 (0.10 m ) ) ]
= 3.6 m/s
(b) Evaluate equation (1) at y max (0.25 m ) = (0.020 m )

x = 0.25 m: [( )
sin 4 m 1 (0.25 m ) ]
= 0

[( )
sin 4 m 1 (0.25 m ) ]
= 0
1598 Chapter 16
(c) Evaluate equation (1) at y max (0.30 m ) = (0.020 m )

x = 0.30 m: [( )
sin 4 m 1 (0.30 m ) ]
= 1.2 cm

[( )
sin 4 m 1 (0.30 m ) ]
= 2.2 m/s
(d) Evaluate equation (1) at y max (0.50 m ) = (0.020 m )

x = 0.50 m: [( )
sin 4 m 1 (0.50 m ) ]
= 0

[( )
sin 4 m 1 (0.50 m ) ]
= 0
72 A 2.5-m-long string that has a mass of 0.10 kg is fixed at both ends

and is under tension of 30 N. When the nth harmonic is excited, there is a node
0.50 m from one end. (a) What is n? (b) What are the frequencies of the first three
harmonics of this string?
Picture the Problem In Part (a) we can use the standing-wave condition for a
wire fixed at both ends and the fact that nodes are separated by one-half
wavelength to find the harmonic number. In Part (b) we can relate the resonance
frequencies to their wavelengths and the speed of transverse waves and express
the speed of the transverse waves in terms of the tension in the wire and its linear
density.
(a) Express the standing-wave n

L=n , n = 1, 2, 3, ... (1)
condition for a wire fixed at both 2
ends:
Solve for and evaluate 1: 1 = 2 L = 2(2.5 m ) = 5.0 m
Relate the distance between nodes to 1

2 n = 0.50 m n = 1.0 m
the distance of the node closest to
one end and solve for n:
Solving equation (1) for n yields: 2L

n=
n
Substitute for n and L and evaluate 2(2.5 m )

n= = 5
n: 1.0 m
(b) Express the resonance v v

fn = =n
frequencies in terms of the their n 1
wavelengths and the speed of
transverse waves on the wire:
Relate the speed of transverse waves FT

v=
on the wire to the tension in the
wire:
Substitute for v and simplify to 1 FT L

fn = n
obtain: 1 m
=n
1 (30 N )(2.5 m )
5.0 m 0.10 kg
= n(5.48 Hz )
Evaluate fn for n = 1, 2, and 3: f1 = 5.5 Hz

f 2 = 2(5.48 Hz ) = 11Hz
and
f 3 = 3(5.48 Hz ) = 16 Hz
73 An organ pipe is such that its fundamental frequency is 220 Hz. It is

placed in an atmosphere of sulfur hexafluoride (SF6) at the same temperature and
pressure. The molar mass of air is 29.0 103 kg/mol and the molar mass of SF6
is 146 103 kg/mol. What is the fundamental frequency of the organ pipe when
it is in an atmosphere of SF6?
Picture the Problem Because sulfur hexafluoride is a heavy gas, we should

expect the fundamental frequency (which is a function of the speed of sound) to
be lower in an atmosphere of SF6 than it is in air under normal conditions. We can
use the relationship between the speed of a sound wave and its wavelength and
frequency, together with v = RT M , where M is the molar mass, to express the
fundamental frequency of the organ pipe in SF6 in terms of its fundamental
frequency in air.
1600 Chapter 16
The fundamental frequency of the RT

organ pipe in SF6 is given by: vSF6 M SF6 RT
f1,SF6 = = =
1 1 M SF
2
1 6
The fundamental frequency of the RT

organ pipe in air is given by: vair M air RT
f1,air = = =
1 1 12 M air
Divide the first of these equations by RT

the second and simplify to obtain: f1,SF6 M SF
2
1 M air
= 6
=
f1,air RT M SF6
12 M air
Solving for f1,SF6 yields: M air

f1,SF6 = f1,air
M SF6
Substitute numerical values and 29.0 10 3 kg/mol

evaluate f1,SF6 : f1,SF6 = (220 Hz )
146 10 3 kg/mol
= 98.0 Hz
74 During a lecture demonstration of standing waves, one end of a string

is attached to a device that vibrates at 60 Hz and produces transverse waves of
that frequency on the string. The other end of the string passes over a pulley, and
the tension is varied by attaching weights to that end. The string has approximate
nodes next to both the vibrating device and the pulley. (a) If the string has a linear
mass density of 8.0 g/m and is 2.5 m long (from the vibrating device to the
pulley), what must be the tension for the string to vibrate in its fundamental
mode? (b) Find the tension necessary for the string to vibrate in its second, third,
and fourth harmonic.
Picture the Problem We can use v = FT to express F as a function of v and

v = f to relate v to the frequency and wavelength of the strings fundamental
mode. Because, for a string fixed at both ends, fn = nf1, we can extend our result in
Part (a) to Part (b).
(a) Relate the speed of the transverse FT

v= FT = v 2 (1)
waves on the string to the tension in
it:
Relate the speed of the transverse v = f11

waves on the string to their
frequency and wavelength:
Express the wavelength of the 1 = 2 L

fundamental mode to the length
of the string:
Substitute for 1 to obtain: v = 2 fL
Substitute for v in equation (1) to FT = 4 f 2 L2 (2)

obtain:
Substitute numerical values and (

FT = 4 60 s 1 ) (2.5 m) (8.0 10
2 2 3
kg/m )
evaluate F:
= 0.72 kN
(b) For the nth harmonic, equation Fn = f n2 L2 = n 2 f12 L2 = n 2 (720 N )

(2) becomes:
Evaluate this expression for F2 = 4(720 N ) = 2.9 kN

n = 2, 3, and 4:
F3 = 9(720 N ) = 6.5 kN
and
F4 = 16(720 N ) = 12 kN
75 [SSM] Three successive resonance frequencies in an organ pipe are

1310, 1834, and 2358 Hz. (a) Is the pipe closed at one end or open at both ends?
(b) What is the fundamental frequency? (c) What is the effective length of the
pipe?
Picture the Problem (a) We can use the conditions f = f1 and f n = nf1 , where n
is an integer, which must be satisfied if the pipe is open at both ends to decide
whether the pipe is closed at one end or open at both ends. (b) Once we have
decided this question, we can use the condition relating f and the fundamental
frequency to determine the latter. In Part (c) we can use the standing-wave
condition for the appropriate pipe to relate its length to its resonance wavelengths.
(a) Express the conditions on the f = f1

frequencies for a pipe that is open at and
both ends: f n = nf1
1602 Chapter 16
Evaluate f = f1: f = 1834 Hz 1310 Hz = 524 Hz
Using the 2nd condition, find n: f n 1310 Hz

n= = = 2.5
f1 524 Hz
The pipe is closed at one end.
(b) Express the condition on the f = 2 f1 f1 = 12 f

frequencies for a pipe that is open at
both ends:
Substitute numerical values and f1 = 1

2 (524 Hz ) = 262 Hz
evaluate f1:
(c) Using the standing-wave n

L=n , n = 1, 3, 5, ...
condition for a pipe open at one end, 4
relate the effective length of the pipe
to its resonance wavelengths:
For n = 1 we have: v v
1 = and L = 1 =
f1 4 4 f1

L= = 32.7 cm
evaluate L: (
4 262 s 1 )
76 During an experiment studying the speed of sound in air using an
audio oscillator and a tube open at one end and stopped at the other, a particular
resonant frequency is found to have nodes roughly 6.94 cm apart. The oscillators
frequency is increased, and the next resonant frequency found has nodes 5.40 cm
apart. (a) What are the two resonant frequencies? (b) What is the fundamental
frequency? (c) Which harmonics are these two modes? The speed of sound is
343 m/s.
Picture the Problem (a) Because adjacent nodes are separated by one-half
wavelength, we can find the frequencies from our knowledge of the speed of
sound in air the wavelengths of the standing-wave patterns. (b) These frequencies
are consecutive odd-multiples (the tube is half-open) of the fundamental
frequency. (c) The frequencies found in Part (a) are integer multiples of the
fundamental frequency.
(a) The frequencies are determined v

fn =
by the speed of sound in air and by n
the wavelengths of the standing-
wave patterns:
Because the nodes are a half- n = 2d node-to-node

wavelength apart:

fn =
2d node-to-node

fn = = 2471 Hz
evaluate the two frequencies: 2(6.94 cm )
= 2.47 kHz
and
343 m/s
f n' = = 3176 Hz
2(5.40 cm )
= 3.18 kHz
(b) Assuming the two frequencies are nf1 = 2471 Hz

adjacent resonant frequencies, they and
are odd multiples (because the tube is (n + 2) f1 = 3176 Hz
half-open) of the fundamental
frequency:
Subtract the first of these equations (n + 2) f1 nf1 = 3176 Hz 2471 Hz

from the second to obtain: = 705 Hz
Solving for f1 yields: f1 = 1

2 (705 Hz ) = 353 Hz
(c) Divide fn and fn by f1 to obtain: 2471 Hz 2471 Hz

n= = = 7
f1 353 Hz
and
3176 Hz 3176 Hz
n' = = = 9
f1 353 Hz
77 A standing wave on a rope is represented by the wave function

y(x,t) = (0.020 ) sin ( 12 x ) cos (40t), where x and y are in meters and t is in
seconds. (a) Write wave functions for two traveling waves that, when
1604 Chapter 16
superimposed, will produce this standing-wave pattern. (b) What is the distance
between the nodes of the standing wave? (c) What is the maximum speed of the
rope at x = 1.0 m? (d) What is the maximum acceleration of the rope at x = 1.0 m?
Picture the Problem We know that the superimposed traveling waves have the
same wave number and angular frequency as the standing-wave function, have
equal amplitudes that are half that of the standing-wave function, and travel in
opposite directions. From inspection of the standing-wave function we note that
k = 12 m 1 and = 40 s 1 . We can express the speed of a segment of the rope by
differentiating the standing-wave function with respect to time and the
acceleration by differentiating the velocity function with respect to time.
(a) Write the wave function for the wave traveling in the +x direction:
y1 ( x, t ) = (0.010 m )sin m 1 x (40 s 1 )t

2
Write the wave function for the wave traveling in the x direction:
y 2 ( x, t ) = (0.010 m )sin m 1 x + (40 s 1 )t

2
(b) Express the distance d between d = 12

adjacent nodes in terms of the
wavelength of the standing wave:
Use the wave number to find the 2

k = 12 m 1 = and = 4.00 m
wavelength:
Substitute for and evaluate d: d= 1

2 (4.00 m ) = 2.00 m
(c) Differentiate the given wave function with respect to t to express the speed of
any segment of the rope:
v y ( x, t ) =

(0.020 m )sin m 1 x cos 40 s 1
( )t
t 2

= (0.80 m/s )sin m 1 x sin 40 s 1 t( )
2
Evaluate v y (1.0 m, t ) :

v y (1.0 m, t ) = (0.80 m/s )sin m 1 (1 m )sin 40 s 1 t ( )
2
(
= (0.80 m/s )sin 40 s 1 t )
(
= (2.5 m/s )sin 40 s 1
)t
The maximum speed of the rope at vmax = 2.5 m/s
x = 1.0 m occurs when
( )
sin 40 s 1 t = 1 :
(d) Differentiate v y (x, t ) with respect to time to obtain a y ( x, t ) :

a y ( x, t ) =
t

(0.80 m/s)sin m 1 x sin 40 s 1( ) t
2

( )
= 32 2 m/s 2 sin m 1 x cos 40 s 1 t ( )
2
Evaluate a y (1.0 m, t ) :

( )
a y (1.0 m, t ) = 32 2 m/s 2 sin m 1 (1 m )cos 40 s 1 t ( )
2
( ) (
= 32 m/s cos 40 s t
2 2 1
)
= (0.32 km/s )cos(40 s ) t
2 1
The maximum acceleration of the vmax = 0.32 km/s 2

rope at x = 1.0 m occurs when
( )
cos 40 s 1 t = 1 :
78 Two traveling wave pulses on a string are represented by the wave

0.020 0.020
functions y1 (x ,t ) = and y 2 (x ,t ) = , where x is in
2.0 + (x 2.0t ) 2.0 + (x + 2.0t )
2 2
meters and t is in seconds. (a) Using a spreadsheet program or graphing

calculator, make a graph of each wave function separately as a function of x at
t = 0 and again at t = 1.0 s and describe the behavior of each as time increases.
For each graph make your plot for 5.0 m < x < +5.0 m. (b) Graph the resultant
wave function at t = 1.0 s, at t = 0.0 s and at t = 1.0 s.
1606 Chapter 16
Picture the Problem Well use a spreadsheet program to graph the wave
functions and their sum as functions of x at t = 0 and at t = 1.0 s. In (b) we can
add the wave functions algebraically to find the result wave function at t = 0 and
at t = 1.0 s.
(a) and (b) Part of the spreadsheet program to calculate values for y1(x,t) and
y2(x,t) in the interval 5.0 m < x < +5.0 m for the given times follows. The
constants and cell formulas used are shown in the table.

A5 5.0 x
A6 A5+0.1 x + x
B1 1
B2 0
B3 1
B5 0.02/(2+(A52*$B$2)^2) y1 ( x,0 )
C5 0.02/(2+(A52*$B$3)^2) y1 ( x,1.0 s )
D5 0.02/(2+(A5+2*$B$2)^2) y2 ( x,0 )
E5 0.02/(2+(A5+2*$B$3)^2) y2 ( x,1.0 s )
F5 0.02/(2+(A52*$B$1)^2) y1 ( x,1) + y2 ( x,1)
0.02/(2+(A5+2*$B$1)^2)
G5 B5+D5 y1 ( x,0 ) + y2 ( x,0 )
H5 0.02/(2+(A52*$B$3)^2) y1 ( x,1) + y 2 (x,1)
0.02/(2+(A5+2*$B$3)^2)
A B C D E
1 t= 1 s
2 t= 0
3 t= 1 s
4 x y1(x,0) y1(x,1 s) y2(x,0) y2(x,1 s)
5 5.0 0.001 0.000 0.001 0.002
6 4.9 0.001 0.000 0.001 0.002
7 4.8 0.001 0.000 0.001 0.002
8 4.7 0.001 0.000 0.001 0.002
9 4.6 0.001 0.000 0.001 0.002
10 4.5 0.001 0.000 0.001 0.002
110 4.7 0.001 0.002 0.001 0.000

111 4.8 0.001 0.002 0.001 0.000
112 4.9 0.001 0.002 0.001 0.000
113 5.0 0.001 0.002 0.001 0.000
The following graph of y1(x,t) shows it traveling from left to right.

1.2
1.0
y1(x,0)
0.8 y1(x,1 s)
y (x ,t ), cm
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6
x,m
The following graph of y2(x,t) shows it traveling from right to left.
0.0
-0.2
-0.4
y (x ,t ), cm
-0.6
y2(x,0)
-0.8 y2(x,1 s)
-1.0
-1.2
-5 -3 -1 1 3 5
x,m
(b) The following graph shows the resultant wave function at t = 1.0 s, at
t = 0.0 s and at t = 1.0 s.
y1(x,-1)+y2(x,-1)
1.0
y1(x,0)+y2(x,0)
0.8 y1(x,1)+y2(x,1)
0.6
y 1(x ,t ) + y 2(x ,t ), cm
0.4
0.2
0.0
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-1.0
-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6
x,m
1608 Chapter 16
79 Three waves that have the same frequency, wavelength, and amplitude
are traveling along the x axis. The three waves are described by the following

wave functions: y1 (x ,t ) = (5.00 cm )sin kx t ,
3

y 2 (x ,t ) = (5.00 cm )sin (kx t ), and y 3 (x ,t ) = (5.00 cm )sin kx t + ,
3
where x is in meters and t is in seconds. The resultant wave function is given by
y ( x, t ) = A sin (kx t + ) . What are the values of A and ?
Picture the Problem A harmonic y

function can be represented by a
vector rotating at the angular
r
frequency (see Chapter 14). The y1
simplest way to do this problem is to A
r
use that representation. The vectors, 60 y2
x
of equal magnitude, are shown in the 60
diagram. We can find the resultant
r
wave function by finding the y3
magnitude and direction of the
resultant vector.
From the diagram it is evident that: y y =0
Find the sum of the x components of y = (5.00 cm)cos 60

x
the vectors: + (5.00 cm )cos 60
= 10.0 cm
Relate the magnitude of the resultant A= ( y ) + ( y )

x
2
y
2
vector to the sum of its x and y

components: = (10.0 cm )2 + (0)2 = 10.0 cm
The direction of the resultant yy

= tan 1 = tan 1 0
vector is :
yx
10.0 cm
= 0
80 A harmonic pressure wave produced by a distant source is traveling

through your vicinity, and the wave fronts that travel through your vicinity are
vertical planes. Let the +x direction be to the east and the +y direction be toward
the north. The wave function for the wave is p(x, y, t) = A cos (kxx + kyy t).
Show that the direction in which the wave is traveling makes an angle
= tan1(ky/kx) with the +x direction and that the wave speed v is given by
v = k x2 + k y2 .
Picture the Problem The diagram shows a snapshot of a two dimensional plane
wave propagating at an angle with respect to the +x axis. The view is along the
z axis. The wave itself moves in a direction perpendicular to the wavefront.
Choose two points (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) that have a separation of exactly 1
wavelength along the wave propagation direction. Let the snapshot be taken at
some fixed time t.
Planes of constant phase
y r
v
( x 2 , y2 )

( x1 , y1 )
Applying the Pythagorean theorem = ( x2 x1 ) 2 + ( y2 y1 ) 2

to the right triangle in the diagram (1)
yields: = (x ) 2
+ (y )
2
Because kx and ky are the x and y k x = k cos

r
components of k : and
k y = k sin
Divide the second of these equations ky ky

by the first to obtain: tan = = tan 1
kx kx
The wave speed v is the ratio of

v= = (2)
the angular frequency and k 2
wave number k:
1610 Chapter 16
At time t, the phase at point 1 is = k x x2 + k y y 2 t

k x x1 + k y y1 t and the phase at (k x x1 + k y y1 t )
point 2 is k x x2 + k y y 2 t , so the = k x x + k y y
phase difference is: or, because the waves are separated by
one wavelength, = 2 and we have
k x x + k y y = 2
y y k y ky
Because tan is also given by : = y = x
x x k x kx
Substituting for y yields: ky

k x x + k y x = 2
kx
Solve for x to obtain: 2k x

x =
k x2 + k y2
Similarly: 2k y
y =
k x2 + k y2
Substitute for x and y in equation 2k 2k

2 2
(1) to obtain: = 2 x 2 + 2 y 2
kx + k y kx + k y
2
=
k x2 + k y2
Substituting for in equation (2) 2

v= =
yields: 2 k x2 + k y2 k x2 + k y2
81 [SSM] The speed of sound in air is proportional to the square root of

the absolute temperature T (Equation 15-5). (a) Show that if the air temperature
changes by a small amount, the fractional change in the fundamental frequency of
an organ pipe is approximately equal to half the fractional change in the absolute
temperature. That is, show that f/f 12 T/T, where f is the frequency at absolute
temperature T and f is the change in frequency when the temperature changes by
T. (Ignore any change in the length of the pipe due to thermal expansion of the
organ pipe.) (b) Suppose that an organ pipe that is stopped at one end has a
fundamental frequency of 200.0 Hz when the temperature is 20.00C. Use the
approximate result from Part (a) to determine its fundamental frequency when the
temperature is 30.00C. (c) Compare your Part (b) result to what you would get
using exact calculations. (Ignore any change in the length of the pipe due to
thermal expansion.)
Picture the Problem We can express the fundamental frequency of the organ
pipe as a function of the air temperature and differentiate this expression with
respect to the temperature to express the rate at which the frequency changes with
respect to temperature. For changes in temperature that are small compared to the
temperature, we can approximate the differential changes in frequency and
temperature with finite changes to complete the derivation of f/f = 12 T/T. In
Part (b) well use this relationship and the data for the frequency at 20.00C to
find the frequency of the fundamental at 30.00C.
(a) Express the fundamental v

f =
frequency of an organ pipe in terms
of its wavelength and the speed of
sound:
Relate the speed of sound in air to RT

v= =C T
the absolute temperature: M
where
R
C= = constant
M
Defining a new constant C, C

f = T = C' T
substitute to obtain:
because is constant for the
fundamental frequency we ignore any
change in the length of the pipe.
Differentiate this expression with df 1 f

= C ' T 1 2 =
respect to T: dT 2 2T
Separate the variables to obtain: df 1 dT

=
f 2 T
For T << T, we can approximate f 1 T

=
df by f and dT by T to obtain: f 2 T
(b) Express the fundamental f 30 = f 20 + f

frequency at 30.00C in terms of
its frequency at 20.00C:
1612 Chapter 16
Solve the result in (a) for f: T

f = 1
2 f
T
Substitute for f to obtain: T

f 30 = f 20 + 12 f 20
T
Substitute numerical values and f 30 = 200.0 Hz

evaluate f30: 303.15 K 293.15 K
+ 12 (200.0 Hz )
293.15 K
= 203.4 Hz
(c) The exact expression for f30 is: RT30

v30 M RT30
f 30 = = =
2 M
The exact expression for f20 is: RT20

v20 M RT20
f 20 = = =
2 M
Dividing the first of these equations RT30

by the second and simplifying yields:
= M = 30
f 30 2 T
f 20 RT20 T20
M2
Solve for f 30 to obtain: T30

f 30 = f 20
T20
Substitute numerical values and 303.15 K

evaluate f 30 :
f 30 = (200.0 Hz )
293.15 K
= 203.4 Hz
82 The pipe in Figure 16-36 is kept filled with natural gas (methane,
CH4). The pipe is punctured with a line of small holes 1.00 cm apart down its
entire 2.20 m length. A speaker forms the closure on one end of the pipe, and a
solid piece of metal closes the other end. What frequency is being played in this
picture? The speed of sound in low pressure methane at room temperature is
about 460 m/s.
Picture the Problem The frequency of the sound being played is given by
f = v . Because the holes are not visible in the photograph, we can not use their
separation to determine the wavelength of the sound being played. Instead, we can
use the fact that the separation of the leftmost and rightmost flame maxima is 6
quarter wavelengths (drawing a standing wave pattern that is consistent with the
flame pattern shown in Figure 16-36 will help you see this). Using any convenient
scale to measure s1 and s2 (scaled distances on the photograph) and setting up a
proportion involving these distances, the actual length L of the pipe, and the
number of wavelengths in the distance s1 will yield and, hence, f.
s1
s2
The frequency of the sound is given v

f =
by:
Letting L represent the length of the 6

L 2 Ls1
4
= =
pipe yields: s1 s2 3s 2
Substituting for yields: v 3vs2

f = =
2 Ls1 2 Ls1
3s 2
If s1 = 10.5 cm and s2 = 14.5 cm, 3(460 m/s )(14.5 cm )

f = = 433 Hz
then: 2(2.20 m )(10.5 cm )
83 Assume that your clarinet is entirely filled with helium and that before
you start to play you fill your lungs with helium.. You pick up the clarinet and
play it as though you were trying to play a B-flat, which has a frequency of 277
Hz. The frequency of 277 Hz is the natural resonance frequency of this clarinet
with all finger holes closed and when filled with air. What frequency do you
actually hear?
Picture the Problem The resonance frequency of the clarinet depends on the
nature of the gas with which it is filled. We can express this frequency for both air
and helium and express their ratio to eliminate the constant factors , R, and T.
See Appendix C for the molar masses of helium and air.
Express the frequency of B-flat in vHe 1 He RT

f B-flat, He = =
helium: M He
1614 Chapter 16
Divide the second these equations 1 He RT

by the first and simplify to obtain: f B-flat, He M He M air He
= =
f B-flat, air 1 air RT M He air
M air
Solving for fB-flat, He yields: M air He

f B-flat, He = f B-flat, air
M He air

f B-flat, He =
(28.81 g/mol)(1.67 ) (277 Hz )
evaluate fB-flat, He: (4.003 g/mol)(1.4)
= 812 Hz
84 A 2.00-m-long wire that is fixed at both ends is vibrating in its

fundamental mode. The tension in the wire is 40.0 N and the mass of the wire is
0.100 kg. At the midpoint of the wire, the amplitude is 2.00 cm. (a) Find the
maximum kinetic energy of the wire. (b) What is the kinetic energy of the wire at
the instant the transverse displacement is given by y = 0.0200 sin (2 x ) , where y is
in meters if x is in meters, for 0.00 m x 2.00 m? (c) For what value of x is the
average value of the kinetic energy per unit length the greatest? (d) For what
value of x does the elastic potential energy per unit length have its maximum
value?
Picture the Problem The maximum kinetic energy of the wire is given by
K max = 14 m 2 A2 . We can use v = f and v = FT to find an expression for .
2
U 1 y
In Part (d) well use 2 FT (Problem 15-104) to determine where the
x x
potential energy per unit length has its maximum value.
(a) The maximum kinetic energy of K max = 14 m 2 A2 (1)

the wire is given by:
Express 1 in terms of f1: 1 = 2f1
Relate f1 to the speed of transverse v v

f1 = =
waves on the wire and the 1 2L
wavelength of the fundamental where L is the length of the wire.
mode:
Express the speed of the transverse FT FT L

v= =
waves on the wire in terms of the m
tension in the wire:
Substitute and simplify to obtain: 1 FT L FT

f1 = =
2L m 4mL
Substitute for 1 and f1 in equation FT 2 2 FT 2

2
(1) to obtain: K max = m 2

1
4 A = A
4 mL 4 L
2 (40.0 N )
evaluate Kmax:
K max =
4(2.00 m )
(2.00 10 2
m )
2
= 19.7 mJ
(b) Express the wave function for a y1 (x, t ) = A1 sin k1 x cos 1t (2)
standing wave in its first harmonic:
At the instant the transverse cos 1t = 1 1t = 0

displacement is given by and
(0.02 m) sin (x/2): K= 0
(c) dK is a maximum where the x = 12 L = 1

2 (2.00 m ) = 1.00 m
displacement of the wire is greatest;
that is, at its midpoint:
2
(d) From Problem 15-104: U 1 y
FT
x 2 x
Express the condition on y x y y

=
that maximizes U/x: x x max
Differentiate y1
= ( A1 sin k1 x cos 1t )
y1 (x, t ) = A1 sin k1 x cos 1t x x
with respect to x and set the = k1 A1 cos k1 x cos 1t
derivative equal to zero for extrema: =0
or
cos k1 x = 0
1616 Chapter 16
Solve for k1x and then x:

k1 x = x= = = 1
2 2k1 2(2 ) 4
Because = 2 L : x = 12 L x = 1
2 (2.00 m ) = 1.00 m
That is, the potential energy per unit

length is a maximum at the midpoint of
the wire.
Remarks: In Part (d) weve shown that U/x has an extreme value at
x = 1 m. To show that U/x is a maximum at this location, you need to
examine the sign of the 2nd derivative of y1(x,t) at this point.
85 [SSM] In principle, a wave with almost any arbitrary shape can be

expressed as a sum of harmonic waves of different frequencies. (a) Consider the
function defined by
4 cos x cos 3 x cos 5 x 4 n cos[(2n + 1)x ]

f (x ) = + ... = ( 1)
1 3 5 n=0 2n + 1
Write a spreadsheet program to calculate this series using a finite number of

terms, and make three graphs of the function in the range x = 0 to x = 4.. To
create the first graph, for each value of x that you plot, approximate the sum from
n = 0 to n = with the first term of the sum. To create the second and third
graphs, use only the first five term and the first ten terms, respectively. This
function is sometimes called the square wave. (b) What is the relation between
1 1 1
this function and Liebnitz series for , = 1 + + ... ?
4 3 5 7
A spreadsheet program to evaluate f(x) is shown below. Typical cell formulas

used are shown in the table.

A6 A5+0.1 x + x
B4 2*B3+1 2n + 1
B5 (1)^B$3*COS(B$4*$A5) 4 (1) cos((1)(0.0 ))
0
/B$4*4/PI() 1
C5 B5+(1)^C$3*COS(C$4*$A5) 4 (1)1 cos((3)(0.0))
/C$4*4/PI() 1.2732 +
3
A B C D K L
1
2
3 n= 0 1 2 9 10
4 2n+1= 1 3 5 19 21
5 0.0 1.2732 0.8488 1.1035 0.9682 1.0289
6 0.1 1.2669 0.8614 1.0849 1.0134 0.9828
7 0.2 1.2479 0.8976 1.0352 1.0209 0.9912
8 0.3 1.2164 0.9526 0.9706 0.9680 1.0286
9 0.4 1.1727 1.0189 0.9130 1.0057 0.9742
10 0.5 1.1174 1.0874 0.8833 1.0298 1.0010
130 12.5 1.2704 0.8544 1.0952 0.9924 1.0031

131 12.6 1.2725 0.8503 1.1013 0.9752 1.0213
132 12.7 1.2619 0.8711 1.0710 1.0287 0.9714
133 12.8 1.2386 0.9143 1.0141 1.0009 1.0126
134 12.9 1.2030 0.9740 0.9493 0.9691 1.0146
135 13.0 1.1554 1.0422 0.8990 1.0261 0.9685
The graph of f(x) versus x for n = 1 follows:

1.5
1.0
0.5
f (x )
0.0
-0.5
-1.0
-1.5
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
x
1618 Chapter 16

1.5
1.0
0.5
f (x )
0.0
-0.5
-1.0
-1.5
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
x

1.5
1.0
0.5
f (x )
0.0
-0.5
-1.0
-1.5
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
x
Evaluate f(2) to obtain: 4 cos 2 cos 3(2 )

f (2 ) =
1 3
cos 5(2 )
+ ...
5
4 1 1 1
= 1 + + ...
3 5 7
=1
which is equivalent to the Liebnitz
formula.
86 Write a spreadsheet program to calculate and graph the function
4 4 ( 1) sin (2n + 1)x

n
sin 3 x sin 5 x
y(x ) =
sin x + ... =
9 25 n (2n + 1)2
for 0 x 4. Use only the first 25 terms in the sum for each value of x that you
plot.
A spreadsheet program to evaluate y(x) is shown below. Typical cell formulas

used are shown in the table.

A6 A5+0.1 x + x
B4 2*B3+1 2n + 1
B5 ((1)^$B$3*sin($B$4*A5)/ 4 ( 1) sin (1)(0.0)
0
($B$4)^2)*4/PI() (1)2
B6 ((1)^$B$3*sin($B$4*A6)/ 4 ( 1) sin (1)(0.1)
0
($B$4)^2)*4/PI() (1)2
C5 B5+((1)^$C$3*sin($C$4*A5)/ 4 ( 1) sin (1)(0.0 )
1
($C$4)^2)*4/PI() 0+
(1)2
C6 B6+((1)^$C$3*sin($C$4*A6)/ 4 ( 1) sin (3)(0.1)
1
($C$4)^2)*4/PI() 0.1271 +
(3)2
A B C D K L
1
2
3 n= 0 1 2 9 10
4 2n+1= 1 3 5 19 21
5 0.0 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
6 0.1 0.1271 0.0853 0.1097 0.0986 0.1011
7 0.2 0.2530 0.1731 0.2159 0.2012 0.1987
8 0.3 0.3763 0.2654 0.3163 0.3004 0.3005
9 0.4 0.4958 0.3640 0.4103 0.3983 0.4008
10 0.5 0.6104 0.4693 0.4998 0.5011 0.4985
72 6.7 0.5155 0.3812 0.4256 0.4153 0.4171

73 6.8 0.6291 0.4877 0.5146 0.5183 0.5154
74 6.9 0.7365 0.6005 0.6034 0.6171 0.6182
75 7.0 0.8365 0.7181 0.6963 0.7148 0.7166
76 7.1 0.9282 0.8380 0.7968 0.8183 0.8155
1620 Chapter 16
The following graph was obtain using n = 10.
2
1.5
n =10
1
0.5
y (x )
0
-0.5
-1
-1.5
-2
0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0 12.0
x
87 If you clap your hands at the end of a long, cylindrical tube, the echo
you hear back will not sound like the handclap; instead, you will hear what
sounds like a whistle, initially at a very high frequency, but descending rapidly
down to almost nothing. This culvert whistler is easily explained if you think of
the sound from the clap as a single compression radiating outward from the hands.
The echoes of the handclap arriving at your ear have traveled along different
paths through the tube, as shown in Figure 16-37. The first echo to arrive travels
straight down and straight back along the tube, while the second echo reflects
once off of the center of the tube going out, and again going back, the third echo
reflects twice at points 1/4 and 3/4 of the distance, etc. The tone of the sound you
hear reflects the frequency at which these echoes reach your ears. (a) Show that
the time delay between the nth echo and the n+1th is
2
(2n ) r + L2 2 (n 1) r 2 + L2
2 2 2
t n =
v
where v is the speed of sound, L is the length of the tube and r is its radius.
(b) Using a spreadsheet program or graphing calculator, graph tn versus n for
L = 90.0 m, r = 1.00 m. (These values are the approximate length and radius of
the long tube in the San Francisco Exploratorium.) Go to at least n = 100.
(c) From your graph, explain why the frequency decreases over time. What are
the highest and lowest frequencies you will hear in the whistler?
Picture the Problem From the diagram above, the nth echo will reflect n 1
times going out, and the same number of times going back. If we "unfold" the ray
into a straight line, we get the representation shown below. Using this figure we
can express the distance dn traveled by the nth echo and then use this result to
express the time delay between the nth and n + 1th echoes. The reciprocal of this
time delay is the frequency corresponding to the nth echo.
dn
2(n 1)r
(a) Apply the Pythagorean theorem d n = 2 4(n 1) 2 r 2 + L2

to the right triangle whose base is L,
whose height is 2(n 1), and whose
hypotenuse is dn to obtain:
Express the time delay between the dn

nth and n + 1th echoes: tn =
v
Substitute to obtain: 2
tn = (2n )2 r 2 + L2
v
[2(n 1)] 2 r 2 + L2
(b) A spreadsheet program to calculate tn as a function of n is shown below. The

constants and cell formulas used are shown in the table.

B1 90 L
B2 1 r
B3 343 c
B8 B7+1 n+1
C7 2/$B$3*((2*(B71) tn
*$B$2)^2+$B$1^2)^0.5
A B C D
1 L= 90 m
2 r= 1 m
3 c= 343 m/s
4
5
6 n t(n) delta t(n)
7 1 0.5248 0.0001
8 2 0.5249 0.0004
1622 Chapter 16
9 3 0.5253 0.0006
10 4 0.5259 0.0009
11 5 0.5269 0.0012
202 196 2.3338 0.0114

203 197 2.3452 0.0114
204 198 2.3566 0.0114
205 199 2.3679 0.0114
206 200 2.3793 0.0114
The graph of tn as a function of n shown below was plotted using the data from
columns B and D.
0.012
0.010
0.008
Delta-t (n )
0.006
0.004
0.002
0.000
0 50 100 150 200
n
(c) The frequency heard at any time is 1/tn, so because tn increases over time,
the frequency of the culvert whistler decreases.
The highest frequency corresponds 1

to n = 1 and is given by: f highest =
t1
Substitute for t1 to obtain: 1 v

f highest = =
t1 2

(2) r 2 + L2
2
L2 )
Substitute numerical values and evaluate fhighest:
343 m/s
f highest = = 7.72 kHz
2 4(1.00 m ) + (90.0 m ) 90.0 m )
2 2

The lowest frequency end can be found by examining the limit of tn as n :
2 L2 L2
lim n tn = lim n (2n ) r 2 + 2 (n 1) r 2
+
v (2n )2 (2(n 1))2

2r 4r
= (2n 2n + 2) =
v v
Express flowest in terms of t: 1 v

f lowest = =
t 4r

f lowest = = 85.8 Hz
evaluate flowest: 4(1.00 m )
1624 Chapter 16

Tipler Perguntas e Respostas

Hochgeladen von

Dokumentinformationen

Originalbeschreibung:

Copyright

Verfügbare Formate

Dieses Dokument teilen

Dokument teilen oder einbetten

Freigabeoptionen

Stufen Sie dieses Dokument als nützlich ein?

Sind diese Inhalte unangemessen?

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

Tipler Perguntas e Respostas

Hochgeladen von

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

Chapter 13

1 If the gauge pressure is doubled, the absolute pressure will be

Prior to doubling the gauge pressure, P = Pgauge + Pat Pgauge = P Pat

Doubling the gauge pressure results in P ' = 2 Pgauge + Pat

Substituting for Pgauge yields: P ' = 2(P Pat ) + Pat = 2 P Pat

Determine the Concept The density of A

two spheres. We can determine the

Express the densities of the two mA m

Divide the first of these equations by mA

Substituting for the masses and radii A 8m r 3

Express the volumes of the two mA mB

Divide the first of these equations by mA

Substituting for the masses and VA 8mB

4 A sphere is constructed by gluing together two hemispheres of

Determine the Concept Pressure increases approximately 1 atm every 10 m in

6 Two objects are balanced as in Figure 13-28. The objects have

8 A 20-cm3 block of lead and a 20-cm3 block of copper are completely

9 Two bricks are completely submerged in water. Brick 1 is made of

10 Figure 13-29 shows an object called a Cartesian diver. The diver

Determine the Concept

12 In Example 13.11 the fluid is accelerated to a greater speed as it enters

Determine the Concept The acceleration-producing force acting on the fluid is

13 [SSM] An upright glass of water is accelerating to the right along a

15 A horizontal pipe narrows from a diameter of 10 cm at location A to

Apply the equation of continuity at AB

Substitute for AB and AA and d B21

Substitute numerical values and 5 cm

16 A horizontal pipe narrows from a diameter of 10 cm at location A to

Apply Bernoullis equation for PA + 12 vA2 = PB + 12 vB2 (1)

Apply the equation of continuity at AB

Substitute for AB and AA and d B2

Substituting for vA in equation (1) d 2 2

17 [SSM] Figure 13-30 is a diagram of a prairie dog tunnel. The

Estimation and Approximation

Express the equilibrium condition Fbouyant = B = Fgravitational = mg (1)

Using Archimedes principle, B = wdisplaced fluid = mdisplaced fluid g

Substituting for B in equation (1) airVballoon g = mg

The total mass m to be lifted is the m = mp + mHe = mp + HeVballoon

Substitute for m in equation (2) to airVballoon = mp + HeVballoon

Solving for Vballoon yields: mp

The volume of the balloon is given Vballoon = 43 r 3 = 16 d 3

Substituting for Vballoon yields: mp 6mp

Substitute numerical values and 6(25.0 kg )

Express the equilibrium condition Fbouyant = B = Fgravitational = mg (1)

Using Archimedes principle, B = wdisplaced fluid = mdisplaced fluid g

Substituting for B in equation (1) airVballoon g = mg airVballoon = m (2)

The total mass m to be lifted is the m = mp + mhot air = mp + hot airVballoon

Substitute for m in equation (2) to airVballoon = mp + hot airVballoon

Solving for hot air and simplifying airVballoon mp mp

The volume of the balloon is given Vballoon = 43 r 3 = 16 d 3

Substituting for Vballoon yields: mp 6mp

Substitute numerical values and 6(1000 kg )

Using the definition of density, (

Substitute numerical values and ( )(

21 [SSM] Consider a room measuring 4.0 m 5.0 m 4.0 m. Under

Use the definition of density to m = V = LWH

Substitute numerical values and m = (1.293 kg/m 3 )(4.0 m )(5.0 m )(4.0 m )

Use the definition of density to m = Vteaspoon (1)

The density of the neutron star is mNS

Substituting for mNS and VNS yields: mSun

Let = NS in equation (1) to obtain: 3mSunVteaspoon

Substitute numerical values and

23 A 50.0-g ball consists of a plastic spherical shell and a water-filled