This weeks Lecture Topics

Cell Chemistry and Bioenergetics (Chapter 2)

Chemical components of a cell (brief review)
Catalysis and energy use
How cells obtain energy from food (metabolism)
Physiology in Focus: Metabolic Disorders
 Chapter 2 Questions/Objectives
I. What are the major biochemical building blocks that
comprise cells, and what roles do they play in determining
cell structure and in carrying out cellular processes?
Chemical structure
Chemical nature
Biosynthesis
II. How do cells use chemical reactions to achieve and
maintain biological order?
Biological order and
Thermodynamics
8 Common Features of All Cells

1. Cells are highly complex and organized.

2. Cells possess a genetic program.
3. Cells are capable of producing more of themselves.
4. Cells are biochemical factories that constantly acquire and
utilize energy.
5. Cells engage in mechanical activities.
6. Cells are able to respond to stimuli.
7. Cells are capable of self regulation.

8. Evolution first happens at the level of molecules and cells.

Before we beginbasic chemistry you should know

Common Functional Groups in Biomolecules

How many can you recognize by name?

Before we beginbasic chemistry you should know

Common covalent linkages in biomoelcules

How many can you recognize by name?

 but much of a cells existence
Covalent bonds often define the
depends upon the specific binding
boundaries of one molecule from
of molecules mediated by
another
noncovalent interactions

Figure 2-32 Molecular Biology of the Cell ( Garland Science 2008)

I Four Types of Noncovalent Attractions Help Bring Molecules
Together in Cells?

In order from strongest to weakest?

Effect of H2O on the strength of these attractions?

I
Cells are made from a distinctive and restricted set
of small carbon-based molecules that are
fundamentally the same for all living species.
I
The most abundant carbon-containing molecules in a living cell
belong to 4 major groups of macromolecules.
Sugars Fatty Acids Amino Acids Nucleotides
(Carbohydrates) (Lipids)
Polar (lots of OH
groups)

General uses: General uses: General uses: General uses:

Chemical Features: Chemical Features: Chemical Features: Chemical Features:

Chemical Properties: Chemical Properties: Chemical Properties: Chemical Properties:

Polymer: Polymer: Polymer: Polymer:

I Carbohydrates: energy source, structural support

Sugar (in the form of

glucose) is the primary ATP
carbon source for
organotrophs
Glucose

glucose
Plant cells polymerize
excess glucose into a
storable form called starch.

Animal cells store their

excess glucose as glycogen.

Highly branched polysaccharides

are found in the cell walls of many
eukaryotes
Ex: cellulose
I Carbohydrates and recognition/binding
On cell membranes, carbohydrate chains
carbohydrates can be
attached to lipids or
proteins and play
important roles in
binding/recognition

Glycolipid example:
Blood group antigens
Outside red blood cell

Carbohydrate chains

Lipid layer

Inside red blood cell

I Phospholipids: major lipid Triglycerides: fat molecules and
component of cell membranes can be stored as lipid droplets in
the cytoplasm of cells as an energy
reserve

Phospholipid
monolayer

Triacylglyercol
Molecules inside
 Bacteria and the Eukarya have membranes composed of unbranched fatty acid chains
attached to glycerol by ester linkages.

Archaea have membranes composed of branched hydrocarbon chains attached to glycerol by

ether linkages.
I Amino acid side chains have different chemical properties
I
5 of the naturally occurring
amino acid side chains that
readily ionize at neutral pH

Acidic amino acids:

Aspartic acid / Aspartate

Glutamic acid / Glutamate

Basic amino acids:
Histidine

Lysine

Arginine

pK = pH at which of all
molecules of an ionizable
substance are charged.

Figure 2-25 Molecular Biology of the Cell ( Garland Science 2008)

I Cells use condensation reactions to build their
biopolymers: Polysaccharides and Triglycerides

Glycosidic bond
3H2O

dd
dd dd
d

Polysaccharide chains
I Cells use condensation reactions to build their
biopolymers: Polypeptides and Nucleic Acids

Peptide bond

Phosphodiester
bond

Polypeptide chain
 Chapter 2 Questions/Objectives
I. What are the major biochemical building blocks that
comprise cells, and what roles do they play in determining
cell structure and in carrying out cellular processes?
Chemical structure
Chemical nature
Biosynthesis
II. How do cells use chemical reactions to achieve and
maintain biological order?
Biological order and
Thermodynamics
II
One property of living things above all that makes them
seem almost miraculously different from living matter: they
create and maintain order in a universe that is tending
always to greater disorder. (Molecular Biology of the Cell,
p.65)

Examples of biological order on various scales

Figure 2-33 Molecular Biology of the Cell ( Garland Science 2008)

II

Cells must often increase biological order in order to survive.

How are they able to accomplish this?
II
Cells and Thermodynamics: Second Law
Like all components of the universe, cells are subject to the same
laws of thermodynamics and must follow these laws.

Energy conversions are never 100% efficient some energy

is always lost as heat (unusable energy)

This is to say that USEABLE energy or AVAILABLE energy

tends to decrease.

Remember, energy is only useable if it is confinable (stored).

II
Cells and Thermodynamics: Second Law

From a chemical perspective, this means that:

Reactions that decrease the availability of useable energy ARE

energetically favorable and will occur spontaneously

Reactions that increase the availability of useable

energy) are not energetically favorable and will
NOT occur spontaneously
II Cells and Thermodynamics: Big Picture
Because cells are not isolated systems, they are able to exchange
energy with their environment.

Figure 2-38 Molecular Biology of the Cell ( Garland Science 2008)

Energy input into the cell is used to generate order within the
cell.

.but in the course of such order-generating reactions, the cell

converts part of the energy into heat.
This heat is released into the cells environment, thereby
disordering it and thus increasing entropy overall.
II Cells and Thermodynamics: Individual Reactions

The 2nd law states that processes tend toward the direction of
DECREASING available energy.

Available energy is also called FREE ENERGY:

energy available to do work

represented by the symbol, G.

For a reaction,

Areactant Bproduct

You have GA and GB, and G simply equals GB GA.

II Cells and Thermodynamics: Individual Reactions

Free energy and Potential Energy

Areactant Bproduct
G = GB GA.

Free energy for our purposes is essentially chemical energy,

which is a form of potential energy.

So, essentially:

Potential EnergyREACTANTS > Potential EnergyPRODUCTS

G will be negative = favorable

Potential EnergyREACTANTS < Potential EnergyPRODUCTS

G will be positive = unfavorable

II Cells and Thermodynamics: Individual Reactions
The Free energy change for a reaction determines whether it can occur

Products
Potential Energy
Energy input
endergonic
GPRODUCT > G REACTANTS
G > 0
UNFAVORABLE / NONSPONTANEOUS
Reactants

Progress of reaction

Can be used to do work

Potential Energy

Reactants
Energy out
exergonic GPRODUCT < G REACTANTS
G < 0
FAVORABLE / SPONTANEOUS
Products

Progress of reaction