Chapter 2

Review of Related Literature

2.1 Introduction

Language is the most valuable possession of human race. The possession of

language, perhaps, more than any other attribute, distinguishes humans from other
animals. Man is the only creature that uses words intentionally and habitually. We use
words in order to tell somebody something, that is, to communicate. It is very difficult to
live without language. We talk to our friends, our associates, our wives and husbands, our
lovers, our teachers, our parents, our rivals, and even our enemies. We talk to bus drivers
and total strangers. We talk face to face and over the telephone, and everyone responds
to more talk. Hardly a moment of our waking lives is free from words.

It is interesting to note that to understand our humanity; we must understand the

nature of language that virtually makes us human. According to the philosophy expressed
in the myths and religions of many peoples, language is the source of human life and
power. To some people of Africa, a newborn child is a kintu, a thing, not yet a muntu,
a person. Only by the act of learning language does the child become a human being.
According to this tradition, then, we all become human because we all know at least one
language.

2.2 Language Education

Language Education is the most complex domain of education at all levels in

general and the most important one at elementary level in particular. Language education
is also important as it drives the language policy of the state and vice-versa. In Indian
context, language education involves complex issues related to multilingual, multicultural
and multi-ethnic setup of the country. Hence, it becomes an interdisciplinary enterprise
for educationists, linguists, policy -makers and administrators alike. Many issues of
utmost importance emerge from the above mentioned phenomena of multilinguality,
multi-culture and multiethnicity.

10
 Language education and its related issues are also vital due to its primacy in
learning and human life. Language is inherent in learning process at any level. Education
and the process of learning are, therefore, essentially related to language. Language is
also the medium of learning and pivotal in the cognitive, conative and affective
development.

2.3 Language, Society and Education

Language is the foundation of all learning. No subject can be taught without

language. In fact, all education begins with language. Without language a person cannot
grow socially, emotionally and intellectually. Language is the key to open the lock of
every subject. Language is closely related to life, and life to environment. The
environment provides variety to life and this variety of life is expressed through language.
Language provides the basis for all human meaning-making process, and, therefore,
creates possibilities of development of understanding and knowledge. It gives the ability
to codify all knowledge, but claims none of it exclusively as its own. Language learning
facilitates socio-emotional as well as cognitive development of an individual.

Language is basically a vocal actualization of the tendency to see realities

symbolically and it is this tendency, which makes it an efficient vehicle of
communication. Language is a great force of socialization, probably the greatest that
exists. Language functions in a social context. The chief function of language is
communication among members of society. Therefore, it is the greatest force of
socializing our behaviour. This means that significant social intercourse can hardly exist
without language. But more important than all this is that the mere fact of a common
speech serves as a peculiarly potent symbol of the social solidarity of those who speak
the language (Sapir, 1919).

Language has manifold functions to perform, most important of them are social,
cultural, psychological, aesthetic, political, scientific, national, international and
intranational communication. Man has many achievements to his credits but none of them
is as great as achievement as his ability to use language, for without the use of language
the other achievements would not have been possible. Language is uniquely human trait

11
shared by the cultures so diverse and by individuals physically and mentally so unlike
one another.

Language itself is both universal and dynamic. It is both uniform and variational.
Like any social phenomena, language is a social phenomenon, a carrier of ideas, thoughts,
experience, culture and values of individuals, communities and society. Languages are
said to make us human; but they also dehumanise when they become instruments of
power for some and shame and guilt for others. For some, language is a road to upward
mobility and for others it is a barrier to even the marginal life of choice and dignity. For
millions of people, whose languages are rendered powerless in a society where only one
or few languages are dominant, exclusion of mother tongues from social domains of
significance has serious consequences for basic survival and well-being. Educational
failure of linguistic minorities all over the world is primarily related to the mismatch
between the home language and the language of formal instruction. This issue has been
severally discussed in the literature on minority education (see, for example, Skutnabb-
Kangas 2000, Skutnabb-Kangas and Cummins 1988 and various chapters in this volume).
State policies in respect of languages in education often recognise but ignore in practice
the problem of exclusion of languages.

In the post-colonial worldAfrica (Heugh 2009, this volume), India (Jhingran

2009, this volume), Pakistan (Rahman 1998), Nepal (Amrit Yonjan-Tamang, Hough and
Nurmela 2009, this volume), Sri Lanka (Kandiah 2001) as in other parts of the more
developed world, policy proclamations appear to support the rights of tribal communities
for preservation, use and development of their languages and, in many cases, there are
explicit statutory provisions for education in mother tongues. There are contradictions
between policy provisions and actual ground level practices. Forced submersion of tribal
children in dominant language classrooms with subtractive effects on their mother
tongues continues to be the most pressing educational issue in multilingual settings.

2.3.1 Language, Life and Personality

Language is closely associated with life, and life to environment. The environment
provides diversity to life and this diversity of life is expressed through language.
Language constitutes names of various objects and the quality as well as actions. It also

12
specifies the various ways of actions taking place. Language learning essentially equips
the learners with the felicity to use it meaningfully in real life situations for effective
communication. Language cannot be used in a vacuum; it requires a suitable context,
which is provided by various situations and circumstances in life. Language is the best
means of communication for mankind. As a matter of fact, language and life are
complementary and deeply intertwined to each other. In other words, language is life and
life is language.

2.3.2 Language, Identity and Power

Language is deeply concerned with the identity of an individual, of a society and

of a nation. Language manifests the cultural and social identity of an individual. Language
operates in a world of signs and symbols. It is not only a tool for communication and
knowledge but also a fundamental attribute of cultural identity and empowerment both
for the individual and the group. Respect for the language of persons belonging to
different linguistic communities therefore is essential for peaceful cohabitation. It should
be obvious that attitudes and motivation do not get constructed in a vacuum. An individual
creates the patterns of her behaviors in terms of the group with which she wishes to
identify, acquiring in the process communicative competence that equips her to move
along a continuum varying from formal to informal language.

More often than not, we find identities to be in conflict with one another. The
question of identity becomes particularly relevant in the case of minorities, and there is
great need to be sensitive to their languages and cultures in the interest of national and
global peace and harmony (NCF 2005).

Language is an effective means of exerting and exercising power. Power is

nothing but a strategy (Michel Foucault). In this regard it may be stated that is power is
a strategy, then, there is nothing more powerful than the power exerted and exercised by
means of language and communication. Words have tremendous power to influence the
people. Power is, in fact, the capacity of some persons to produce intended and foreseen
effects on others (Mr. Wrong). A teacher who is blessed with the mastery of language
enjoys the powerful status in society because of his power of language and
communication. It is because of the power of words that P.B. Shelley calls the poets

13
unacknowledged legislators of the world. It goes without saying that language plays a
very constructive role in development of life skills such as critical thinking, inter personal
communication, negotiation skill, decision-making, problem solving and management
skills which are so important in dealing with the demands and challenges in everyday life.

2.3.3 Language, Civilization and Culture

The role of language in the development and growth of civilization is very crucial.
Without language, civilization would hardly be possible. There has to be a great deal of
communication extending beyond grunts and gestures before people can agree to divide
their choices and cooperate in community living on a scale more complex than that found
among animals and insects. It is because of verbal agreement that some people could
specialize in farming, others in making clothes, still others in caring for the sick, and so
on.

For the community to continue functioning, frequent interchanges of information

through the use of language are essential. Language permits knowledge to be transmitted
to succeeding generations. In this way, each group of people does not have to discover
de novo how to make fire, grow vegetables or make permanent fabrics. People can begin
with the knowledge accumulated by their predecessors and add new knowledge to it and
in this way civilization can progress from one level to another. Language is regarded as a
cultural, not a biological phenomenon. Even thinking is possible only when man uses
language. The words and structures of a persons language control his way of thinking
and ultimately the whole culture to which it belongs. In other words, the way we see the
world is determined by language.

Every language is culture-oriented. The language used by an individual reflects

his/her culture. Culture gives meaning to the utterances of a language. Language is the
road map of a culture. It tells you where its people come from and where they are going,
says Rita Mae Brown. Language is very much rooted in a particular culture. Language
plays very instrumental role in escorting the cultural identity of a nation. Language carries
the whole culture with it. Language is not just a language. It is directly connected with
the culture in which it evolves and is being used. Linguists believe that fashion of
speaking has a direct bearing on the speakers thought world - the microcosm that each

14
man carries about within himself, by which he measures and understands what he can of
the macrocosm. It means that by knowing the patterns of language we learn something of
the culture in which a language is used.

Language is the greatest achievement of human intelligence and its role is very
crucial in the progress and prosperity of mankind. Language is an indispensable part of
our society and the world we live in. Language lies at the heart of all our social, political,
economic and cultural life. Life sans language is, perhaps, no life at all because life will
lose much of its beauty and charm without language. Language is a means of both
individual self-expression and social control. Language is not just a language. It is directly
connected with the culture in which it evolves and is being used. Culture gives meaning
to the utterances of a language. Language is the road map of a culture. In reality, language
is a very powerful means of social and cultural expressions which matter significantly in
every aspect of human life surviving and flourishing on the planet we call the earth
especially when the entire world has shrunk into a global village.

2.4 Language in India

India is a multilingual country. The linguistic diversity of our country is both

challenging as well as rewarding. Ever since the dawn of Independence we have been
facing the problem of the absence of a common language or a national language. A
regional language socialises the behaviour of the people living in a region whereas a
national language socialises the behaviour of whole nation. It reveals the right of
existence of every language. It also recognizes the right of uninterrupted independent
growth of every language. It works to correlate it with the main stream of national life. It
integrates the different strands of human thought into a whole. Like the bunch of flower
of different species (different hues and different fragrance) it helps to unite them into a
national flowerpot. This is what we call social solidarity.

Regional languages have every right to fuller growth and development. It is from
this enriched growth that a national language draws its strength. A national language is
the bed-rock of national integration. It is a source of inspiration for the growth of regional
languages. It is their mother that supplies nourishing milk. So, it is a misleading
argument to entertain that a national language interferes with the growth of regional

15
language. The regional and the national languages are complementary to each other. They
are not rivals. Their relationship is that of a mother and its daughter. Even after the
marriage of a daughter, when she begins her independent life, she does not lose even for
a fraction of her mothers attention care and love. She continues to receive from her
mother. Much in the same way, a national language is the mother of all regional
languages. Love it and get in return, more and more love from it.

In addition to regional and national languages, there is also a perception of

international language, a language that may be commonly used by all the nations at least
in international affairs. Such a language is above the barriers of nationalities, political
entities and other dividing walls of humanity. It helps in promoting worldwide
understanding and integration of world cultures. It is a language of all human beings
living everywhere in the globe. It helps in making one world as one family (Vasudhaiv
Kutumbkam). At present English enjoys this privilege of being an international language
of the present global world.

2.4.1 Linguistic Diversity of India

Modern India, as per the 1961 Census, has more than 1652 mother tongues,
genetically belonging to five different language families. The 1991 Census had 10,400
raw returns of mother tongues and they were rationalized into 1576 mother tongues. They
are further rationalized into 216 mother tongues, and grouped under 114 languages:
Austro-Asiatic (14 languages, with a total population of 1.13%), Dravidian (17 languages,
with a total population of 22.53%), Indo-European (Indo-Aryan, 19 languages, with a
total population of 75.28%, and Germanic, 1 language, with a total population of 0.02%),
Semito-Harmitic (1 language, with a total population of 0.01%), and Tibeto-Burman (62
languages with a total population of 0.97%).

It may be noted that mother tongues having a population of less than 10000 on all
India basis or not possible to identify on the basis of available linguistic information have
gone under 'others'.

16
 Family-Wise Grouping of the 122 Scheduled and Non-Scheduled Languages - 2001

Language Families %
Number Persons Who Returned The Languages
to
of As
Total
Languages Their Mother Tongue
Population

1. Indo-European

(a) Indo-Aryan 21 790,627,060 76.87

(b) Iranian 2 22,774 00.00

(c) Germanic 1 226,449 00.02

2. Dravidian 17 214,172,874 20.82

3. Austro-Asiatic 14 11,442,029 01.11

4. Tibeto-Burmese 66 10,305,026 01.00

5. Semito-Hamitic 1 51,728 00.01

Total 122 1,026,847,940* 99.83*

Source: MHRD, Government of India (http://mhrd.gov.in/language-education)

Table 2.1 Family-Wise Grouping of the 122 Scheduled and Non-Scheduled Languages 2001

* These languages are further grouped as Scheduled Languages (22) or the Official
Language of the States that are considered as major languages of India and Non-
Scheduled (100) the other languages used for administrative purposes (Sarangi, 2009:
18).

* The remainder of 1,762,388 (0.17%) population, out of total Indian population, is

composed of speakers of those languages and mother tongues that were not identifiable
or were less than 10000 speakers at all Indian level and the population (127,108 persons)
of Manipur, which was not included in the language data since the Census results were
cancelled in 3 sub-divisions of Senapati district of the Manipur state in 2001 (Census
India, 2010-11).

17
 Names of 122 Scheduled (S) and Non-Scheduled Languages -2001

Source: Census of India, 2010-11

Table 2.2 Names of 122 Scheduled (S) and Non-Scheduled Languages -2001

18
2.5 Languages of Tribals

It is extremely difficult to define what a tribe is or who is a tribal. The word tribe
has stuck since the British rulers introduced it in 1872 to describe a few select
communities in India. These tribes are scheduled as per Article 342 of the Constitution
by the President and the Parliament. The concept of tribe in India is an administrative,
judicial and political concept, which is applied to sections of the population that are
relatively isolated. Yet tribe in India is a significant reality, characterized by a distinct
way of life, rather than by virtue of forming a constituent part of the hierarchical structure
of society as in the rest of India. They are outside the caste, or jati system.

India represents six distinct language families spread over a large region and
spoken by more than one billion speakers. Though the exact figure of number of
languages is not very clear partly because of the fuzzy demarcation between language
and dialect question and partly because of shifting language loyalty of the people.
However, a rough estimate is that there are more than 1600 languages spoken in the
present India. The government of India reports only 122 and recognizes as
scheduled/official languages only 22 drawn largely from the Indo-Aryan and Dravidian
language family stocks. Consult the Census 2001. A large number of languages are
endangered (196 according to the UNESCO).

The inclusion or exclusion of languages from the VIII schedule does neither
depend on the quantum of its speakers nor it is based on the ideology of fundamental
rights. Unfortunately, it is not based on the principle of equality of opportunity or on the
ideology of national integration or invasive assimilation. Had it been so a large number
of languages from Austro-Asiatic and Tibeto-Burman branch would have found their
place in the schedule and Sanskrit with its mere 2500 speakers [reported to have doubled
by 1991] would have not.

Many tribal languages are unknown and not reported and some of them are either
vanishing or have vanished completely. Recognition of tribal languages in India is a
Herculean task yet it is as important as saving a live civilization from vanishing.

19
2.6 Languages of Rajasthan

As per the latest published Census data on language/mother tongue, that is, census
2001, 79 Languages and 138 Mother tongues were found in Rajasthan. This is pertinent
to mention here that language includes mother tongues and mother tongue is exclusive.
The major 15 languages and mother tongues respectively out of 79 languages and 138
mother tongues are as follows in descending order.

Languages in Rajasthan

Languages India Total Rajasthan

1. Hindi 422048642 51,407,216

2. Bhili / Bhilodi 9582957 2,600,933

3. Punjabi 29102477 1,141,200

4. Urdu 51536111 662,983

5. Sindhi 2535485 380,430

6. Gujarati 46091617 57,048

7. Bengali 83369769 54,172

8. Malayalam 33066392 33,975

9. Marathi 71936894 19,361

10. Oriya 33017446 13,347

11. Tamil 60793814 11,852

12. Nepali 2871749 10,569

13. Lahnda 92234 8,636

14. Telugu 74002856 8,467

15. Maithili 12179122 7,447

Source: Census of India, 2001

Table 2.3 Languages in Rajasthan

20
 Mother Tongues in Rajasthan

Mother Tongues India Total Rajasthan

1. Rajasthani 18355613 17,880,389

2. Hindi 257919635 15,071,081

3. Marwari 7936183 6,279,105

4. Mewari 5091697 5,024,339

5. Wagdi 2510811 2,500,574

6. Harauti 2462867 2,459,691

7. Dhundhari 1871130 1,871,085

8. Bagri Rajasthani 1434123 1,432,381

9. Punjabi 28152794 1,052,637

10. Urdu 51533954 662,945

11. Braj Bhasha 574245 404,493

12. Malvi 5565167 385,393

13. Sindhi 1694061 368,874

14. Mewati 645291 289,731

15. Bagri 646921 87,467

Source: Census of India, 2001

Table 2.4 Mother Tongues in Rajasthan

21
 Scheduled Tribes and Their Languages in Rajasthan

Figure 2.1 Scheduled Tribes and Their Languages in Rajasthan

2.6.1 Tribals Languages of Rajasthan

The major tribal languages of Rajasthan are Mewari, Wagdi, Harauti, Dhundhari, Bagri,
Rajasthani, Malvi, Sindhi, Mewati and Bagri. All these languages or some of these are sometimes
subsumed under Hindi or more localized and collective variety Rajasthani. These languages
are also mentioned under eight dialects of Rajasthani as per Census 1991. Out of these eight

22
dialects, Marwari is considered a dominant and 'standard' variety of Rajasthani as a high
variety of literature and a lot of work in grammar and dictionary have been written in this
dialect. Languages of Rajasthan are not exclusively tribal in nature as to be different and
distinct from other neighbouring languages. The existing variations are distinctive yet
dialectal. All the languages are shared by all the inhabitants of the respective regions.

The evolution and development of several languages collectively or exclusively

known as Rajasthani or other proper names have descended from Indo-Aryan Family of
languages. The tree diagram below outlines their relationship and position:

Figure 2.2 Family Tree of Aryan Languages

2.7 Tribal Community in Rajasthan

In Rajasthan there are many tribes, but historically, they are classified under two major
categories namely, Bhil and Meena. In the first category (Bhil) following tribes are
present: Bhil, Girasia and Saharia.

23
(i). Bhil: Udaipur, Banswara, Dungarpur, Bhilwara, Chitorgarh,Barmer, Kota,
Pratapgarh, Jhalwara, Jalore and Sirohi.

(ii). Girasia : Udaipur, Sirohi, Pali, Jodhpur

(iii). Saharia: Baran (Shahabad and Kishanganj Tahshil)

In the second category (Meena) following communities come: Meena, Mer and Mev.

(i). Meena: Jaipur, Sawai Madhopur, Udaipur, Alwar, Chittorgarh, Kota, Bundi, Tonk,
Dungarpur, Bhilwara

(ii). Mer: Ajmer. (Presently, Mer tribe does not exist in a real sense of the term. It belongs
to the family of Meena tribe.)

(iii). Mev: Alwar and Bharatpur.

(Source: Dr. Brijkishore Sharma. 2011. Rajasthan me Kisan Aur Adiwasi Aandolan.
Rajasthan Hindi Granth Akademy).

2.7.1 Languages and Tribes in Select Tribal Districts of Rajasthan

In the present study, five districts with tribal concentrated population were
selected for sampling. These are Udaipur, Pratapgarh, Dungarpur, Banswara and Baran.
The name of the tribes and major languages spoken/used in the region are as follows:

S. No. District Tribes Languages

1. Udaipur Bhil, Garasia, Damor, Kathodi Hindi, Mewari, Marwari, Wagdi, Dhavdi
2. Pratapgarh Bhil, Hindi, Wagdi, Kanthhalee-Bolee, Harauti
3. Dungarpur Bhil, Damor, Patelia Bagri
4. Banswara Bhil, Patelia Bagri
5. Baran Saharia Hadoti

Table 2.5 Languages and Tribes in Select Tribal Districts of Rajasthan

24
2.8 Tribal Languages in Education

The school language of the tribal is invariable different from that of the home
language. Even if he speaks variety of the dominant language it is invariable different
from the standard variety which is the language of the books. The language textbooks in
the school seldom teach the skills; even the very primary level books attempt to teach
literature, very often badly organized and seldom touching contemporary writing. It is no
wonder that the child is taught to learn the textbook by heart. The tribal child coming
from a poor socio-economic background and from families where there was no education
for generations does not have a chance to use an elaborate code in diversified
circumstances. The cognitive skills of abstraction, deduction, argumentation, etc., which
are essentially language based and which the child is not taught at elementary education,
but also felt at the end of formal higher education.

In the present scenario of education in India, no policy is enunciated for use of

tribal languages in education. However, National Focus Group on Problems of Scheduled
Caste and Scheduled Tribe Children under National Curriculum Framework-2005 has
suggested the following recommendations especially in the context of language:

(a) Home languages must be made the media of instruction / communication in the early
years of school education. They must be seen as integral to creating an enabling school
environment for children and crucial for the process of learning. The pedagogic rationale
is that moving from the known to the unknown facilitates learning. Language is a critical
resource that children bring to school and aids thought, communication and
understanding.

(b) Home languages in classroom process is also essential to build childs self-esteem and
self-confidence.

(c) Transition to regional language will be facilitated through learning of home language.

(d) Where there are more than one tribal languages used in any village, we recommend
the use of the regional lingua franca or the majority language after consultation with
villagers.

25
(e) Teacher training must include the stipulation that teachers pass an exam in a local
language. Earlier ICS officers posted to tribal areas had to pass exams in one tribal
language. This seems to have died out.

2.8.1 Tribal Language Education: Promising Researches & Experiments

Despite the lack of proper policy initiatives, several scholars and NGOs have
made sincere efforts to address the issues of tribal languages in education. With the
considerations from UNESCO on mother tongue and multilingual education in 1953 in
its expert report on The Use of Vernacular Languages in Education and Education
Position Papers Education in a multilingual world (2003) and many other documents and
deliberations, mother tongue education in general has been advocated by scholars and
experts in the field.

In tribal context where the problem of disparity is more prevalent due to the
inevitable process of development and mainstream policy intervention, in many parts of
world tribal multilingual language and culture is in crisis. In Africa, Asia, and even in
American countries, issues of multilingual education including tribal languages as well
are emerging as a serious concern for educationists, linguists and policy makers.

In India, a multilingual-multicultural and multi-ethnic country; tribal language

and education is lacking proper policies and practice in spite of the repeated advocacy of
mother tongue based multilingual education. As Mohanty and others have pointed out:

The language barrier that the tribal children face on their school entry is a major
factor in their poor educational performance and consequent socioeconomic
deprivation. The language barrier also comes with a content barrier since the
daily life experiences and culture of tribal children are hardly present in textbooks
and other curricular material in the dominant language schools. As pointed out
earlier, school practices in respect of tribal children in India have often been
predicated on the assumption that there are weaknesses and disadvantages
inherent to tribal languages and that maintenance of these languages is a
cognitive and socioeconomic burden.

(Mohanty et al. 2009: 285)

26
 Mohanty (ibid) has further stressed on the potential loss of tribal children caused
by exclusion of their mother tongues. He highlights the pedagogical and socio-cultural
aspects of education in the following words:

The exclusion of tribal mother tongues from education limits tribal

childrens chances of adequate classroom learning and success in
academics and, consequently, limits their freedom and ability to
influence the direction of their lives. A number of Indian studies show
that tribal children (Saikia and Mohanty 2004, Sema 2008) as well as
other groups of children (Nayak 2007) perform significantly better in MT
medium classrooms compared to their matched counterparts in
classrooms in which the MoI is another dominant language.
(ibid: 286)

The exclusion of one's mother tongue from one's life results in more severe socio-
economic and cultural crisis. It leads to deprivation and lack of freedom and a sense of
alienation in democratic society and finally removes a community from the whole process
of growth and development and nation building. Dreze and Sen (2002) speak of the
substantial problems of voicelessness of the disadvantaged groups in India, particularly
the scheduled tribes, arising out of the large-scale illiteracy and lack of education both of
which impede economic development. They attribute non-attendance and school push out
to lack of interest (of parents as well as children) and to a host of discouragement effects
due to alienating curricula, inactive classrooms, indifferent teachers, and social
discrimination in the classroom. Linguistic and cultural discrimination, arising out of
prevalent inequalities, is central to the relationship between illiteracy and educational
failure, lack of freedom, capability deprivation and poverty. While education is the
enabling factor for economic development, mother tongue is the enabling factor for access
to quality education.

Mismatch between home and school languages and neglect of mother tongues
force the tribal children in India into subtractive language learning in a form of
submersion education in the dominant language and leads to poor educational
achievement reinforcing inequality and leading to capability deprivation.

27
 The system of education in India, which is officially named as human resource
development, neglects the most powerful resource that a tribal child comes to school
withher mother tongueand in the process fails to enable her for a life of choice;
rather, it fails to develop the human resources and leads to cumulative disadvantages.
Exclusion of mother tongues in education limits access to resources and perpetuates
inequality by depriving language communities of linguistic human rights, democratic
participation, identity, self-efficacy, and pride.

In India, many experimental programs have been initiated however, these do not
form part of a policy concern. The National Policy on Education of 1986, revised in 1992,
has little to say about any language policy. As though nothing happens in the country over
years, the 1986 Policy takes us back to 1968. The Three Language Formula, as it is
popularly called, then becomes the hallmark of a policy. Although the formula has no
reference to the mother tongue.

Even after the lack of clear policy guidelines; in recent years, programmes of
mother tongue based education for tribal children in India have started with government
initiatives in some of the states with substantial tribal population and are planned in few
others. However, the condition of such programmes and initiatives are not satisfactory as
D.P. Pattanayak observes:

The tribal schools in different parts of India are run by the Education Department
as well as by the Welfare Department. Since the Education Departments have
better facilities, their inspection is more systematic. There are tribal schools
which have not been inspected for years. Unlike Rural: Urban schools, the tribal
schools may be classified as Roadside schools and Interior schools. The Interior
schools are seldom inspected and suffer from Teacher absenteeism. Free books
supplied by the Welfare Department are seldom in adequate numbers. As a result,
the well to do among the tribals are forced to buy books from the market. No
book is written in tribal languages. There is no strategy to link the home language
with the school language. The double alienation of the tribal child takes its own
toll (Pattanayak D. P., Report of a Case Study on Educational Materials in the
Learning Environment, 1999, sponsored by the UNESCO).

(Pattanayak 2001:56)

28
2.9 Tribal Language Education in Rajasthan

Like other states, Rajasthan as reported by Mishra (2011) in a nationwide project

on Tribal Languages and Tribal Language Education at Elementary Level in India says
that:

no tribal language is used at any level of education and training

is not provided in teaching of tribal languages, no textbooks, and
primers have been prepared/published.

(Mishra 2011: 95)

29