Corrosion Science 47 (2005) 23532360

www.elsevier.com/locate/corsci

Corrosion and life cycle management of

port structures
Kazuaki Zen *

Nakabohtec Corrosion Protecting Co., Ltd. 2-5-2, Shinkawa, Chuoh-ku, Tokyo 104-0033, Japan

Received 29 August 2004; accepted 18 November 2004

Available online 13 June 2005

Abstract

Corrosion damages due to splash zone corrosion, concentrated corrosion and salt-induced
corrosion have been observed worldwide. Coating is applied to splash zone. Cathodic protec-
tion is required for prevention of concentrated corrosion, and both coating and cathodic pro-
tection are necessary to prevent salt-induced corrosion. To avoid unexpected large-scale
rehabilitation measures as a consequence of negligence of periodic maintenance, systematical
planning and budgeting of maintenance activities are necessary. Life cycle management
(LCM), and its whole life costing (WLC), will contribute to a realistic approach of mainte-
nance policy.
2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Corrosion damage; Concentrated corrosion; Corrosion control method; LCM; WLC

1. Introduction

In Japan, the corrosion survey of port structures has been carried out by the Port
and Harbor Research Institute, Ministry of Transport [1] and the manual of corro-
sion control and repair for port structures has been prepared by the Coastal Devel-
opment Institute of Technology [2]. Recently, the importance of the maintenance of

*
Tel.: +81 3 5541 5816; fax: +81 3 5541 5838.

0010-938X/$ - see front matter 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.corsci.2005.04.003
2354 K. Zen / Corrosion Science 47 (2005) 23532360

the existing port structures constructed in the latter half of the 20th century has been
recognized, and the necessity of life cycle management (LCM) that minimizes the life
cycle costs of the structures has been proposed.
Since the corrosion damage of port structures is worldwide concern, the WG31 of
the International Navigation Association (PIANC) [3] started investigation on the
LCM of port structures. Lately the PIANC WG17 report on inspection, mainte-
nance and repair of maritime structures has been revised by the WG31 [4].
In accordance with the above-mentioned investigations, this paper describes cor-
rosion damages, control methods and LCM of port structure.

2. Corrosion damages and corrosion control methods

Corrosion environments of port structures are usually divided into atmospheric,

splash, tidal, seawater, and mud and backll zones. The most common materials
used in port structures are steel and reinforced concrete.
Atmospheric and splash zones cover the area from the deck level to the mean high
water level (HWL), and in general the splash zone means the portion just above
HWL. The corrosion rate in the atmospheric zone is less than 0.1 mm/year, while
the rate in the splash zone is about 0.3 mm/year.
The tidal zone ranges between HWL and low water level (LWL). The corrosion
rate of the area between HWL and mean sea level (MSL) increases gradually in
the upper part from MSL, whereas the area between MSL and mean low water level
(MLWL) became cathodic in a macro-corrosion cell and the corrosion rate of the
cathode ranges between 0 and 0.1 mm/year. Normally, the portion between MLWL
and LWL acts as the anode in a macro-corrosion cell and the corrosion rate in this
zone is about 0.2 mm/year, but is higher when corrosion products are removed.
Fig. 1 shows an example of corrosion tendency of a steel pipe pile [1]. Corrosion
attack is severe at the portion between MLWL and LWL. While HWL, MSL and
LWL are in the astronomical tidal levels, MLWL is the experientially determined
level and approximately equivalent to the half of MSL. Since in the area between
MLWL and a level just below LWL the corrosion rate is greater, the WG31 pro-
posed that the zone between MLWL and a level approximately 0.5 m below LWL
was low water level zone and the zone between HWL and MLWL was tidal zone.
In Japan, it has been proposed that the area between MLWL and a level 1 m below
LWL should be protected carefully [2].
To examine the factors accelerating corrosion below seawater level, a eld test
was carried out in a water pool with circulating seawater and periodic change of
water level. Two series of test pieces were installed vertically in the pool as shown
in Fig. 2: one series consisting of 22 steel pieces separated each other and the other
consisting of 22 steel pieces connected each other by electric wires. The former is de-
noted as micro-test piece and the latter the macro-test piece. The corrosion tenden-
cies of both test pieces are shown in Fig. 2 [1]. The test pieces in the portion between
HWL and LWL are exposed to air and the surface is oxidized to ferric oxide during
low tide. The potential of this portion is more noble than that of submerged surface.
 K. Zen / Corrosion Science 47 (2005) 23532360 2355

Fig. 1. Corrosion tendency of steel pipe pile.

In the macro-test piece, the portion in the tidal zone is cathodic against the sub-
merged surface and the macro-corrosion current ows during high tide. The low
water level in the pool is equal to MLWL.
Although the corrosion rate of the steel in submerged zone is usually about
0.1 mm/year, the higher rates can be expected in the absence of oxide layer and mar-
ine organisms. When the corrosion product was removed on the macro-test piece
No. 9 (in Fig. 2), this test piece was activated as a strong anode against the rest of
steel pieces with rust. The corrosion rate of No. 9 in this case was as high as
1 mm/year [1].
In port structures, corrosion damage is sever at the splash zone, MLWL and mud
line. In steel sheet pile structures, back-lling material sometimes ows from corro-
sion holes resulting in the superstructure collapse. In steel pipe pile structures, piles
become perforated and in such instances have to be cut-o or removed due to the
corrosion, rendering the structure unusable. It is reported that the screens of lock
gate fell down due to the accelerated corrosion at MLWL in about 2 years [1].
If all the conditions necessary for a corrosion cell are lled, corrosion of embed-
ded reinforcement steel occurs with the production of corrosion products (rust), and
the sacricial loss of iron. Rust formation is accompanied by volume expansion of
original iron, leading to cracking and spalling of the concrete matrix, in which ulti-
mately the steel element can no longer act as a reinforced concrete structural mem-
ber. In the elds, chloride attack of concrete members occurs mostly at a beam or
slab exposed to the splash zone.
2356 K. Zen / Corrosion Science 47 (2005) 23532360

Macro-test series Micro-test series CP series

22
21
20
H.W.L. 19
18
17
16
15
14
13
L.W.L. 12
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0 0.1 0.2 0 0.1 0.2
Corrosion rates (mm/y)
Fig. 2. Simulation of steel pile corrosion in a seawater pool for 153 days with and without macro-current
and cathodic protection. (a) Micro-test series of electrically isolated 22 steel pieces, (b) macro-test series of
electrically connected 22 steel pieces, and (c) cathodically protected series of electrically connected pieces
similarly to macro-test series.

Splash zone attack, concentrated corrosion and salt attack have been observed
worldwide. For example, the concentrated corrosion attack at MLWL was found
at the ports throughout North-West Europe [5]. The corrosion rate of 3 mm/year
was reported at the steel sheet piles of a groin in the USA [6], and the salt attack
of concrete occurred in the approach jetty beams at the Kamsar Port (Guinea) [3]
and in the concrete wharves at the Los Angeles Port (USA) [3], etc.
In reference to the corrosion survey results, it should be emphasized that the pro-
tection against splash zone corrosion and concentrated corrosion should be done
with the highest priority. The corrosion control methods are roughly classied into
coating and cathodic protection. Coating methods commonly used for marine struc-
tures are as follows [4]:

(a) Paintsa basic coat of high-build zinc rich paint with a top coat of epoxy resin
paint; a basic coat of high-build zinc rich paint, an intermediate coat of epoxy
resin paint and a top coat of high-waterproof paint (i.e. polyurethane resin
 K. Zen / Corrosion Science 47 (2005) 23532360 2357

paint, silicone modied acrylic resin paint, uorine contained resin paint): a
basic coat of high-build zinc rich paint with a top coat of tar-epoxy resin paint;
resin paint with coating glass akes; others.
(b) Inorganic liningsmortar jacketing (either by rst removing or by leaving pro-
tective cover); metal sheathing (either by steel plate or by corrosion resistant
metal or by thick cladding steel or by metal spraying).
(c) Organic liningspolyethylene lining; urethane elastomer lining; super high-
build lining; underwater cured epoxy lining; corrosion prevention tape lining;
FRP (ber reinforced plastic) lining; chlorinated rubber lining.
(d) Petrolatum lining.

The coating has been categorized by lm thickness less than 1 mm. Super high-
build paint and underwater execution type paint, etc., are classied as organic coat-
ing, while the petrolatum is a kind of organic lining. The petrolatum lining is made
up of an anti-corrosion layer (petrolatum paste and tape with an inhibitor) and a
protection cover.
In practice, the coating is applied to the steel in the atmospheric zone of marine
and coastal structures, and mortar jacketing, petrolatum lining and underwater exe-
cution type lining are applied to the steel portions at the splash and tidal zones and
useful for repair work of existing steel structures as well as for new steel structures.
The selection of type and specications of coating should be determined in consid-
eration of the viewpoint of life cycle management (LCM). In the cathodic protection,
there are galvanic anode system and impressed current system. In principle, galvanic
anode system has been widely applied to port steel structures because it is easy for
installation and is free from regular maintenance other than periodic replacement.
The eectiveness of the cathodic protection for concentrated corrosion in seawa-
ter was investigated by using the aforementioned water pool as shown in Fig. 2 [1].
The macro-corrosion test piece with cathodic protection is denoted as cathodic pro-
tection (CP) test piece. As shown in Fig. 2, the cathodic protection suppresses con-
centrated corrosion. For the steel pieces in contact with the steel pipe pile in the mud
zone the corrosion rate was 0.30.4 mm/year, but was suppressed to 0.004 mm/year
by using cathodic protection [7]. The cathodic protection (galvanic anode system)
has been applied to submerged zone, and the Al alloy anode has been extensively
used because of high current eciency in seawater. A variety of anodes exist for
the demands from various aspects e.g. design, life, shape, current capacity, etc.
The anode should be selected in consideration of the whole life costing.
For protecting reinforced concrete members, surface coating, sectional repair and
cathodic protection are used. The surface coating should have excellent salt-proof
properties and adhesion to concrete, and should be free from cracking tendency
and able to repair sectionally. In sectional repair, concrete is removed behind the
reinforcing bars if it is within the extent of repair work, and chipped reinforcing bars
are treated to remove corrosion products and a corrosion prevention treatment is ap-
plied. The cathodic protection includes impressed current systems using ribbon
mesh, titanium mesh, titanium spray anodes, etc. and a galvanic anode system using
zinc sheet anode. For concrete impressed current method has commonly been
2358 K. Zen / Corrosion Science 47 (2005) 23532360

applied to protect the salt attack of concrete members. Specically, the cathodic pro-
tection is suitable for the concrete contaminated with salt.

3. Life cycle management (LCM)

Corrosion damages of port structures are inevitable, and in extreme cases closure
of areas of the port may cause severe nancial penalties while waiting for repairs to
be carried out. It therefore follows that, to avoid unexpected large-scale rehabilita-
tion measures as a consequence of negligence of periodic maintenance, systematical
planning and budgeting of maintenance activities are necessary. LCM and its whole
life costing (WLC) will contribute to a realistic approach of maintenance policy,
including decision-making, planning, budgeting and funding of inspection and repair
activities during the life-time of port structures.
There are four phases in the life cycle:

(1) Planning and design.

(2) Element fabrication and construction.
(3) Operation.
(4) Removal.

Ideally, LCM should start from the rst phase of planning and design of a new
port structure, but can be introduced at any time in the life span of the structure.
In most existing ports, the implementation of LCM now will be covering port struc-
tures at dierent ages and conditions of life within the third phase.
Fig. 3 illustrates the key, regular tasks necessary for LCM [3]. The gure shows a
situation where LCM is established and in operation for a facility, e.g. the process is
in the cyclic phase after the initial progressive period. In the gure, the Database is
shown in the center as the hub and memory of the system. All information gathered

Regular
Inspection

Special
Analysis
Inspection Database Planning
Maintenance
Reporting
Repair

Owners Review
and Decision

Fig. 3. Regular key tasks of LCM.

 K. Zen / Corrosion Science 47 (2005) 23532360 2359

and actions carried out are reported to the Database, and all analyses, decisions and
activities made in the LCM context are based on information drawn therefrom.
Starting from the top of the gure, the box indicates a Regular Inspection (carried
out periodically). Findings from the Inspection are analyzed and possible necessary
remedial actions are planned. If the analysis concludes that no specic actions are
needed, the cyclic process can continue via the lower line in the diagram without
involving the owner, upward to the left and return to the next Regular Inspection
after the selected period.
If certain problems are found, a report will be prepared to the owner and passed
on for his review and decision. This decision may not take any special action at this
time, hereafter the cycle will continue to the left and upward towards the next Reg-
ular Inspection.
If specic actions are decided, the next activity is the Special Inspection, to per-
form further the necessary actions and possibly Maintenance and Regular activities.
After completion of the work the cycle continues towards the next Regular Inspec-
tion. All signicant actions and decisions taken in the cycle are recorded in the
Database.
Whole life costing (WLC) is used to appraise projects prior to implementation to
assess the total costs including construction, maintenance and demolition over the
estimated life of the structure. The assessment allows informed decisions to be taken
between dierent projects competing for limited expenditure. It also allows the own-
er to specify the level of expenditure, in simple terms such as how much does he
spend more money initially and less on maintenance costs in the future, or whether
should he choose a cheaper initial cost on the clear understanding of higher future
maintenance costs. WLC can be applied equally to existing structures (repairs or
strengthening) as well as new construction.
The present worth method was used for WLC in the WG31 report. The method is
based on the concept of equivalent worth of all cash ows relative to some base or
beginning point in time called the present. The relationship of the method is given in
Eq. (1).
P F 1 rN 1
where
P present worth
F future worth
r discount rate
N number of compounding periods (year)

WLC will enable the owner to dene his requirements in advance of ordering a de-
sign and construction sequence by whatever form of contract he favors. It is the owner
who must make the decision to consider WLC, and he needs to allocate the nancial
resources to carry out the study. The engineer has to quantify the items necessary for
WLC, e.g. capital costs (dierent scheme to be assessed), structural redundancies
(alternative load paths), design for durability, consideration of demolition, denition
of performance proles for all elements, etc. and to prepare a maintenance manual.
2360 K. Zen / Corrosion Science 47 (2005) 23532360

The role of the maintenance management is to investigate a planned inspection

regime, short and medium-term repair and replacement programming, budgeting
for repairs up to 5 years ahead, an information database on durability performance,
long-term planning for abandonment or rebuilding, etc.
The LCM of the old port of Stockholm has successfully been applied since 1987
and this case study shows that long-term budgeting and allocation of funds is an
absolute condition for an LCM implementation. In the port of Los Angels, the
Automated Inspection and Repair Information System (AIRIS) has been developed
and applied to existing concrete piles since 1995.
In conclusion, the LCM of port structures is desired as soon as possible and cor-
rosion engineers should provide the owner with the know-how necessary for the
LCM system from the viewpoint of corrosion and corrosion control.

References

[1] K. Zen, Sea water corrosion, Corrosion Control Technology Handbook, Industrial Technology Service
Center, 2000, pp. 121134.
[2] Coastal Development Institute of Technology, Corrosion Protection and Repair Manual for Port and
Harbor Steel Structures (revised version), 1997, pp. 1374.
[3] PIANC PTC-II WG31, Life cycle management of port structuresgeneral principles, International
Navigation Association, Supplement to Bulletin no. 99, 1998, pp. 147.
[4] PIANC PTC-II WG31, Inspection, maintenance and repair of maritime structures exposed to damage
and material degradation caused by a salt water environment, Revision of PIANC Report by PTC-II
(MarCom) WG17, 2004, pp. 152.
[5] K. Zen, Life cycle management of port structures, Zairyo-to-Kankyo, Japan Society of Corrosion
Engineering 52 (2003) 574579.
[6] C.W. Ross, Corrosion 5 (1949) 339.
[7] M. Abe, Sand erosion prevention, Corrosion Control Technology Handbook, Industrial Technology
Service Center, 2000, pp. 964966.