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FATIGUE CRACK

TECH
SPOTLIGHT

PROPAGATION
George
Totten* B asically, fatigue crack propagation can be divided
into three stages: stage I (short cracks), stage II
(long cracks) and stage III (final fracture).
Stage I Stage II

Surface
G.E. Totten &
Associates Stage I: Once initiated, a fatigue crack propagates
LLC along high shear stress planes (45 degrees), as
Seattle, schematically represented in Fig. 1. This is known
Washington as stage I or the short crack growth propagation stage.
The crack propagates until it is decelerated by a microstructural bar- Fig. 1 Stages I and II of fatigue
rier such as a grain boundary, inclusions, or pearlitic zones, which crack propagation.
cannot accommodate the initial crack growth direction. Therefore,
grain refinement is capable of increasing fatigue strength of the ma-
terial by the insertion of a large quantity of microstructural barriers,
i.e. grain boundaries, which have to be overcome in the stage I of
propagation. Surface mechanical treatments such as shot peening
and surface rolling, contribute to the increase in the number of mi-
crostructural barriers per unit of length due to the flattening of the
grains.
5 Pm
Stage II: When the stress intensity factor K increases as a conse-
quence of crack growth or higher applied loads, slips start to develop
in different planes close to the crack tip, initiating stage II. While stage
I is orientated 45 degrees in relation to the applied load, propagation
in stage II is perpendicular to the load direction, as depicted in Fig. 1.
An important characteristic of stage II is the presence of surface
ripples known as striations, which are visible with the aid of a
scanning electron microscope. Not all engineering materials exhibit
striations. They are clearly seen in pure metals and many ductile
alloys such as aluminum. In steels, they are frequently observed in
cold-worked alloys. Figure 2 shows examples of fatigue striations in 2 Pm
an interstitial-free steel and in aluminum alloys. The most accepted
mechanism for the formation of striations on the fatigue fracture sur-
face of ductile metals, is the successive blunting and re-sharpening
of the crack tip, as represented in Fig. 3.
Stage III: Finally, stage III is related to unstable crack growth
as Kmax approaches KIC. At this stage, crack growth is controlled by
static modes of failure and is very sensitive to the microstructure,
load ratio, and stress state
(plane stress or plane strain a 40 Pm
loading).
Macroscopically, the fa-
d Fig. 2 Fatigue striations in (a)
tigue fracture surface can be interstitial free steel and (b)
b
divided into two distinct re- aluminum alloy AA2024-T42.
e
gions, as shown by Fig. 4.The Figure (c) shows the fatigue
first region corresponds to the fracture surface of a cast aluminum
stable fatigue crack growth c alloy, where a fatigue crack was
and presents a smooth aspect Fig. 3 Lairds proposed mechanisms of nucleated from a casting defect,
due to the friction between striation formation in the stage II of presenting solidification dendrites
the crack wake faces. Some- propagation: (a) no load; (b) tensile load; on the surface; fatigue striations are
times, concentric marks (c) maximum tensile load; (d) load reversion indicated by the arrow, on the top
known as beach marks can and (e) compressive load. right side.
be seen on the fatigue fracture
surface, as a result of successive arrests or decrease in the rate of fa-
tigue crack growth due to a temporary load drop, or due to an over-
* Fellow of ASM
International
load that introduces a compressive residual stress field ahead of
and member of the crack tip.
the ASM Final fracture: The other region corresponds to the final fracture
Heat Treating and presents a fibrous and irregular aspect. In this region, the frac-
Society ture can be either brittle or ductile, depending on the mechanical

ADVANCED MATERIALS & PROCESSES/MAY 2008 39


a b
Fast fracture Fast fracture
Kmax
Kmax
'Kap = 'Keff
K 'Keff K
'Kap
Kmin
Kmin Kcl
Kcl

(a ) Time (b) Time


Fatigue crack Fatigue crack
propagation Initiation 15 mm propagation Initiation 20 mm Fig. 8 Load ratio effect on 'Keff, in a fatigue cycle: (a)
Fig. 4 Fatigue fracture surface: (a) high applied load; (b) low applied load. Kmin<Kcl (b) Kmin>Kcl
properties of the material, di- the effects of R ratio are mainly attributed to crack-
mensions of the part, and closure effects, in which crack faces contact each
loading conditions. other at an applied Kcl that is higher than the min-
The exact fraction of area of imum applied stress intensity factor, Kmin.
each region depends on the ap- Several different mechanisms may contribute
plied load level. High applied to premature crack closure. One consists of plas-
loads result in a small stable ticity-induced closure, represented in Fig. 7a. As
crack propagation area, as de- the crack grows, the material that has been previ-
40 mm
picted in Fig. 4. On the other ously permanently deformed within the plastic
hand, if lower loads are applied, zone now forms an envelope of plastic zones in
Fig. 5 Ratcheting marks, indicated the crack will have to grow
by the arrows, in a SAE 1045 shaft
the wake of the crack front. This leads to displace-
fractured by fatigue.
longer before the applied stress ments normal to the crack surfaces as the restraint
intensity factor K, reaches the is relieved. This is no problem while the crack is
fracture toughness value of the open; however as the load decreases, the crack
Final failure material, resulting in a smaller surfaces touch before the minimum load is
area of fast fracture, Fig. 4b. reached, shielding the crack. This type of prema-
Ratcheting marks: Ratcheting ture contact can also occur due to crack wake
marks are another macroscopic roughness and irregularities, Fig. 7b, or by the
da/dN

Increasing feature that can be observed in presence of corrosion sub-products such as ox-
Paris regime R fatigue fracture surfaces. These ides, Fig. 7c.
marks originate when multiple As observed in Fig. 8, the effect of closure pro-
cracks, nucleated at different duces a reduction in the effective 'K range be-
points, join together, creating cause of the increase in the effective Kmin, reducing
Near threshold
steps on the fracture surface. the driving force for fatigue crack growth. The ef-
'K Therefore, counting the number fect is more significant near the threshold region
Fig. 6 Schematic representation of of ratchet marks is a good indi- because the crack tip opening displacements are
the R ratio effect on fatigue crack cation of the number of nucle- smaller and crack faces are closer to each other.
growth curves. The near threshold, ation sites. Figure 5 presents in Additionally, for the same applied 'K, higher R
Paris regime, and final failure detail some ratchet marks found ratios increase the applied values of Kmax and Kmin,
regions are also indicated on the on the fracture surface of a large increasing 'Keff.
curves. SAE 1045 rotating shaft fractured For most materials, the Paris regime is consid-
Plastic deformation by fatigue. ered closure-free and Kmax-independent and the
envelope Crack tip Plastic zone crack growth rates are generally very similar for
Propagation rates tests conducted under different R ratios. Near the
Similarly to the initiation phase, final failure, the effects of R ratio are related to the
(a)
many factors can affect long fa- higher monotonic fracture component as Kmax ap-
tigue crack propagation rates. proaches KIC.
Among them, special attention Therefore, for the same applied 'K, Kmax values
(b) should be given to effects of load are higher for tests conducted under higher ap-
Premature contact points ratio and the presence of residual plied R ratios, and consequently, da/dN values are
Oxides stresses. higher.
z z Increasing the load ratio has a The effects of residual stress on fatigue crack
z z z (c)
tendency to increase the long growth are related to alterations in the R ratio and
crack growth rates in all regions in the applied 'K. In other terms, the residual
Fig. 7 Crack
closure of the curve plotting fatigue crack growth rate stresses affect the two parameters that control the
mechanisms versus applied stress intensity factor range, or crack driving force, i.e. Kmax and 'Keff. When a
induced by: simply the curve of da/dN versus applied 'K. Gen- crack is introduced in a plate subjected to a
(a) plasticity, erally the effect of increasing load ratio is less sig- residual stress field, a residual stress intensity
(b) roughness nificant in the Paris regime than in near-threshold factor Kr, arises that can either decrease or increase
(c) oxide. and near-failure regions, Fig. 6. the crack driving force parameters.
Near the threshold stress intensity factor, 'Kth, The superposition principle can also be applied

40 ADVANCED MATERIALS & PROCESSES/MAY 2008


This article is from
Failure Analysis of Heat Treated Steel Components
Edited by L.C.F. Canale, R.A. Mesquita, and G.E. Totten

This thorough reference work discusses various causes of failure with integrated coverage of
process metallurgy of steels by forging, casting, welding, and various heat treatment processes.
The breadth of coverage and the numerous examples provide an invaluable resource for the de-
signer, engineer, metallurgist, mechanical and materials engineers, quality control technicians,
and heat treaters.
For more information or to order, call Customer Service at 800/336-5152;
or visit www.asminternational.org and click on the ASM Store button.

in terms of the stress intensity factor, provided 2. If Kmin <0, then:


that the material remains linearly elastic. In this
sense, Kr can be added to Kmax and Kmin: R = 0

Kmax = Kmax + Kr 'K = Kmax = Kmax + Kr

Kmin = Kmin + Kr It is important to note that these equations as-


sume that the part of the fatigue cycle during
As a result, R and 'K are defined as follows: which the crack is closed at its tip (i.e. K<0) makes
1. If Kmin>0 then: no contribution to crack growth.

K min K min + Kr
R = =
Kmax K max + Kr
For more information: George Totten is president of
G.E. Totten & Associates LLC, 514 N. 86th Street, Seattle,
'K = Kmax --Kmin = (Kmax + Kr) -- (Kmin+ Kr) = WA 98103; tel: 206/788-0188; getotten@aol.com; www.
Kmax --Kmin = 'K getottenassociates.com.

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diane.grubbs@asminternational.org
ELECTROLESS NICKEL
COMPOSITE COATINGSMATERIALS FO
FUTURE

927 DEEP O R
Electroless nickel coatings reinforced mid phosphorus (4 to 10 wt% P), and high phos-

CONST IL AND GAS W


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in this categ already been
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33

ADVANCED MATERIALS & PROCESSES/MAY 2008 41

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